Problems of Psychology in The 21st Century, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017

Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, Vol. 11, No.
1, 2017
ISSN 2029-8587 (Print) ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF
PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21ST
CENTURY
Scientia Socialis in Cooperation with Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia
Educologica“, Lithuania,
The Associated Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society, Association of Lithu-
anian Serials (ALS), ESHS (European Society for the History of Science) and
ICASE (International Council of Associations for Science Education)
The articles appearing in this scientific journal are indexed and abstracted in:
Index Copernicus
EBSCO Discovery Service (EDS) (currently). Academic Search International (ASI) (coming)
Cabell Publishing, Inc., Directories of Academic Journals
PECOB: Portal on Central Eastern and Balkan Europe
Contemporary Science Association/AAP databases -
Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory / Global Serials Directory
Journalseeker
Electronic Serials in Lithuania
The Wroblewski Library of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences
Social Psychology Network
Directory of Research Journal Indexing (DRJI)
Global Impact Factor (GIF)
Academic Keys
Sjournals Index
Open Academic Journals Index (OAJI)
Scientific Indexing Services (SIS)
ImpactFactor.pl
Journalindex.net
Directory of Abstract Indexing for Journals (DAIJ)
Included into a List of Journals Recognized by Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) Scholar
Scientific Journal Impact Factor (SJIF)
Polish Scholarly Bibliography /PBN/ (Polska Bibliografia Naukowa)
European Reference Index for the Humanities and the Social Sciences (ERIH PLUS)
Information Matrix for the Analysis of Journals (MIAR)
Scientific World Index (SCIWIN)
Eurasian Scientific Journal Index (ESJI)
CIRC (Clasificación Integrada de Revistas Científicas)
Directory of Open Access Scholarly Resources (ROAD)
Publisher
Scientia Socialis Ltd. in Cooperation with Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“,
Lithuania, the Associated Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society, the Association of Lithuanian
Serials, European Society for the History of Science (ESHS) and International Council of Associa-
tions for Science Education (ICASE)
Editorial Board
Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

Dr., assoc. prof. Maria Annarumma, University of Salerno, Italy
Dr., prof. Serhiy Boltivets, Grigory Kostyuk Psychological Institute of the Ukrainian National Acad-
emy of Pedagogical Sciences, Ukraine
Dr. Sefa Bulut, Abant Izzet Baysal University, Turkey
Dr. Vaitsa Giannouli, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Dr., prof. Irakli Imedadze, Dimitri Uznadze Georgian Psychological National Society, Georgia
Dr. Julia Lakhvich, Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh. Abovyan,
Armenia
Dr. Charles Kimamo, University of Nairobi, Kenya
Dr., assoc. prof. Vadim N. Kolesnikov, Karelian State Pedagogical Academy, Republic of Karelia,
Russia
Dr., prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
Dr., assoc. prof. Jan Lašek, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
Dr., prof. Mary Anne Lauri, University of Malta, Malta
Dr., prof. Maria Ledzińska, University of Warsaw, Poland
Dr., prof. Aleksandr Lobanov, Belarusian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., assoc. prof. Tetiana M. Shyriaieva, National University of Ostroh Academy, Ukraine
Dr., assoc. prof. Stanislava Yordanova Stoyanova, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Bulgaria
Dr., prof. Guna Svence, University of Latvia, Latvia
MSc. Dennis Relojo, Psychreg, United Kingdom
Dr., assoc. prof. Yolanda Zografova, Institute for Population and Human Studies, Bulgarian Acad-
emy of Sciences, Bulgaria
Copyright of this issue is the property of Scientia Socialis Ltd., Lithuania. By virtue of their appearance
in this open access journal, articles are free to use, with proper attribution, in educational and other
non-commercial settings.
Index Copernicus (IC™ Value): 76.09 (2015). OAJI: 0.201 (2015).

SJIF: 3.099 (2014)
Global Impact Factor (GIF): 0.534 (2012), 0.654 (2013), 0.765 (2014), 0.876 (2015).
ICDS (Secondary Composite Index Broadcasting): 3.2
Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific
journal, issued by the Scientia Socialis Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“.
PPC is an open access journal.
Address:
Scientia Socialis,
Donelaičio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: problemsofpsychology@gmail.com
Phone: +370 687 95668
WEB page: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/PPC/Problems_of_Psychology.htm
http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/ppc/
ISSN 2029-8587 © Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, 2017

ISSN 2029-8587 (Print)
ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Contents
Editorial
MOZART EFFECT AND MUSIC PSYCHOLOGY: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND

