HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORT

PHYSICAL EDUCATION
 It is a process of learning through physical activities

SPORT
 It is designed to improve fitness, develop motor skills, knowledge and behaviour of healthy and active living
 In ancient Greece, it was the responsibility of the state to educate every child

History of P.E in Sparta

 In Sparta, the state had full control of every new born baby
 Children born with disabilities were exposed to harsh weather conditions in the mountains and left there to
die.
 Boys stayed at home up to the age of 7 years, doing state monitored activities
 At 8 years they were assigned to the state-operated training institutes where they were trained strictly in war
and state tasks
 They were trained in the gymnasium, the training was meant to groom qualities of soldiers in every boy child
 School was very painful and hard as it involved brutal training
 At the age of 18, the boy joined another group for military training up to 20 years
 After military training, a vow was made to serve the state up to 30 years upon passing a fitness test that
tested military ability and leadership skills
 None was allowed to get married during the period of service to the state
 The girl child stayed with parents from birth to 20 years doing household chores and taught other activities
meant to make them strong so that they can bear strong children
 Sometimes girls were given the same training as boys and sometimes did gymnastics, wrestling and combat
skills together
 Strengthening the body and preparing for war was their main priority in accordance with the military
character of Spartan state
 At the age of 18 girls went for fitness test. If one passes the test a husband would be assigned to her
 Spartan education provided an extremely paternalistic education, which provides the attributes of courage,
complete obedience and physical perfection
 In Sparta the most important attributes were discipline, military proficiency, strictness and absolute
obedience
 The most prominent activity being girls and boys doing gymnastics
 Although physical training and music education were included, reading writing and arithmetic were barely
included in Spartan education

History of P.E in Athens

 Athenian education was democratic
 Athens had an advanced trade and industry
 Parents had a contribution to the education of their children
 They were two groups of training i.e. one group was trained in military tactics and the other group did other
courses to improve communication for trade, as well as military training
 Learning was given great importance so as to match other trading state
 Their education system focused on grammar to improve communication skills for trade, music education,
arithmetic, gymnastics training in Palestrae
 A palestrae was a building used for training, which were built and controlled by the state

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  Athenians education insisted on the aesthetic and emotional aspect of education resulting in the best
artworks of the ancient world being created in this country
 Physical education became common in the curricular of the renaissance than years before
 Boys were taught by their mothers up to 6 years. Primary education started at the age of 6 to 14 years
 Military training started from 18 years for army or navy
 Boys practiced wrestling, jumping, running, throwing discus and they played hockey.
 Girls were initially taught at home by their mothers, they learnt motherhood and housekeeping skills
 Girls were not allowed to part in sports like wrestling and their parents felt if they learnt to read they would
be spoiled

 In the ancient world the greatest success an athlete could achieve was to win the Olympiad crown and this
crown was won when one came out first in the Olympic Games
 The Olympic Games were held every four years for a thousand years from 776 BC until 393 AD in honour of
god Zeus
 In Olympic Games rewards were symbolic
 In ancient Greece, the Hera Games were organised for women and took place every four years
 The Heraean Games were the first recorded sporting competitions for women, held in Olympia as early as the
6th century
 Only young girls, not married women, were allowed to participate in these competitions. The girls were rarely
married before the age of twenty
 Physical beauty did not refer just to the external appearance, it also referred to mental health
 To achieve the ideal athlete three conditions were required which were nobility, correct behaviour and
careful teaching
 The children were prepared for various sport competitions under the supervision of a paidotribes
 A paidotribes was a physical education teacher. He carried a forked stick as a symbol of his power to inflict
punishment on boys who misbehaved. The boys in Athens exercised naked
 They learnt horse riding, long jumping, discus, javelin throwing, running, wrestling and boxing
 The aim of sports was to strengthen and develop the body
 The Olympic Games had an important of uniting the ancient Greeks culturally, but this ended when the games
were banned by Emperor Theodosius 1st in 393-4 A.D

History of P.E in ROME

 For Romans, body movements served the purpose of preparation for war and the military.
 Roman youth received physical training as war exercises
 Activities suitable for Romans’ war ambitions were used to create their ideal human type who was a strong,
hugely muscled man
 The Romans had a special need for spectator orientated activities, such as chariot racing at the circuses and
gladiatorial battles in the amphitheatres
 The education system was “scholastic”. During this age women were excluded and physical activities were
out in the name of recreation not sport
 The purpose of the education system was to raise a good citizen such that each person had a skilled, righteous
and steady character
 Physical training was provided in addition to courses such as mythology, history, geography, jurisprudence,
arithmetic, geometry and philosophy
 The training was provided in Grammar schools, where basic teaching covered the seven free arts
 History of sport
 Military training involved vigorous exercises meant to strengthen the body
 They also believed in a strong body as well as a sound mind
 In Egypt wrestling and weight lifting were part of their lives

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 The Egyptions also took part in long jump, javelin throwing, high jump, discus, boxing, archery, camping,
wrestling, horse riding, swimming, rowing, shooting, fishing and athletics
 Various ball games were also well-developed and regulated in ancient Egypt
 In Africa sport was part of life
 People have always been walking, running, throwing things
 Team sports may have developed to train and to prove the capability to fight and also to work as a team
(army)
 The history of sport can teach us about social changes and about the nature of sport itself
 In Zimbabwe, modern activities came as a result of the colonisation as well as movements by soldiers who
were using the activities for the military training
 The games at Olympia were established according to tradition in the year 776 BC and were held every four
years.
 At the beginning this was a one-day athletic meeting with a single competitive event
 The entire day was taken up with heats for a running race
 In later years more events were added to the schedule, events like discus throw, javelin throw, long jump,
boxing, wrestling, chariots, horse racing, and a challenge to test all-round ability, the pentathlon
 The pentathlon actually started with contest in four events which were running, jumping, throwing the discus
and the javelin
 The winners from these encounters have to meet in fifth and exclusive contest, wrestling.
 The winner received a simple token of their victory, garland of fresh olive to wear on the head. There was no
second place
 The winners were called Olympionics
 There were separate men’s and boy’s division for the events
 Women were not allowed to compete in the games themselves
 Peasant workers had their own types of sport they took part in whilst the working class had their own
 In schools’ sport was limited largely to drills and gymnastics
 Football continued to increase popularity and by 1930s, it was the most popular sporting activity
 There was also little government involvement in sport, apart from physical education in schools
 Sport has become a way of life as well as a well-paying career to talented athletes

