Ch.1 Muclear Engineering. Mote: T Fagge)+ ye do fead Chit on Mucltar Engiaeering. Tt ip brief and informa tive. Ch.2 Atomic and Nuclear Phonics 24 Fundamental Pach ley For the understanding of nuclear feactor) and the reactions of interest to their opetotion, it i» important to consider a clu) of subatomic perlicley + Electron —> Ret most: mez 9.10954 E-31 k Charge: e= 1. 60219 E-19 coulombs There are two ‘ype of electrons: — One carrying a negative charge -e (negotrony of norma! lec trons) ~ One carrying a positive charge +e Cpositrons or positive electrons) When o poxtron collider with a negatron, the two pacticley diveppear and two photon? are emitted. Ly This procen —» Annihilation The pho-tony Shot appear —> Annihilation radiationProton —> Reyt may: Mp = 1.63265 E-23 kg Charge: A posttive charge equal in magnitude to the charge on the cleckeon Neutron —> Ret may : Mas 1.64495 E-23 kg Electrically. neutral The neutron 13 not a stoble pacticle unless it 15 bound tato an atomic nucleus. —> A free neutron decayy to a proton with the emiyron of a negativ electron (deca ) and Ga antinentrino (mean life time of « free nevtonz12,.) Photon—> All pacticley behave sometime like peclicles and me dimes like waves, Thy, cartain phenomena that are nor mall thought of a) beja wave [te in characte also anpear fo have an ayociat pachicle like behavior. The pacticle ajociated with electromeg netic woves if called the photon Th ao vacuum, the speed of phofonathe speed o ee f “ight, c= 2a E8nfsec Neukring —» Particle with aero est may) and no elec trical charge —> Appears in the deca of certain nuclet — Six types, two of which are impaortan: f electron neutrinos fil be Jiscuned later. = electron anh'neute ino) 2.2 Montc and Nuclear Structure Atomic number of the atom —> The toda! number of protons in the nucle Symbol PZThe total electrical charge of the nucltus —> +Ze Tn « neutral atom —othe number of protons tn the nucleus = the number of alectruns around the aucleus The electrun are responsible for the chemical behavior of atoms, Neuteon number —> The number of neutrons ta a nucleus Symbol —N Atomic mos) aumber—» The total number of nucleon) ( protons & electeuns) in a nucleus Symbol =A A= Bel Cmeans “namber’) The various Specie) of ctomy whoe nuclei contain pacticular % of proton) and neutron) are called nuclides. Trobope —> Atom, whore nuclei cuntara the same dt of pratons bal ates HF of “fee (same 2 bub different NM, therefore different A eo Mu) E (AzZ4M) > Chemical symbol of the clement ZZ Afomic # Notation for inotopes > Examples: tH, "H, gHe A simpler nytations could also he wed: A Pr HWW Ue2ds — u-2s9Trotepey of elements mag be shable or unstable (ice fadioachve) 8 Ex: “o,"0,"o (2=8, W=3,4,10) —> sable "o 0,0, "o — uastable Abundance of isotope) of an tlemat iy expend in atom peccont thy on weight percent (w/o 2.3 Atomic aad Molecular Weight Momic weight —> The may of the neutcal alum relative to the mal) of @ neutral "C afm on a seale in which the abymic weight of Te sch tear ly ake, 4o be precisely if . If mC] iy the may of of a neutral alum 42 and m(“C) iy the man of neutral “C, the atumic weight of 2 pte by m(“Z) m(2C)" The atontr veight of an element in natue is fined gy the average otomic weight of the miktwre of the dete) of thot ekrent gad id ven by: ; , M =)" y¥;M;/100 TY N+ Alonic weight of the i inolpe The irolupic abundance of the jth isologe (2/0) M(4Z) = 12 xMoleclar weight —> The tela may of a molecule telative fo the ma) of a neutral ™C alum Ex: MO) = 19.99939 => Alumic mois —> M(0,) = 2 x 99-9993 of Oy molecule = 31.9396 The atomic and mylecular weights act untthy numbers, sace they act ratio, Gram atumic weight /(_, The cmvunt of a substance having 4 Gram muleculer werght maj), in proms, & al to the ahymic or mole gram _mueculer weign b cular weight the subtance Thi amyunk iy also called a mole, One yer atumic weight or one mole f « 0 Ne of thi bolpe. One mule of (Ch —» 37.999764. The number of atom or molecule) in a mole o ang substence fy conyton } —> Avegedrey number —> Mg = 0.6022065 E24 => Moy of one "T atom 7 m("C). 