FUTURE RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Vaitsa Giannouli
Articles
THE MARITAL STATUS AS PREDICTOR OF DIFFERENCES IN TIME PERSPECTIVE

AND OPTIMISTIC-PESSIMISTIC ATTITUDES AMONG WOMEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Natasha Angelova, Magdalena Trencheva
A 2-YEAR PRELIMINARY LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL

FUNCTIONING IN HASHIMOTO’S THYROIDITIS UNDER LEVOTHYROXINE TREATMENT:
]ONLY TRAIL MAKING TEST IS MAKING A DIFFERENCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Vaitsa Giannouli, Nikolaos Syrmos
BODY IMAGE AND MENTAL REPRESENTATION IN TABLE TENNIS PLAYERS WHO

DO VERSUS DO NOT USE A PROSTHESIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Damian Jeraj, Lisa Musculus, Babett H. Lobinger
EMOTIONAL CREATIVITY INVENTORY: FACTOR STRUCTURE, RELIABILITY AND

VALIDITY IN A GEORGIAN-SPEAKING POPULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Khatuna Martsksvishvili, Nino Abuladze, Sordia Natia, Neubauer Aljoscha
INTRASEXUAL COMPETITION AMONG HUMANS: PROSOCIAL TOWARDS THE

OPPOSITE SEX AND PROSELF TOWARDS THE SAME SEX? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Grzegorz Pajestka
IMPROVING POSITIVE AFFECT BASED ON SELF-COMPASSION THROUGH

LIFE GOALS EXPRESSIVE WRITING: BASIS FOR AN EGO IDENTITY
DEVELOPMENT AMONG STUDENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Dennis Relojo, Rona dela Rosa
STUDENTS’ SELF-ASSESSMENT OF ONE’S ABILITIES FOR THEIR

LIFE GOALS ACHIEVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Stanislava Stoyanova, Stavroula Roumbou, Christos Douvlos, Tsvetelina Hadzhieva,
Stavroula-Vera Strychnou, Dimana Arnautovska, Nikolay Ivantchev
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
MOZART EFFECT AND MUSIC