History of sport in Africa

a) Ngolo and Capoeira – capoeira is a popular Afro – Brazilian sport that combines elements of dance, martial
arts and music
b) Senegalese Wrestling ( laamb) – the sport began as recreation for fisherman and farmers
c) Donkey raccing – this sport requires a great amount of skill, when racing with well-trained donkeys without
saddles. it is popular in Kenya
d) Dambe boxing – this type of boxing was mainly practiced in Nigeria
The dorminant hand of the fighter is wrapped with rope and dipped in resin and shards of glass before the
practice was banned
The contestant’s goal is to strike his opponents with punches and kicks until he drops to the floor, known as
killing over the course of three rounds
e) Nguni stick fighting – this martial art has been among the pastimes of teenage Nguni herders of South Africa
for a long time
It’s a stick battle that can last up to five hours where the opponents take turns at playing offense and defence,
scoring points based on which part is struck
Despite being banned in parts of South Africa, it’s still played in some townships to this day
f) Savika
g) Ta kurtom el mahag
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 Questions
1. Define physical education
2. Define sports
3. Give any 3 benefits of physical education
4. What are the major two cities of Greece practiced ancient physical education
5. In ancient Greece who took part in the Hera Games
6. A paidotribe in ancient Greece referred to…………………
7. In sports history a ……………….. event included running , jumping, throwing discus and javelin. A. pentathlon
B. decathlon C. triathlon D. heptathlon
8. Dambe boxing is an African traditional game which originated in which country?
9. ………………. was a kind of martial arts common in the herders of South Africa A. Nguni stick fighting B. donkey
racing C. capoeira D. savika
10. The Olympic Games were once banned by ………. A. god Zeus B. Romans C. Emperor Theodosius 1 D. Emperor
Theodosius ii
11. An international ………….. among the Greeks was declared to enable athletes to travel safely. A. agreement B.
consensus C. truce D. census
12. The …………….. was a special building within the ancient gymnasium were wrestling and physical training were
practiced A. paidiotribe B. gymn C. palaestra D. Olympia
13. List the events which make up a Pentathlon
14. The first ancient Olympics were done in which year
15. Give 4 physical activities which were done in ancient Egypt
16. The Romans had a special need for………………….. activities
17. Fill in the table below showing the differences between the two cities

Sparta Athens

NUTRITION, DIET AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

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Nutrition
 It is the intake of food, considered in relation to the body’s dietary needs.
 Good nutrition consists of an adequate, well balanced diet.
 It is the intake of adequate food, containing the essential nutrients, to satisfy the body’s dietary needs

Diet
 It is the kind and amount of food prescribed for a person or animal for a special reason
 It could be to gain, loose or maintain a certain weight.
 Dietary requirements for an individual can be affected by age, sex and activity
 A good diet supports intensive training through the provision of fuel needed to work.

A balanced diet
 It is the consumption of the right nutrients in their correct quantities.

Weight control
 It is the management of one’s weight, owing to a healthy lifestyle.

How to control one’s weight

 Having a meal plan will help in weight control.
 Knowing what to eat before, during and after an activity.
 Regular exercises –having at least 30 minutes a day, five days a week
 Eating foods highly in fibres as fruits, vegetables, lean foods etc
 Monitors calories intake versus calories output.
 Knowledge of one’s BMI (body mass index) is essential in order to maintain it at acceptable levels

Physical performance
 This refers to participation in physical activities.
 It enhances physical fitness and a reliable way to maintain and control weight

Nutrients
 It is any substance that can be metabolized by animals to give energy and build tissue
 For the body to perform well it needs the following nutrients:
i) Carbohydrates i v) Mineral salts vii) fats
ii) Vitamins v) Roughage
iii) Proteins vi) Water
 All of the above nutrients are required by the body to enable it to function well and to withstand the
demands of physical activity.
 The amounts of each food group are also determined by the nature of the activity to be done
1. Carbohydrates
 These are the body’s main source of fuel.
 They provide the energy to all cells in the body, required for physical activity
 They are found in starches, fibres and sugars.
 They are energy givers

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  They supply the muscles with the fuel required to meet the stress posed by training and competition
 Food rich in carbohydrates are sadza, rice, potatoes, bread etc
2. Vitamins
 They are required by the body to regulate internal chemical reactions.
 They protect the body against diseases
 Vitamins can be classified into water soluble and fat-soluble
 Water soluble vitamins are…….vitamin B-complex and vitamin C
 Fat-soluble vitamins are……vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin E, vitamin K

Vitamin Found in Why is it needed

Vitamin A Fats, milk, eggs, cheese, Eyesight, healthy skin
vegetables
Vitamin C Fruit( citrus fruits) and Healthy teeth and gums,
vegetables avoiding scurvy
Vitamin B1 Whole grain foods, nuts and Breaking down carbohydrates
meat
Vitamin D Animal products. Also made in Absorbing calcium and
the body when the sun shines phosphorus, avoiding rickets
on the skin

Vitamin C
 Its chemical name is ascorbic acids.
 It also increases the resistance of our body to infection and help fight diseases
 It is a water soluble vitamin

Vitamin D
 Its chemical name is calciferol.
 It is responsible for normal growth of bones and teeth because it increases absorption of calcium and
phosphorus into the body
 It is a fat-soluble vitamin

Vitamin E
 Its chemical name is tocopherol.
 It responsible for normal functioning of muscles and protection of liver
 The sources are green leafy vegetables, milk, butter, tomatoes and wheat germ oil.
 It is a fat-soluble vitamin

Vitamin K
 It is responsible for the clotting of blood and preventing haemorrhage.
 Haemorrhage is a serious bleeding inside a person’s body
 The sources are green leafy vegetables like spinach, cabbage, tomatoes and soybeans
 It is a fat-soluble vitamin

3. Proteins

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  They are responsible for repairing worn out tissues and tissue growth and maintenance.
 They also provide antibodies to protect the body
 The sources are meat, milk, eggs, beans
4. Fats
 It helps the body to maintain its core temperature and provide future energy.
 It contains the fat soluble vitamin such as A, D and E
 Excessive intake of fats can result in obesity.
 They provide warmth to the body
 The sources are butter, milk, eggs, cooking oils, fatty meat/ food
 They are also used for energy, but only when stores of carbohydrates run low
 Fats supply energy we need for endurance activities
5. Mineral salts
 They maintain the correct balance of body fluids and also facilitate homeostasis
 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant body temperature
 E.gs. of minerals are calcium, zinc, iodine and iron
 They help in the formation of strong bones and teeth

mineral Found in Why is it needed

Calcium Vegetable products, dried fish, Keeping bones and teeth hard
dairy products
Iron Red meat, liver, beans, lentils, Making blood , preventing
green vegetables tiredness and anaemia
Iodine Seafood and dairy products Maintaining the thyroid gland

6. Roughage
 It is also significant for swift bowel movements in athletes
 It is not food and it does not give anything to the body like other nutrients do but it is important
 The sources are salad, fruits with a skin, vegetables like cabbage
 It helps in digestion
7. Water
 It assists in regulating body temperature through sweat and it is a key to rehydration.
 It also assist with the efficiency of metabolism
 The sources are drinking it as it is, milk, tea, coffee, watery fruits

Anorexia nervosa
 It is a serious disorder in eating behavior primarily of young women in their teens and early twenties that is
characterized especially by a pathological fear of weight gain leading to faulty eating patterns, malnutrition
and usually excessive weight loss
 -A self-induced aversion to eating or excessive dieting.
 -It affects more females than males
 -It can be triggered by inability to adjust to adulthood and severe emotional upset.
 -They are incapable of eating and become extremely underweight.