12 _ 4.99268 E-139 Np There D & moe natural unt in term) of which the mayjes of individual atoms are wal expnred —> The atome mai) unit Camu) Vamu= fp x m(7C) => The won of one oxutral “Catom, m(C)= 12 amy fama 1 x 1.99269E-234 = 4 qm in x b My, t = 1.66053E-249Reminder: m (A 2) = n("o) xM (‘2) 12 G atomic weight fomu = _m(42) = M42) amu 2.4 Atomic and Nuclear Redii A measure of the afomic sixe i gives by the average distance from the nucleus that the outermost electron 1) do be found, Except for a few of the lightet nucle , overege radii ore apptu rime be ly same for all “toms —> 2E-10 m To a fiat egproximetion the nucleuy of an atum may. be considered be a Sphere with q radiws given by R= 1.95 fin x Ae To fembometrs (1 fan = 107% cm) Since the volume of 4 sphere iu given by 47h, the volume of a nuclew 1) proper tinal fo A’ 3 => The number ef nucleons per unit volume of a nucle iy conrdgnk, There fore nucle? of atums Cun be sugges Hed ty be similar to hrquid fen Liquid-drop modal,2.5 Mass and Energy. Evin tera’ »E sha, ce speed of li'ght Formula C C rest marl) it ? The qmuunt of ner g relecjed in complete annihilation of u particle or other bod Lhe man is completely converted ty energe) The annihi'letion of ta of mathe release fata of = 8.9974E 2 ergy = BIBFHEB Joule (tog: 1073) E=fox(2997960)" Attention erg. is the energy unit in CGS (centimeter-gram —Second) unit sy. tem. Therefore , if the may) of the anachiladid mateeral is given in um) and the speed of Ieght iv cm/sec, the wast of the calculated will be ia erg, To conver} the wart to Joule (SP unit Syshen) entry you should multiply it with the related conversion factor. Noke: Unity and conversion factors are given Anptodix Tr of the text bok. Eleckron vol£ —» Energy unit — The increase? in the kinetic Pree y of ) Ban in an electrical potential of one Ma (eV. aa feV = 1.60219 8-19 coulomb x 1 voll = 1.60219 E-19 Joule ev ut really wed wrth prefires M (me gu) and k (hile) tmev = 105 Ahev= 10° eVNote: Please have « lovk at exampley 9328 2.4 in one ot book, The may) of a muving body imereayey elative to an observer at cert, ret mon me m inccealey with the \a- ver speed f a prcticle, Ls speed Th total Carry of a perlicle — Eal= mc Ctey}- mal) tatrgy + kinetic cnteya) Kinet th energy —s Ez mcet—moct = myctf —_1__ -1) * 1-07 Thy pack can be written ay Taylor Serve) abvwk u=0 & . For pdSe EE. 4 m,U* Kinetic enteg. of a nun cel Huibte pacticle. Eq.® i) accucahe envugh for mot pur pore) if FLO.2 ec ES£0.01 Eret For electuns —> Fey} = O-5 Me = Ey should he wed for E> 10keV For neutron) —» Ereyt= 1000 MeV => Ey. should be wed fer E>20MeV There fore E,.& can be wed for calculating kine te energy ofNeutcun), =» For non -relakivistle energie, the speed of a neutton can he calculated by wring cmfpec 1.383 E-6 FE sin eV © Please derive thiy cunytant as an Reece ye. Photuny only teqvel at the speed of Night ond their dutal ener (1 ‘given hy: 4 ; Dpbehyo Frequincy GAlanck'y conjtont 4136 E-15 eV-see 2.6 Particle Weveleng ths The weveleng th A avociated with « pac ticle having mumendune p: Alt P For pachicle, of Nonzeco Cti4 moss —> pzmUs speed Ly may) => at nontelabivn tic entegit) — pel 2%EA. VIm,E Fer neutron —, A, (2860-3) (You should know the unit of x VEL each fecm and calcula the cm al con) tant) Az 4,136 E-18 ev -Sec 2m ftp et), iY \ (Tes) 1.50219 £-19 Foule 4 Feale a SIGE 8 ev—see = LMOEM ,, _2.86E9 \f Lxt. betas €-29 ke Ve - VE Z 1. 