PSYCHOLOGY: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
AND FUTURE RESEARCH
Vaitsa Giannouli
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
E-mail: giannouliv@hotmail.com
The field of Music Psychology has grown in the past 20 years, to emerge from
being just a minor topic to one of mainstream interest within the brain sciences (Hallam, Cross,
& Thaut, 2011). Despite the plethora of research attempts to examine the so-called hotly disputed
“Mozart effect” which was first reported by Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993, 1995), we still know
little about it. This group of researchers were the first to support experimentally that visuospatial
processing was enhanced in participants following exposure to Mozart’s Sonata for Two Pianos in D
major (K.448). Although the first research attempts referred to the Mozart effect as an easy way of
improving cognitive performance immediately after passive music listening to Mozart’s sonata K.
448 (Chabris, 1999), after which healthy young adult students could perform with enhanced spatial-
temporal abilities in tasks such as the Paper Folding Task (PFT), nowadays there is a number of
studies indicating that this specific music excerpt does not necessarily have this magical influence
on all cognitive abilities (e.g. on the overall Intelligence Quotient) in humans and on the behavior
of animals (for a review see Giannouli, Tsolaki & Kargopoulos, 2010). In addition to that, ques-
tions arise whether listening to this ‘magic music excerpt’ does indeed have benefits that generalize
across a wide range of cognitive performance, and if it can induce changes that are of importance
for medical and therapeutic purposes in patients with neurological disorders (e.g. epilepsy) or
psychiatric disorders (e.g. dementia, depression) (Verrusio et al., 2015).
Although two meta-analyses in the past support the existence of a moderate influence on cognitive
tasks after brief listening to Mozart’s ten-minute sonata (Chabris, 1999; Hetland, 2000), more studies
are needed, in order to define specific protocols that result in these claimed changes (Verrusio et al.,
2015). For example, there are recent studies claiming that Mozart’s K. 448 sonata can improve mood
(Giannouli, 2013; Giannouli, Lytras & Syrmos, 2012), but not verbal memory (Giannouli, Tsolaki &
Kargopoulos, 2010; Giannouli, Kolev & Yordanova, 2018), visuospatial short-term memory (Gian-
nouli & Popa, 2017), and attention (Giannouli, 2012) across young and old healthy adults.
A possible explanation for the (in)existence of the Mozart effect may be found in the fact that
music elicits a variety of emotions and the way music excerpts are emotionally perceived by each
individual. Thus, Mozart effect may be associated with any form of music that has or is perceived
as having energetic and positive emotional qualities for the participants, and not necessarily specific
structural-morphological characteristics (Thompson, Schellenberg & Husain, 2001).
Given the heterogeneity of the relevant research studies and the contrasting results, future
research should further focus in a more systematic way not only in replicating the methods employed
in previous studies (e.g. if music is preceding or used as background, the types-genres of music
excerpts that are used for comparing the different experimental conditions), but also on clarifying
other aspects of this claimed phenomenon such as the individual characteristics that listeners have,
and more specifically the role of music-induced emotions (Thompson, Schellenberg & Husain,
2001), the role of music attitudes (Giannouli, 2018), as well as other demographic factors that
differentiate individuals’ cognitive and emotional reactions, such as age, gender, health status and
music education that participants have received in their life (Giannouli, Kolev & Yordanova, 2018).
But the unanswered question still remains… Is there actually a ‘Mozart effect’?
Vaitsa GIANNOULI. Mozart effect and music psychology: Recent developments and future research ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
References 5
Campbell, D. (2009). The Mozart effect: Tapping the power of music to heal the body, strengthen the mind, and
unlock the creative spirit. New York: Harper Collins.
Chabris, C. (1999). A quantitative meta-analysis of Mozart studies. Nature, 400, 826-27.
Giannouli, V. (2012). Attention and Music. In E. Cambropoulos, C. Tsougras, P. Mavromatis & K. Pastiadis
(Eds.), Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Music Perception and
Cognition and the 8th Triennial Conference of the European Society for the Cognitive Sciences of Music
(pp. 345), Thessaloniki: Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
Giannouli, V. (2013). Attitudes towards music as a means of therapy: Can it help to overcome depression and/
or cardiovascular disease? Health Psychology Research, 1 (1). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.
nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4768609.
Giannouli, V. (2018). Exploring passive music listening and its impact on cognition: Attitudes in focus. Journal
of Cognitive Neuropsychology, 1 (4), 1.
Giannouli, V., Kolev, V., & Yordanova, J. (2018). Is there a specific Vivaldi effect on verbal memory functions?
Evidence from listening to music in young and old adults. Psychology of Music, (accepted in press).
Giannouli, V., Lytras, N., & Syrmos, N. (2012). Is there a place for music in nuclear medicine. Hellenic Journal
of Nuclear Medicine, 15 (3), 188-189.
Giannouli, V., & Popa, S. (2017). Does listening to Mozart’s music influence visuospatial short-term memory
in young adults? European Psychiatry, 41, S684.
Giannouli, V., Tsolaki, M., & Kargopoulos, P. (2010). The influence of Mozart’s and Beethoven’s music on
reverse mnemonic recall tasks. Psychiatrike, 21 (1), 60-67.
Hallam, S., Cross, I., & Thaut, M. (Eds.). (2011). Oxford handbook of music psychology. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Hetland, L. (2000). Listening to music enhances spatial-temporal reasoning: Evidence for the” Mozart Ef-
fect”. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 34 (3/4), 105-148.
Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, C. N. (1993). Music and spatial task performance. Nature, 365 (6447),
611-611.
Rauscher, F. H., Shaw, G. L., & Ky, K. N. (1995). Listening to Mozart enhances spatial-temporal reasoning:
Towards a neurophysiological basis. Neuroscience Letters, 185 (1), 44-47.
Thompson, W. F., Schellenberg, E. G., & Husain, G. (2001). Arousal, mood, and the Mozart effect. Psychologi-
cal Science, 12 (3), 248-251.
Verrusio, W., Moscucci, F., Cacciafesta, M., & Gueli, N. (2015). Mozart Effect and its clinical applications: A
review. British Journal of Medicine and Medical Research, 8 (8), 639-650.
Received: November 12, 2017 Accepted: December 18, 2017
Vaitsa Giannouli PhD, Researcher, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,

Thessaloniki, Greece.
Email: giannouliv@hotmail.com
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
THE MARITAL STATUS AS PREDICTOR