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  -It is extremely important to realize that slimming is designed only to lose excess weight, and once this has
been achieved, and maintained through a sensible dieting and or exercise, then normal eating habits should
be resumed.

Bulimia nervosa

Obesity
 It is a condition characterized by the excessive accumulation and storage of fat in the body.
 It also refers to a state of being overweight

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 QUESTIONS
1. What is a balanced diet?
2. Define the following terms. a) diet b) nutrition
3. Energy from carbohydrates is converted to a substance called……… A. kilojoules B. glycogen C. kilocalories D.
calories
4. Calcium helps an athlete by…….. A. strong bones and teeth B. strong muscles C. good eyesight D. long hair
5. Which vitamin do we get when our body is exposed to sunlight?
6. Describe the importance of the following in maintaining health i) fibre ii) water iii) minerals iv) vitamins
7. What is glycogen?
8. Which of the following food constituent is responsible for the repair and maintenance of worn out tissues?
A. minerals B. fats C. proteins D. vitamins
9. Starches and sugars belong to which food group?
10. Define weight control
11. List the seven essential nutrients that should make up an athlete’s diet [7]
12. State any five practical ways of weight control [5]
13. Explain briefly how exercise can be useful in weight management [5]
14. Calculate your BMI

EXERCISE AND FITNESS

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  Exercise is the activity of exerting your muscles in various ways to keep fit
 It also refers to any bodily activity that enhances or maintains physical fitness, overall health and wellness.

Types of exercises
1. Aerobic exercise – it means doing exercises with oxygen e.g. brisk walking, swimming, basketball, jogging,
soccer and also cycling.
- Regular aerobic workouts improve the efficiency of the cardio-respiratory system.
- This will enable the heart and the lungs to withstand the body’s demands for freshly oxygenated blood.
- Aerobic exercise also affects body weight composition, by burning excess calories.
2. Anaerobic exercise – this means performing exercises without oxygen.
- These exercises increases increase the force your muscle contractions can generate.
- Weight lifting, sprinting and plyometrics are examples of anaerobic exercise.
- Strength training will be developing muscle strength and muscle endurance.
3. Flexibility exercise – they enhance the range of motion of your muscle and joint movements.
- Stretching and yoga poses are forms of flexibility exercises.
4. Stability exercise – they help improve your ability to maintain body alignment while resisting unwanted
bone and joint movements.
- Balance and agility training include stability exercises.

Why do we exercise?
 Weight loss and maintenance
 Enjoyment
 Strengthening muscles and the cardio vascular system
 To boost fitness level
 Reduce body fat
 Keeps bones strong
 Minimize chances of getting injured in sport

Benefits of exercise
 Exercise lowers the risk of such conditions like diabetes, heart disease among others
 It adds years to your life and your life expectancy increases.
 It protects and strengthens bones as it an ideal way of building bone density and reduce the risk of fractures
 It helps to boost fertility
 It improves self-esteem
 Helps you deal with stress and anxiety
 It helps you sleep well
 Makes young look younger
 Exercise blasts excess fat.
 It can help cure irritable bowel movement
 It prevent insomnia
 Improves your body shape, posture and muscle tone
 It soothes sore muscles.
 Boosts fitness levels and athletic performance

Fitness
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  It is the condition of being physically fit and healthy.
 The quality of being suitable to fulfil a particular role or task.
 Physical fitness is a state of health and well being, enabling one to perform aspects of sports, occupations and
daily activities.
 The capacity to carry out everyday activities (work and play) without excessive fatigue and with enough
energy in reserve for emergencies.

Fitness components
 Fitness components are found in two categories which are skill-related and health related
components of fitness

Skill-related fitness components

 Speed
 Agility
 Balance
 Coordination
 Reaction time
 Power

Health related components

 Strength
 Flexibility
 Endurance ( muscular & cardiovascular )
 Body composition

Health related components of fitness

a) Strength
 It is the ability to withstand great force or pressure due to the physical energy that you have, which allows
you to perform various actions.
 Also a state of being physically strong with the capacity to resist force or pressure
 There are three different types of strength namely, Dynamic strength, Explosive strength and Static strength.
1. Dynamic strength – this is used when you try to move an immovable object or carry a heavy object.
2. Explosive strength – it refers to an individual’s ability to exert a maximal amount of force in the shortest
possible time
3. Static strength – this means the force a muscle can apply to an immovable object without shortening the
length of the muscle
b) Endurance
 It is one’s ability to withstand long periods of work without getting fatigued.
 There are two forms of endurance namely cardiovascular endurance and muscular endurance

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 1. Cardiovascular endurance – it refers to the ability of the heart, lungs and blood vessels to deliver oxygen to
your body tissues.
- The more efficiently your body delivers oxygen to its tissues, the lower your breathing rate.
2. Muscular endurance – It is the ability of a muscle or a group of muscles to repeatedly exert force against
resistance.
- If you are able to perform multiple repetitions of an exercise, you will be exhibiting muscular endurance.
- Muscular endurance is one of the most important components for athletes
c) Flexibility
 It is the range of movement in joint or series of joints.
 The range of motion allowed around a joint is flexibility
 Stretching exercises are ideal for flexibility training
d) Body composition
 It describes the percentages of fat, bone, water and muscle in human bodies.
 A healthy body composition is one that includes a lower percentage of body fat and a higher
 It is found by calculating your Body Mass Index {BMI} and is done by dividing weight in kilograms by height in
meters squared.
 percentage of fat free mass, which includes muscle, bones and organs