60219 E-19 Remindgr : mo Mo Vitae me trot 1 uy rt m_my =me cr mict= tyre = move" motes Pr tt sm 4 the P= By tal7 Ehob ements for Celativirtic cut=> Az —— he \f keke Fry} The momtntum of & pac ticle of zero mo) : 2 Pom (he Reminder: 2 he E P ~ ANGE-18 ese x LIMEI 6 Ee ~ 1.250 £-6 2.7 Excited Statey £ Radia tion Ton‘aation —» The proces) of Femoving an dectan frm an orbit of aa atom Ground stafe> The state of the lwot energy in which on atum ‘ normally found wv Lf the an atom has more enter thon ity 9rounh shade, it bp said fo be in on od state n an free gg level. When on alum in an exerted state, it decays to one or atothor of the state) at lower ener ay , Photon ib emitted by the atom with an ener gy equal to the difference in the energie) of the two states, The waveltagth of the enitled phvton: A. 1240 E-6 _ AEThe nucleon in nucler, ihe the electrony in atoms, can be thaw ght of a) movin obout tn Varjou) orbity, alShou sh there ace nok “ev well defied “and understood wo thye ia olan? Except for the very. lighter rucle| , all nucle; have eccited stecte) - Nuclei in excited skate may cecay by a lower lyin state > emitting a Phat ap ¢ lying state by A nucleyy can also loe ity exci tation Peer gy ha inlernal conver sun. Taberaal conversion compety with Gray eminion. Note: Remember_what internal conversion ead Auger eben art . 2.8 Nuclear Stsbilily EF Rodioachtve Decay Noke: Have a look ef Fig, 24 (the chact of the nuclide) in yur hex t book, The number of neud tony should he preater than the avmbe of proton) fir nuclide) with & grote then about 20 fer then to be lable, The exter) neutevrs act like 4 glee, holding the nuclew together by compensahin for the renylrive electefeal forces bolween the a ‘ ie * p pail ely charged prvtun). TE thare oe ether tov many or too few neutran) for a ven number “{ proton) Cixotopes) , the reruttiag nucleas i> not stable and th unl ge) 4 tadjoac hive deca . co PF docu 4 protons 0 reduced 5q F, BN 4 yy neutrinoa > decay — # of pte ton i) tnctesjed 0 —> PPLE antineukciag Fig. 25 shws o typical energy srectrum elec trun emitted; baa decay, we 13 °° t , The ove rage energy. f eleckruny—> E aie for qe =O, mac [or cay Tf the deughter nucleuy formed in B-decay i ally unstable, this lead) to “a decay chun Ls Ex: "0S FS, Ne (stable) The number of neutcon) nucleuy lacking in newtrond can aby he increated by iy cap hare, 2 p- decoy and electron capture compete with ne another. Another wa which unstable nucle undergo rodtoac tive decay ts by the whut an ae- pochicle (He ores), - Ex: Bey 324 Th 44He —s 2 iy ceduced hy 2 ond A a reduced by 4. The o- packicles are ented in a dverete ent gy, spectrum. The nvclew formed as the reult zt Po-docay, je lectoun ey‘ or de cay 0 of ten left in an excited stale.’ The exette, vivelly enity one oc more Y-rag) ty return to ih gre Wecte. nucleus Note: Remember what iyomeetc shalt” and “numer dransttion ate.29 Rediooetivity Calculations The probshilit per uatt Hime that o nacleus will keay. u a Constant Cdecky con tant) in dependen* f Hime. The rate at which otums ad decay in time in a Janple of —= An a radigactive material Checa of atemy Hat have ut decayed Cons tant This decay cate is called the activity and i denoted hy the symbol ot. —> alfle An Gt) The tea ditranal ac tivity unt is Curie (Ci), 1C; —+ 3.7 B10 Livia begeahim per secon), The sI uait of activity is the bec ued (Ba). 1Pq— 1 disin te ges (On per secon The decreaye in the number of undecay ed nucle; in the ranple in the time dt — -dnltls AnG) dt Both sides are At Integrated — nlt)s Mee # of atomy af 420 Half-life (Ty) = The Hime during which the activity falls ba a factor of two ulTy) = xoXo/2 =u We tuke Lhe natural 4 T= And 0.693 logarithm of both side a A ~Orrt alten, e Tir (> The probes lity 2, OP 7 thet 4 f tu, edt nuclide doer = 2 nut deca The life expectancy —> $ or mean-lrfe Mo Grucuiver) Gatil - ~tme +. 21) Activation: Tf the radionuclides ace productd in a nuclear feactr or in a baccet chamber an eccelecatur an if it y quuwed that the radc‘onucl; dos are produced ak © comtint cate of k the time rate of change of the nuclide = the rate of production — the rate of loss dn = —~Ant R —+ You should be able 4 + solve thi, Nano ott Re) A At = w=K%e ~ &G-e*) as tw, HR and n—> Exton ple 2.6 shows wy how the production tate Rv calealeted Le an ex perienrak TA ello shows how 40 calculate the Hime ib tale for the actus'y to reach 9 certain vale, Sad y it,You shold glo be able fo solve the Sif ferretel eq ue tons gover ning the changer in