OF DIFFERENCES IN TIME PERSPECTIVE
AND OPTIMISTIC-PESSIMISTIC
ATTITUDES AMONG WOMEN
Natasha Angelova
South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Bulgaria
E-mail: natasha_v@swu.bg
Magdalena Trencheva
Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria
E-mail: magi79@abv.bg
Abstract
The search for relations, dependencies, and influences between marital status and mental phenomena
outlines an accurate and clear picture not only of the family status as a social phenomenon but also as a
mental field, where our awareness as individuals is directly or indirectly linked. In this sense, the differ-
ences among women with different marital context and the optimistic and pessimistic attitudes as well as
the expectations regarding the past, present, and future that were investigated in this research.
Four different marital status groups were identified and are shown the differences in time perspective and
optimistic-pessimistic attitudes between them. The survey was conducted with 140 women aged between
32 and 67 years M=41.09 SD=6.58. The research methods are Method of evaluation of optimism and
negative expectations, published by Velichkov and Radoslavova (2005) and Time perspective Question-
naire by Philip Zimbardo, adapted by Slavchov and Virmozelova (2008).
The results verify the supposition that there are statistically significant (p<.05) differences between the four
groups of women with different marital status, with regard to their attitudes to optimism and pessimism as
well as to their time perspective. The group of married women shows the highest result in Past-positive
time perspective and Future time perspective, in comparison with the divorced that have the lowest scores
on the same factors Past-positive time perspective and Future time perspective. At the same time, the
divorced women experience the highest level of optimism compared to the other groups.
Keywords: time perspective, optimism - pessimism, marital status.
Introduction
The aging period considered in this study is significant, as it is the most dynamic in the change
of the marital status. According to Erik Erikson (1982), this period of human life is extremely
important for enriching the cultural environment, caring for others and paying attention to the
needy relatives. The inability for active family involvement leads to a crisis that the author believes
to lead to alienation and inability to discover a meaning both in activities and in communicating
and caring for others. At this stage, people are both trainers and trainees– while „rowing with full
Natasha ANGELOVA, Magdalena TRENCHEVA. The marital status as predictor of differences in time perspective and optimistic- ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
pessimistic attitudes among women PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
handfuls from the fountain of life“ and learning their life lessons, simultaneously actively helping
7
others to make their first steps in life and “to learn how to learn from life”. At this stage, creativity
is important as long as it provides and maintains the ideals, principles and supports mental health.
If the field of productivity, commitment does not expand people become a victim of boredom and
stagnation.
Marital Status and Family
Marital status is a phenomenon which nowadays does not enjoy any special interest neither
in popular nor scientific psychological literature. To a certain extent, this is probably due to the
scientists’ striving to support “old” perceptions, to look for the reasons in family relationships
without looking for new perspectives that reflect the contemporary rhythm in partner relation-
ships. The contemporary view on the marital status of individuals should reflect on one hand the
criteria for the dynamics of development of society, and on the other – on purely personal level,
to reflect the capabilities of the individual to bear in himself the conflict between the imposed and
familiar patterns of family life in the society and personal comfort in pursuing subjective values
and satisfying his own interests.
The family is an indispensable environment for human existence. It is the bio-social structure
in which man develops. Through the family, the continuity in the social development is ensured.
The marriage is thought as a source of well-being that brings social and personal benefits in hu-
man life (Wade etc. 2013). Modern society is witnessing a gradual change in family perceptions.
The marital relationship performs not only biological but also the social reproduction of people
and it depends on the economic, technological, political and other principles of functioning of the
society. Hooghe and Vanhoutte (2011) reported the stronger social ties, even after adjusting for
levels of optimism people experienced, the greater the levels of life satisfaction are. According to
Wilson and Oswald (2005), the married persons seem to be happier than those who cohabit, who
are themselves happier than single individuals. The married individual also has better physical and
psychological health, longevity than the never married, that in turn does better than the divorced,
separated and widowed. In terms of human psychosocial evolution human beings are learning be-
ings - therefore, each generation transmits its experience to the next, assisting it in its identity and
building up skills and habits to deal with the life events. The uniqueness of the mankind consists
of the fact that the engagement with the developing generation and his upbringing is extended at
the time. This gives meaning to the concrete human existence. Marriage may itself lead to a surge
in the expectations of each individual about their lives. This has been called the protective effect
of marriage. Some papers (Kim & Mckenry, 2002) reveal less depression among married people
than among cohabiters. In another research study (Kohler et al., 2004) the authors concluded the
cohabiters are shown to be the group with the highest alcohol abuse and the results shown significant
positive effects upon well-being for individuals in current cohabitation or marriage relationships
relative to being single.
Optimism and Pessimism
Optimistic individuals are more likely to be positive about events in daily life and tend to
have more frequently protective attitudes. They have an adaptive management of personal goals
and development to compare with pessimists.
In this order, problem-solving is associated with psychological dimensions of the phenomenon
of “optimism”. Pessimism and optimism are considered primarily as cognitive constructs associated
with the activity or passivity toward the future, underestimating the volitional factor in both atti-
tudes. Minaker (2001) claims that pessimism and optimism are primary temperamental categories
and, in this sense, have a considerable predestination. Although he makes the notion that the more
socially tied you are, the more educated you are, the better you eat and sleep, the easier it will be
to keep an optimistic view of things, despite your temperamental predispositions (Minaker, 2001).
Being optimistic in the full sense of the term means to show the following tendencies:
ISSN 2538-7197 (Online) Natasha ANGELOVA, Magdalena TRENCHEVA. The marital status as predictor of differences in time perspective and optimistic-
PROBLEMS pessimistic attitudes among women
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
•• to have a positive attitude towards the future;