Skill related components of fitness

 They are mostly determined by performance, as they are evidently noticed when one is performing the more
technical aspects of sport or physical activity.
a) Balance
 It is one’s ability to maintain steadiness while controlling his/her body’s position in space
 That ability to maintain equilibrium can either be from a stationary position or when moving
 Balance is essential in dance, gymnastics and in some contact sports where it may be an advantage in the face
of a tackle
 Balance can be divided into (i) static balance (ii) dynamic balance
i) Static balance – you are in control of your body, without any movement
ii) Dynamic balance – you are simultaneously controlling your body, at the same time moving.
b) Agility
 It refers to one’s ability to change direction during a physical activity, with speed and accuracy.
 It is one’s ability to perform power explosive movements quickly while changing directions in an efficient
way.
 Agility can be developed by zig-zag drills.
c) Speed
 It is the ability to execute a specific activity in the shortest possible time, at an explosive pace.
 It also applies to moving a body part so quickly and efficiently during a physical activity.
 In a sprint events, speed is a must have.
 Even in endurance running , speed is important especially for the final lap to the finish
d) Reaction time
 It refers to the ability to respond to a given stimuli quickly and correctly.
 It shows how fast you can respond once a stimulus is initiated.
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  Reaction time is key in most sports including swimming and athletics. E.g. in athletics once gun is shot the
athlete has to come out of the blocks immediately.
 In soccer the goal keeper facing a penalty needs to react as quickly as possible in the direction of the ball.
e) Coordination
 It is the ability to use different body parts in synchronisation ( movement of different body parts at the same
time )
 With coordination the movements are fluid like and show no difficulty in the execution of the skill or activity.
 In some sports , there is need to have hand eye coordination for example tennis
 In running events, it is the arm leg coordination
f) Power
 It is a result of strength and speed combined in physical performance.
 Executing a skill quickly and forcefully is evidence of power.
 It is the ability to exert maximum force in a quick and explosive burst, such as in the shot put and javelin
throw.

Principles of training

 Principle of specificity
 Principle of overload
 Principle of reversibility
 Principle of adaptation
 Principle of progression
 Principle of variation

Types of training methods

 Continuous training
 Plyometric
 Fartlek training
 Circuit training
 Interval training
 Weight training

Continuous training

 It is as continuous as the name suggests.

 No periods of rest are given during training
 It is an aerobic training method which improves aerobic fitness
 It suits long distance runners, road cyclists as well as trio athletes, swimmers and rowing athletes

Advantages of continuous training

 It is very cheap
 It can be done both as an individual or group type of training
 Improves aerobic fitness
 It improves health and fitness in general
 It can be adapted to suit individual differences and needs
 The Frequency, Intensity, Time and Type (FITT) principle can be employed quite easily with this method of
training

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Activities done in continuous training

 Running
 Brisk walking
 Cycling
 Swimming
 Rowing

Weight training

 It develops three fitness components, these are power, strength and muscular endurance
 In weight training sets, repetitions, weights and recovery must be applied

Weight training for power

 Power is generally working close to maximum effort

 Power training aims at developing the type IIb muscle fibre

Weight training for strength

 This is a maximal activity in which weight training must be carried close to the maximum
 To improve strength high weight should be used, with repetitions carried out as fast as possible, together
with recovery periods
 Fast twitch muscles will be at work

Weight training for muscular endurance

 This is meant to improve muscle tone

 Both slow and fast twitch muscle fibre will be at work

Advantages of weight training

 It develops muscular endurance, strength and power

 It is easy to monitor on athlete’s progress and overload
 A variety of exercises can be used in working on different muscle groups in weight training

Plyometric training

 It can also be referred as to jump training

 It is meant for an intense workout for explosive strength building
 It is best suited for the development of speed, agility and power
 It can be done using hurdles of different heights, ladders and gymnastics boxes
 It is a maximum intensity activity, over a very short period of time

QUESTIONS
1. Athletes lacking certain fitness components in various sporting disciplines

Name of athlete situation Missing component of fitness

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 1. Dewah Poor start in 100m ………………………………………….
2. Dinkie Fails to accelerate ……………………………………….
3. Jenah No leg arm fluid action in sprints …………………………………………….
4. Nicky Poor shot put throw …………………………………………
5. Kensoh Failed to complete 10 000m ………………………………………………
6. Blah Joe Cannot stand in an equilibrium position ………………………………………………
Failed to do hop step and jump in triple jump
7. Eddy ………………………………………..
8. Fungie Cannot stop a penalty in time ………………………………………….
9. Cassey Failed to lift some weights …………………………………………….
10. Cassandra Failed to complete a gymnastics routine ………………………………………… [10]

2. Which one is skill related component of fitness? A. power B. endurance C. strength D. flexibility
3. Which are the two subdivisions of fitness?
4. Agility is…………………………
5. Speed can be defined as ……………
6. The response to a given stimuli, very quickly is………………….
7. Zig-zag runs can be used to develop……………………….
8. In which sporting discipline is balance very important? A. chess B. archery C. gymnastics D. darts
9. Briefly explain what fitness means [2]
a) Define the following components of fitness:
i) Endurance
ii) Speed
iii) Coordination
iv) Power
v) Strength
vi) Agility
vii) Reaction time
10. Balance can be divided into (i)……………………………… (ii) …………………………………………. [2]
11. In which athletics events is power essential? Give three examples. [3]
12. List any four health related components of fitness
13. If an athlete can withstand prolonged periods of exercise, we say they have …………
14. An individual’s ability to exert a maximal amount of force in the shortest possible time is A. strength B.
coordination C. agility D. reaction time
15. State any 5 reasons why you should exercise
16. Give any 5 benefits of exercise that you know
17. Define exercise
18. Distinguish aerobic from anaerobic exercise
19. Flexibility refers to…………………..

DRUGS AND ANTI - DOPING

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-A drug is a substance that can be taken in a variety of ways to produce expected and welcome physical and
psychological effects on the person taking it, but may also cause some effects that are both unpleasant and
unwanted.

-Doping-the use of drugs to enhance performance.

-Historically athletes have always wanted to improve their performance through drugs.

-Because of this, certain classes of drugs are prohibited by sporting governing bodies.

-Such drugs can be dictated by urine testing at competition.