the nuhe ond activihier of the Tadionuc lide shown in the decay chain bedyw : A A oe pt oc Ae MAA MMR Me, Ke the time rate of change of B = the rate of production, from A — the rate of decay of B to C. 2.10 Nuclear Reaction) A nuclear reaction id said to have taktn place bed ween ty nucle’ or a nucleuy and a nucleon. the two pechicley interact 4 produce two or mute nuclear pac trely or Frays. The initial The product nucle; fash — crt dL} nucle? There ove 4 Fandamenta! laws governing, thee teachin: 1. Conservation of nucleons. The total number of nucleons before and after a reaction are the same. 2. Conservation of charge. The sum of the charges on all the particles before and after a reaction are the same. 3. Conservation of momentum. The total momentum of the interacting particles before and after a reaction are the same. 4. Conservation of energy. Energy, including rest-mass energy, is conserved in nuclear reactions. Conservahion of entegy: The total ence befure the reaction iv equal te the tofal ee af ter the BchionEat Ey be Machy Myct= Eee Ene Mechs Mac? Fer Fp t Mac Moe Kinetic Net—may) ener giey Caer gies The equation abuve can be rearranged in the foro: (Eee Ed) (Bor Be) = L(Ma Mb) - Ce + Male? QValue?—, expressed in MeV famu iy approximately 931 MeV = [Mat My) (Me + Mal] 934 Mey uf Qi positive —soet increare iin the Maedic —> Exotheemic Crer gies of the psc bicle TE & is negative nek decresie ia the kinetic —+ Endothermic energie of the pocticle Corsecvation of charge: The total pumber of protons before the teaction iy equal be Khe telat number ef prvtuny ofr the reaction, Zot Zp 2er 21 Therefore , Q-Value piute tn Ey. & can be written as: Mor of atom Qe {[ee Zone) +(Mb + Zy med] [ [Mee Be me) + (Mas 2a me)]§ 931 Mel Q can be computed from nevbeal atomic maisey which an well tabuleled.tf ore of the inera cting. nucler iy ayumed to be at tert (assumed by be the hor get), the following nomenclature can be wed ty denote the inberacciun: So progected agaist the tur get a(b,c)d G, Torgel or a (b, dye For instance the interacton | Mo en —s Wy gH canbe ehbreyiated oy “Ol n, pln aM Bincling Ener ay. The mavey of all nuclei are somewhat seller than the sum of the mas fey of the neutrons and protons contoined in them The Efe in may) between a nucleon and ity constituent nucleon bv called ma) dafect. ct f neulcony Los A= 2Mp+NMn ~My p> Mon of the nucle A= Z (My +me) +N My — (Mat Zme) A= ou) + WM, - an S may of the neutegl atom May defect (a) iy exprened tn energy ua) Gad it is abo knywa a the binding eneroy. Tt ceprestaty the energy with which the nuclea ia held 47gether, When a auclesy is produced from A oucleoar, on ener gg of Ai feleased,if A per nucleon high —> The nuclew sy stable ond 4 belly bound, A relutivel large aregun + of creryy Ault be gin do break if apart, The Q velue of aw nucleor reaction can be expreyed in terms of the binding. energie) (BE) of the reacting pocticley or euclei. For instance, cF of ne@drons in the atuma BE of the /BE(o) =ZaMCHI4 He My Ma se Men of the ob » Mg = ZoMCHlt My Ma - BEC) My> 2, MCA 4M, My ~ BEC) The total nurahery of proton) and neutrons before ond after a nu lece inkrachiva ere equal, = Q=Loeld+ 6eG)]-Leetde red] Note: Have o look of Fig 2.¥ (Binding ener per rucleon ay & function of A) ye will wader a i farion reactiun tohoy place bebera ight nucle? and nuclear Frits b observed in sume heovy one), Separation enoryg —> The binding ent gy. of a particular nucleon in the nucleuy — “The amuand of ene gy required te extrack the nucleon froma the nucle Last newtron —> The leat bound neutron in the nucleus The separctivn tae gy. of the Lat neutron: as (> Meheal obo “2 Ey Thee MM 2) ~ MC) ] 931 Me /amnMote: Read whet “ay ic" nucle? and magic numbers oft, What are tho consequence) _o such nuclei in nuclear ens. 1.10 Nuclecr Model) Shell_Model A single nucleon can be thusght of 0) if ih ib moving in the vel cteated by the avécaye effec of the ether nuclegny. Such a well cum have one ef more quan feed phates, There iy @ taximum aumbor of nucleon) that may occu y a shell Tr accordance with thi madi there are two wells — ong for neutron) and the other for protean). The nuclei can be extremely stable when buth wells have clesed shally Cudhen he moe. number of nucleon) i) (eyched for each shell), Thiy phenomenon gives cise ty the magic. Sumber). Liguid Deop Model The Vequid drop mide! iy intended fo explain the may defecd in term of a balance between the forces binding the auclerns in the nucleuy ard the coulombic cepuljon between the prrtons. The nucleu) mow be Hash of a) a dvog of The maj mig he approxims Wp SS shard, for the may defect Meat 2M, -o A —s overertimates the effect i bounds betwen the nucleons, The nucleon elwe to the sucface cannot have the same number of bendy ay thove dep inside the nuclew, This siluation seembels! the surface teoiun in liquid drops liquid. M= No + 2 Mp - aAe4ie Tp Dente the surface ftasinn Ro A > MeN ins Zo - A BAAThe increase in energy, hence may) of the nucleus due ty the repulsive fierce bebween the proton) are taken indy atcound in the fellowing equality: Me Nika 2Mp oA PAs ¥2'/ AM A nucleus having N= should be more skable than 9 nucle wifh NS2. Thi pheau me aon could be explained with the “well” concept in the shell model. The tye wells would be filled fo He some height and the nucleyy would be more sable when N-2, Mz Mihas BMp oA + BADLY RZAR « f (A-22) 70 TELE #22, thi term hocome Q aad the may/- ci fee + increaye), Le we expecimontslly obrved that the bond betwetn two neat cuns or two protons jp sheonger then thet between a neutron and putin. Tf > cad No ove odd —» the muck} ley stuble A pairing teem (5) v added to the equality ; M=NM,+ZM,—aA+ BA? +yZ7/Al? + 0(A—2Z)/A+5 Mw Equation —> can accurate predict the nucleg- rane) of enag ne Wd with 2>20. Atomic mary can be calculated if the may) o hugdro’ tom i ribititeled for the may of i proton, fs hgbegen chm i Note: Have a look of Ex. 2.10.2.133 Gare, Liquids and Sold The Maxwellian Disdcibutivn In 4 gear the entegiey of the atumy of nolecula ore dis dethuted acco in fo the Maxwellian dirt. funchion. the tote! # of poclicley per uart vol, # f pockicle <—N(E). 21 pe elk Tp Absyluk temperstare("k) pet unit volume (1kT)% having entegicn GQ Bollemann's constant between E and Erde B You will see in ch.3 thal energie of thermal neutron ore alse distributed acco bing fo the Maxwellian function . k = 1.3806 x 10- joule/? K = 8.6170 x 10-eV/° K; The muy} probable energy correspands to the ma! mum f the curve. Eps LkT You should he ble to . drive He. (" averase energy E_1 (, EL F=f weld LET 2 EAT The Maxwellian distribution function. The Ga Lo ee A of moles RT SH absolute lemperatine The ideal a law —> PV= ny G Gay constantsm telal x6 of atom oe molecules k pec unit volume oN 2 tm Na Ro VM Pa Vk T 2.14 Atom Density phe Ay. , >> tf edomy or mo eeule per otum) or 1 mole # mdeculer ja tem? of & rubytence S gran atumic Cadomit or molecular weight or gram molecular weight ery)’ 9) # of noley pr en | (Itis usual to express the atom densities as a factor times 10°.) If the tod atoms in a molecule 0 differen fram 4 => Wen LM NAL = The # of oloms proent ta the mylecule The abundance of 0 type) i) plated jn atom prcet (do fepie pereent) Thay the ahve denuitg Ww fer the jth iby type of an eleming i Mea (2 Ws Aton, percent rs Abbreviated “ah” foo M The relah'ye amyunk ca dotupes in mixtures ee usually gi Ia term) of weight prceent yrs Abbreviated “ w/o” The oueraye density of the he fi 2 Weigh perrent 100 tom ponent of a’ mix tureWe can find the atu denvity + a component, whore weight percent ' gin, ba: We. wip Na 100 Mi; Tf the chemical formule “f ce subsence iy keuwn, the percent by weight of @ porheudar element can he calevluted by: Chemical formula —> Xm Yn —> w/o (x). _™M*_ , 400 mM ently Enrichment id alte ipecified in weight peeceat, Ly The nobpic com position of an ‘elemen + (sath « UD iy chiaged by alicia means. enrichment The otunic weight of an 5 element whore enrichment, 7. 1 7 wi i given M 100 Ni