WHY DRUGS ARE PROHIBITED

# they give an unfair advantage to athletes.

# they contravene the ethics of fair play.

# may cause due risk or side effects on the body systems.

# may provoke allergic or immunological reactions in the body.

# may perpetrate aggressive behaviour.

# doping is dangerous and can be addictive

Why some sportspersons abuse drugs

-to increase muscle size and strength

-speed up recovery period after a strenuous activity

-to enable them to train harder without getting fatigue

-to stimulate the production of natural hormones

-to increase the production of red blood cells

-to hide their use of banned substances

-to improve their performance especially in endurance activities

-to help reduce and mask pain from a previous injury or illness

-to enable themselves to remain calm

Old ways of doping

 Greeks used to eat lamb testes, it was believed that they would provide special strength and increase muscle
size
 Greek soldiers used to eat special mushrooms for endurance and courage
SOURCES OF DRUGS

-(a)Animal drugs-insulin

PESMD form one to four notes 40

-(b)Plants-mbanje / marijuana

-(c) Laboratory synthesis-antihistamines

-(d)Micro- organisms-penicillin

CLASSES OF PROHIBITED DRUGS

STIMULANTS

-these are a group of drugs that boost alertness and physical activity by increasing heart and breathing rates as well
as brain functions.
- they also improve reaction time of an athlete and boosting confidence.
-they act on the Central Nervous System ( CNS) and stimulate the body mentally and physically
-they are found in amphetamines, coffee and tea

BENEFITS

-Increase concentration

- Mental alertness

- Decrease sensitivity to pain

- Increased endurance.

RISKS

-Elevation of blood pressure and heart rate

- Stress on cardiovascular system

- Trigger cardiac arrest

- Death

- Addictive

-Nervous and anxious

- Lack of sleep (insomnia)

-Aggressive behaviour.

ANABOLIC ARGENTS/STEROIDS -
these are synthetic versions of the hormone called testosterone,
-it is a male hormone but found in fewer women
-they are not allowed in and out of competition

BENEFITS / ADVANTAGES

-Increase lean body mass

- decrease fat

- allow greater volumes of training at greater intensities

-Increase motivation

-Decrease feeling fatigue

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-Facilitates speedy recovery from exhaustive training bouts.

- enhance performance

RISKS / DISADVANTAGES

-If used by young immature people can lead to the closure of epiphyses of the long bone.

-They suppress hormones which control development and functions of gonads.

-Cause a decrease in the secretion of testosterone.

- Reduction of sperm count.

-Affect menstrual cycle in women.

-Lead to masculinisation in women.

- Cause breast regression.

-Cause deepening of voice in women.

- Cause growth of breasts in men.

- Growth of facial hair.

- Liver damage and cardiovascular diseases.

DIURETICS
-they act as masking agents that is , they hide the presence of a banned substance in an athlete’s urine or any other
sample
-they assist athletes to cover up the use of drugs
-boxers use diuretics more, prior to the weighing session

BENEFITS

-Used to control weight.

- Get rid of excess body fluid.

-To mask the use of banned drugs.

RISKS

- May impair performance in events that require moderate to high endurance due to loss of extra cellular fluids, this
may cause electrolyte imbalances which cause electro-cramping and fatigue.

-Can cause cardiac conduct problems.

-Affect kidneys.

NARCOTICS/ANALGESICS

-they help an athlete with pain relief, enabling them to return to play quickly after an injury
-they are illegal in majority of countries
-examples of narcotics are morphine, heroine and codeine
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BENEFITS
-Reduction of pain sensitivity.

RISKS

-Can cause respiratory depression.

-Cause addiction and drowsiness.

BETTA-BLOCKERS

- they slow the heart rate and breathing rate

-they normally used for patients with blood pressure and are prohibited in golf, gymnastics, shooting, wrestling etc

BENEFITS

-reduce heart rate.

- control anxiety

RISKS

-Cause pronounced fatigue.

-Decrease motivation.

-Can lead to heart block.

- Cardiac failure.

ALCOHOL
-it is used by athletes to reduce stress, anxiety and hand tremors

BENEFITS

-Improves self- confidence.

- Improves alertness.

- It calms the nerves.

RISKS

-thinking is impaired.

-Reaction time and co-ordination is affected.

-Dulls pain causes more injury.

- Result in water loss.

- Decreases blood pressure.

- Causes dilation leading to heat loss

CANNABINOIDS

-this is the plant family where marijuana falls under

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-athletes use them to enhance their recovery time after an activity, they increase the heart rate and they help reduce
tension.

BENEFITS

-Similar to alcohol, stimulant and depressant effect.

RISKS

-Impairs performance that requires co-ordination.

- Fast reaction and perceptional accuracy.

- Leads to personality changes.

- Cause shot memory impairments.

-Cause hallucinations.

- When smocked it raises risks like lung cancer.

-Discoloration of lips and triggers asthma.

PEPTIDE HORMONES

-these are substances that are produced in the body

-once they circulate thru the blood they can affect other body organs, tissues and their functions

-they act as messengers between organs and help stimulate bodily functions

-Examples are insulin, growth hormone and stimulating agents

Benefits

-they improve the production of naturally occurring hormones

-they increase muscle growth and strength

-they increase the production of red blood cells

Risks

UNBANNED SUBSTANCES

-it is important to note that while there are banned substances, there are some that are permitted in, out and during
competition. These include:

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For pain

- Paracetamol
- Aspirin
- Codeine
For antidiarrhoeal

- Loperamide
- Electrolyte replacement agents
For vomiting

- Metoclopromide
- Proclopromide

For anti-acids

- MMT ( magnesium trisilicate)

For asthma

- Oral theophylline
- Ipratropium
For hay fever

- Antihistamines
- Xylometazoline
For haemorrhoids

- All non-steroid containing are drugs are permitted

For contraception

- All are permitted

-athletes who take regular medication for any type of condition should declare the drugs on the doping form prior to
competition

- If they happen to be travelling abroad, they should not carry more than three months’ supply

Anti-doping
 Opposing or prohibiting illegal doping e.g. the use of anabolic steroids or growth hormone to improve athletic
performance

Substance abuse
 Long term, pathological use of drugs characterized by daily intoxication, inability to reduce consumption and
impairment in social or occupational functioning due to drug addiction

QUESTIONS

1. WADA stands for………………………….

2. a) Why is doping not allowed in sport? Give three reasons
b) State any one effect of using peptide hormones

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 c) Give any three examples of unbanned substances in sport
d) Where is nicotine found? e)
Why do weight lifters use steroids? f.
Define the following terms i)
Doping ii)
Substance abuse iii)
Drug iv)
Unbanned substances v)
Testosterone vi.
Give five reasons why athletes use drugs in sport vii)
List any five substance that are banned in sport
3. outline any three strategies to prevent substance abuse
4. explain the role of WADA in anti doping
5. why is doping not allowed in sports
6. give any three reasons why athletes use drugs in sports
7. list any five substances that are banned in sports
8. Where is nicotine found?
9. WHO stands for………………..
10. Once an athlete has been found guilty of substance abuse, what measures should be taken [10]
11. Mention how steroids enhance performance [5]

INJURIES AND FIRST AID

Injury
 Any physical damage to the body caused by violence or accident or fracture etc
 An accident that results in physical damage or hurt

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Environmental injuries
 These are injuries sustained owing to environmental factors.
 They occur due to certain external conditions
 These factors include :
 Harsh weather conditions
 Negligence
 Accidents
 Incorrect use of equipment
 The absence of effective warm up

Injuries that may occur at home, school, recreational areas and work places
 Burns
 Scalds
 Food poisoning
 Asphyxiation ( death due to lack of oxygen)
 Smoke inhalation
 Electrical injuries
 Pesticide poisoning
 Stab wounds
 Drowning
 Choking
 Falls from roofs, trees, staircases, ladders, bunk beds
 Heat exhaustion/ heat stroke
 Frostbite
 Cuts
 Grazes

Environmental injuries at home

 Negligence
 Poor parenting skills
 Accidents
 Exposure to air pollution

Environmental injuries at workplace

 Negligence
 Physical and chemical risks to the workers
 Unsafe behaviour

Environmental injuries at recreational and leisure centres

 No safety practices
 Improper and careless use of equipment
 Unprotected water bodies

Effects of environmental injuries

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  They may actually lead in permanent disabilities and even the loss of life

Prevention against environmental injuries

 Change of habits like littering e.g. throwing banana peels into bins than on the ground
 Wiping or drying wet floors
 Keeping the swimming pool fenced and covered with a net
 Avoid playing risky games as wrestling

Common injuries in sport

Soft tissue injuries
 They result from the overuse and trauma on the working muscles, tendons and ligaments.
 They are injuries that are soft and minor in nature, caused by unexpected or uncontrolled movement like
stepping awkwardly off a kerb, thereby rolling over your ankle.
 The damage in soft tissue injuries can also be from the overuse of already fatigued muscles

Examples of soft tissue injury

 Rapture-complete tearing of the muscle or ligament(potentially carrier ending)
 Deep bruise-occurs in large bulk muscle and usually accompanied by bleeding resulting in pain and swelling.
 Cuts-break in the skin.
 Punchers-pierced by a dart arrow.
 Strain
 Sprain

Signs and symptoms of soft tissue injuries

 Immediate pain and delayed swelling
 Stiffness due to the trauma and swelling
 Bruising

Classification of injuries

TRAUMATIC
 Accidental
 (e.g.) pulled muscle.
 Ruptured tendon.
 Fracture
 Hit by a cricket ball

OVERUSE
 Develop out of too much use of a particular part of body.
 E.g. stress of tibia.
 Achilles tendonitis.
 Blisters on hands and feet.

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Sports injuries
a) Sprains f) shin splints
b) Strains g) concussions
c) Fractures h) tennis elbow
d) Dislocations i) knee injury
e) Achilles tear j) back injury

1. Sprains
 They are a result of the over stretching of the ligaments.
 They occur when ligaments are overstretched and get torn.
 They occur around a joint for example sprained ankle
 They can be managed well using the RICER method
2. Strains
 These come when there is trauma on the working muscles or tendons.
 Occurs when a muscle or tendon is over stretched and gets torn for example strained hamstring or a pulled
muscle.

NB: sprains and strains are a common feature in sports that involve running, jumping, using the shoulders

3. Fractures
 These are normally experienced in rough and tumble games and the end result is a broken bone.
 It is a break or crack in a bone.
 There are three types of fractures namely:
 Greenstick fracture – this occurs to young children with soft bones when there is pressure or impact that
bends and partially breaks a bone
 Stress fracture – is a rather incomplete fracture caused by repeated stress.
 Spiral fracture – it is a fracture which occurs when a long bone is torn in half by a twisting force or impact.

4. Dislocations
 They are joint injuries which occur when bones of a joint are wrenched apart or separated
 It is when a joint is displaced
5. Achilles tear
 It is common in sports that involve running and jumping for example Achilles tendon
 Happens when the tendon gets inflamed and painful from overuse
6. Groin pull
 It is a tear or rapture in the adductor muscle.
 It normally posses a very sharp pain in the groin, affecting performance
7. Shin splints
 These are lower leg pains, felt below the knee.

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  They usually occur to those athletes who are not seasoned trainers or those who do not follow a consistent
workout routine
8. Concussions
 They occur when an athlete suffers a brain injury, having been hit or bumped at
 They are quite common in sports like soccer, hockey and boxing
9. Tennis elbow
 This is when a tendon suffers damage due to overuse
10.Back injuries
 Characterized by pain in the lower back area, for example slipped discs
11.Knee injuries
 Normally affects the complex knee.
 Affects those athletes in contact sport
12.Bruises
 These refer to when areas are damaged causing blood to leak out surrounding tissues.
 Can also be called contusions.
 Some occur just beneath the skin while others in the underlying muscles.

How to prevent injuries

 Start with a warm up always
 Stretching
 Do not rush into challenging activities too soon
 Keep yourself physical conditioned
 Keeping yourself strong
 Allow your body to recover
 Cool down after an activity
 Allow no pain ( it’s a sign for you to stop)
 Getting injured is no option in the first instance( practice safety always)

Management of minor sports injuries

 During 72 hours you can apply the RICE, RICER and PRICE methods
 They help in the management of sports injuries like sprains, strains and severe bruises or bumps

RICE method
Rest - the injured athlete is recommended to rest and avoid further activities that can cause pain.
- This is meant to allow sufficient rehabilitation time for even small injuries

Ice – you wrap ice cubes in damp towel/cloth or use ice packs to apply on the injured part for 15 – 20 minutes every
3 – 4 hours

- It is very useful even beyond the 72-hour period as it helps to reduce swelling and controls pain

Compression – you apply a bandage firmly, in such a way that does not restrict blood circulation or cause
additional pain.

- The bandage should cover the whole joint

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Elevate – you should raise the limb above the level of your heart, in order to reduce swelling.
- Ensure you support the limb, with comfortable cushions or a sling to keep it raised

PRICE method
 It not very different from the RICE method
 It stands for Protect, Rest, Ice, Compress and Elevate

Protect – you are urged to protect the injured part by avoiding, using the injured area
RICER method
 The procedure is similar to the other two except that the last R stands for Referral i.e. recommending seeking
specialist attention

Use of anti-inflammatory drugs

 These can be used to reduce inflammation of the injury

Immobilization
 It is recommended to keep the injured part from much movement, as this will help reduce chances of
worsening the injury
 The splints and slings will aid in reducing movement of the injured part

Surgery
 It is the treatment of injuries or disorders of the body by incision or manipulation, especially with sharp
instruments
 In very rare circumstances, some sports injuries may require minor surgery as a corrective measure

Rehabilitation
 Exercise may be very important for full recovery, prior to getting back to physical activity

Rest
 It is also very important as it promotes full recovery from the injury

Prevention of injuries
 Use correct and age appropriate equipment
 Wear correct clothing and footwear
 Competing with the opponents of the same age group
 Ensure you employ correct techniques of the game
 Do not over-do it
 Allow your body to recover
 Know your safety precautions
 Pre-participation examination-It is important to ensure that all those with medical or other problems that
predispose them to injury are stopped from active sports participation.

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  Physical Conditioning-A high level of fitness for the sport to be undertaken is essential. Different sports
require different levels of fitness.
 Proper matching of athletes-According to their age and physical maturation.(particularly in contact sports)
 Protective equipment-Equipment should be of proper size.
 Proper skills coaching and supervision of athletes
 Fair umpiring
 Warm up and stretching exercises

Tendon
 It is a flexible but inelastic cord of strong fibrous collagen tissue attaching a muscle to a bone.

WHAT IS FIRST AID

 -Immediate care that is given to a person who is injured or fallen ill.

 - Treatment given to a casualty to sustain life.

Knowledge and skill of first aid often means:

 [a] the difference between life and death.

 [b] the difference between temporary and permanent disability.
 [c] the difference between rapid recovery and long hospitalization.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF A FIRST AIDER

 Assess the situation.

 Arrive at a diagnosis for each casualty.
 Give immediate adequate treatment bearing in mind the casualty may have sustained more than one injury.
 Arrange without delay removal to hospital.

Levels of unconsciousness for injured

They are four types:
(1) Full consciousness - casualty is able to speak and answer questions.
(2) Drowsiness-casualty can be easily aroused but lapses into unconsciousness.
(3) Stupor - someone is aroused with difficulty and is aware of painful stimulus.
(4) Comma - cannot be aroused by any stimulus.

Procedure for a conscious casualty

 Ask where pain is and examine that part first.

 Examine casualty methodically running your hand gently but firmly over the parts of body from head to lower
limbs.
 Check skin for paleness check lips for redness.
 Check inside eyelids and face for blueness.
 Check nature of breathing particularly rate and depth.

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 Count the pulse, strength and rhythm.
 Determine by touching whether the body is hot or cold.

Procedure for an unconscious casualty

 If not breathing check if airway is clear and administer artificial respiration.

 Examine over and under casualty for dampness which may indicate loss of control of bowl and bladder.
 Stop any serious bleeding before proceeding with further examination.
 Study the ears, eyes, nose and mouth for blood, other fluids and foreign bodies.

QUESTIONS
1. What are environmental injuries?
2. RICER method can be used to…………….. A. manage fractures B. manage strains and sprains C. manage frost
bites D. manage heat strokes
3. ……………………. Are caused by friction and rubbing A. cuts & grazers B. grazers & blisters C. strains & sprains D.
burns & scalds
4. A small tear of the ligament tissue is called ……… A. tendon B. a ligament sprain C. a ligament strain D. a
ligament fracture

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 5. Immobilization refers to……………A. a little movement B. just walking and no running C. resting and disallowing
any movement D. playing less vigorously
6. A sling can be used to manage which of the following injuries? A. elbow dislocation B. neck injury C. knee
dislocation D. head injury

THE SKELETAL SYSTEM

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The skeletal system
 It is the framework of the human body, which consist of bones and other connective tissues
 It consists of a total of 206 named bones in an adult
 At birth one has 270 bones but an adult has 206
 A bone is a rigid connective tissue that makes up the skeleton of vertebrates
 All bones start as hyaline cartilage and gradually turn into bone
 The human skeleton has two main divisions, namely the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton
 The human skeleton consists of:

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 i) The skull
ii) Pectoral girdle
iii) Pelvic girdle
iv) The vertebral column
v) Arms and hands
vi) Legs and feet

The appendicular skeleton

 These are limbs and bones that connect to pectoral girdle (shoulders) and the pelvic girdle (hips)
 It consists of the arms, legs and supporting structures in the shoulders and pelvis
 They are 126 bones on the appendicular skeleton

The axial skeleton

 It forms the longitudinal axis of the body.
 It can be divided into skull, vertebral column and the thorax.
 It has 80 bones including the head, neck, trunk, skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column, sternum and the thoracic
cage.
 The skull is composed of more than 2 dozens bones (more than 24) most of which are fused together to form
a solid unit around the brain and special sense organs.

Classification of bones
 Bones can be classified using shape and tissue
i) Long bones
ii) Short bones
iii) Flat bones
iv) Irregular bones

Classification of bones by shape

1. Long bones
 They are mostly compact and longer than they are wide
 All bones of the limbs are long bones except the wrist and ankle
 Examples of long bones are femur, tibia, humerus, ulna, fibula
 The longest bone is femur, which is almost one quarter of one’s total height

2. Short bones
 They are mostly spongy and cube shaped
 They are found in the wrist and ankle of the limbs
 Examples of short bones are patella, carpals, metatarsals

3. Flat bones

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  These are thin and flattened although usually curved
 They have thin layers of compact bone with spongy bone in between
 Examples of flat bones are some skull bones, ribs, sternum

4. Irregular bones
 They are neither long, short nor flat
 Examples of irregular bones are vertebrae and hip bones

Classification of bones by tissue

There are two types of bone tissue namely: a) compact bone tissue b) spongy bone tissue

 The compact bone tissue is dense, smooth and homogeneous.

 It is also very strong such that it can endure great stress and impact
 The spongy bone tissue has small or slender bone pieces within open spaces, that is they are found in the
interior of normal bone.
 They are strong and yet light weight

Sesamoid bone
 Although a sesamoid bone is not a category based on shape, it tends to be short
 It is a bone that develops within a tendon
 The knee cap or patella is an example of a sesamoid bone

The structure of a long bone

 The longest bone is the femur
 It is about 1/4 of an adult’s height
 The femur is the strongest bone
 A long bone has two parts namely the diaphysis and epiphysis
 The diaphysis is the tubular shaft between the ends of the bone
 The hallow region in the diaphysis is called the medullary cavity and is filled with yellow marrow
 The epiphysis is the rounded end of a long bone

Functions of the skeletal system

 Support
 Protection
 Movement
 Blood cell formation
 Endocrine regulation
 Storage of minerals

1. Support
 The skeleton forms the internal framework that supports and anchors all soft organs
 This framework supports the body and maintains its shape
 The bones of the legs support the body torso when standing erect
 The rib cage supports the thoracic wall, without it some organs would collapse on their own weight
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 2. Protection
 It protects vital soft body organs which are delicate in nature, from getting damaged.
 The fused bones of the skull protect the brain
 The vertebrae column protects the spinal cord
 The rib cage, spine and sternum protect the thoracic organs including the heart and the lungs and major
blood vessels

3. Movement
 It facilitates movement using bones as levers to move body and its parts
 The joints allow movement

4. Blood cell formation

 The formation of blood cells occurs in the red marrow cavities of certain bones, usually spongy bones
 In children blood cell formation occurs in long bones
 In adults blood cell formation occurs in the pelvis, cranium, vertebrae and sternum

5. Endocrine regulation
 Bone cells release a special hormone which contributes to the regulation of blood sugar and fat deposition

6. Storage
 Calcium, iron and phosphorus are stored in the skeleton.
 Fat is stored in the internal cavities of bones

Joints
 It is an articulation on the skeletal system, where one, two or more bones meet.
 It can be referred to as the union between two or more bones

Classification of joints
 They can be classified as follows:
a) Immovable joints – these are fixed joints hence no movement can take place between the bones
- They are fibrous in nature
- Examples of fixed joints are the flat bones of the skull as well as the bones on the pelvic girdle
b) Slightly movable joints – these are linked with cartilage, which facilitates the slightly movement
- They can be called cartilaginous joints and include those joints of the vertebrae column
c) Freely movable joints – these are the most common type of joints
- They allow a variety of movements that are very important to sports people
- Movement is made possible with these synovial joints because of the lubricating fluid provided for the joint
- Examples of synovial joints are the knee, hip and shoulder

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Synovial joint
 They move freely and it is made easy by a fluid called synovial fluid

Types of synovial joints

Gliding joints – allows smooth movement called flexion and extension
- The movement comes in several directions along a smooth surface
- The small bones of the hands ( carpal bones of the wrist) are examples of gliding joints

Hinge joints – these are hinged joints formed between two bones
- They allow movements called stable flexion and extension
- They have a limited amount of rotation
- Two main examples of hinge joints are the knee and the elbow joint
- Between the humerus and ulna is a hinge joint also
- They work similarly to a door hinge

Ball and socket joints – these allow the greatest range of movement.
- The ball and socket joint have on one end of the bone a ball like shape, while on the other there is a hallow
socket.
- It allows the free movement upwards and downwards and from side to side as well as around
- Bending is easy with the ball and socket joint
- The examples are shoulder joint and the hip joint

Pivot joints – they only permit rotation

- The joint allows us to turn, raise and lower our heads
- Example of pivot joint is at the top of the spinal column

Condyloid / ellipsoid – it is quite similar to the gliding joint

- Its surface area is not regular, bones move past one another
- The radio carpal joint on the wrist is an example of a condyloid joint

The movable joints are held together by ligaments and tendons

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  Tendons attach muscles to bones
 Ligaments are bands of connective tissue between bones. The ligaments prevent too much movement

Some of the bones are protected from knocking each other by a cartilage, which forms a smooth coat for the synovial
joints

Movements made possible by synovial joints

Flexion – bending usually forward and backwards
Extension – straightened or bending backwards
Rotation – movement right round the axis of a bone
Abduction – movement away from the midline of the body
Inversion – turning the sole of the foot inwards
Eversion – turning the sole of the foot outwards
Circumduction – combination of flexion, extension, abduction and adduction
Supination – turning the palm of the hand up
Pronation – turning the palm of the hand down

Type of joint Movement allowed Examples of joint Sporting skill

Hinge Flexion, extension Elbow joint, knee joint ………………………………
Ball and Flexion, extension, rotation, Hip joint, shoulder joint Spin bowling in cricket
socket adduction, abduction,
circumduction
Pivot Rotation Joint between radius Tennis, squash,
and ulna badminton
Gliding Flexion, extension Carpals, tarsals ……………………………..

QUESTIONS
1. One example of a hinge joint is………………. A. hip B. knee C. ankle D. elbow
2. A pivot joint……………… A. allows flexion B. allows rotation C. allows movement in two planes D. allows
circular movement
3. Which one is the most common type of joint? A. fixed joint B. synovial joint C. gliding joint D.immovable joint
4. What is a joint?
5. ……is when the bone turns right round its axis A. flexion B. adduction C. rotation D. abduction
6. How many types of joints are there? A. five B. four C. two D. three

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7. …………..protects bones and stops them from knocking against each other. A. tendon B. ligaments C. cartilage
D. synovial
8. Which bone is located in the knee joint? A. tibia B. ulna C. patella D. fibula
9. List the six types of synovial joints
10. Explain briefly on what is each of the following:
i) Synovial joint
ii) Cartilaginous joint
iii) Fibrous joint
iv) Gliding joint
11. What is a fixed joint?
12. Which two synovial joints allow bending in several movements?
13. How many bones are there in the human body?
14. The study of human body systems and their functions is called…. A. physiology B. anatomy C. anatomy and
biology D. anatomy and physiology
15. Bones are classified according to…… A. shape only B. shape and type of tissue C. shape and size D. type of
tissue only
16. In children, where does blood cell production take place? A. bone marrow of long bones B. marrow of
vertebrae C. marrow of short bones D. marrow of the pelvic girdle
17. The …………protects the spinal cord A. vertebral column B. skull C. rib cage D. pelvic girdle
18. Which of these is a sesamoid bone? A. cranium B. patella C. carpals D. femur
19. Define the following terms: a) joint b) skeletal systems
20. Name the longest bone on the human skeleton
21. Give any two bones on axial skeleton
22. State five functions of the skeletal system
23. Give one example of each of the following classes:
i) Irregular
ii) Short
iii) Long
iv) Flat
24. The total number of bones on an adult skeleton is………………

25. The human body has how many bones in total.

A) 106
B) 206
C) 306
D) 406

26. The cranium bone protects which internal organ.

A) Teeth
B) Spinal cord
C) Brain
D) Heart

27. In terms of range of movement, the fibrous is which type of joint.

A) Immovable
B) Slightly movable

PESMD form one to four notes 40

C) Freely movable
D) Synovial

28. The knee joint is in which class of levers.

A) First class lever
B) Second class lever
C) Third class lever
D) Fourth class lever

29. Which description best describes a saddle joint?

A) Spool in half moon
B) Cone in depression
C) Round headed of bone fit into cup shaped depressed
D) A concave surface meets convex surface

30. The intervertebral discs of the spine are part of which type of joint?
A) Ligament
B) Synovial
C) Fibrous
D) Cartilaginous

31. -------- facilitates movement on the skeletal system

A) Bones only

B) Joints and muscles

C) Bones and muscles

D) Tendons and ligaments

PESMD form one to four notes 40

PESMD form one to four notes 40