8
•• to set very specific task goals;
•• to show perseverance/persistence to the difficulties;
•• to believe in personal effectiveness /self - efficacy;
•• to give yourself predominantly positive self-assessments /self-evaluation;
•• to believe that you can control the situations of your life;
•• to have a positive explanatory style for the events in your life;
•• to learn from your mistakes;
•• to believe in the goodwill and goodness of others;
•• to have flexible coping strategies.
But to be pessimistic means to do the opposite of the above dispositions, but also with some
specifics:
•• to give up on the difficulties;
•• to attribute your failures to the lack of ability;
•• to focus on your emotions when it’s difficult for you;
•• to have a philosophy of life, justifying inaction, negativity, and cynicism because of
the bad organization of the world.
The roots of optimism are in the peculiarities of individual development in childhood and
the practices of parental care and family education. Negative expectations are secondary, they are
formed in adulthood through the gradual and inevitable accumulation of negative life experiences.
Time Perspective
The time spent with family, relatives, and friends enhances people`s optimistic attitudes
in their lives and future perspectives. There are some researchers who studied the link between
time orientation and optimism as a predictor of well-being, health behavior, and problem-solving
strategies. A person’s orientation to the time, which is the preferred direction of the individual’s
thoughts and actions to the past, present or future (DeVolder, 1979), has a dynamic impact on his
judgments, decisions, and actions. At the level of the individual psyche, time is included exactly
through the awareness of the realized possibility and necessity of doing certain actions towards
the coming changes. Cartensen and colleagues (Carstensen, Isaacowitz & Charles, 1999) suggest
that human perception of time plays an important role in choosing and pursuing social goals with
important emotional, cognitive and motivational effects.
The Time perspective is an individual-difference variable that is studied through its relation
with a variety of psychological concepts. The time orientation or originally named by Zimbardo
“perspective” is perceived as “an unconscious process in which the continuous flow of personal
and social experience is assigned to temporary categories or time frames that help to create order,
coherence, and meaning for these events” (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999). Philip Zimbardo and John
Boyd dedicate more than 30 years of research, related to the time perspective as a construct. The
psychological time is expressed in what is the perception and the attitude of people towards their
past, present and future experience. Knowledge, competencies, creativity, and skills are needed to
create a test tool or experiment that can reveal accurately, clearly and correctly the psychological
notions of time.
The author of “Time Perspective Inventory”, Philip Zimbardo, identifies a total of 5 categories
of time perspective: past-negative, past-positive, present-fatalistic, present-hedonistic, future.
Past-negative: This attitude reflects a generally negative and pessimistic view of the past. This
negative attitude to the past can be attributed to actual events that have been experienced as traumatic
or unpleasant or may be due to a negative reconstruction of past events. Often this attitude might
be a mixture of both. A person with a predominantly negative attitude to the past may often turn
out to be living through the unpleasant past experience over and over again, thus experiencing the
disappointment or trauma again.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Present – hedonistic: This attitude characterizes people „living for the moment“. Thus, risk-
9
taking and hedonistic behavior are connected with people associated with this way of thinking.
This attitude suggests orientation to the present pleasure to such extent that very little concern is
expressed about future consequences.
Future: People associated with this attitude are focused on future goals and awards.
This attitude is associated with a focus on the future where the current situation is interpreted
in terms of future consequences. A large number of previous studies have shown that high
levels of future time perspective are related to marriage, to higher incomes and to achieve
a high level of education (Gonzalez & Zimbardo, 1985). The Perspective of the Future
is the way a person integrates the future into his mental present. It depends and is built mostly
on the way we set our goals. The two main features of the future perspective have a major role in
building our motivation and include the ways in which, a person, using his past experience speci-
fies his vague desires in certain goals, plans, and concrete projects for implementation. It turns out
that the orientation towards the future predicts healthier behavior. Smokers and substance abusers
are less future-oriented. Also, people with a predominant orientation towards the future are more
mature in terms of their career development, and risky sexual behavior is less common.
Past - Positive: People with a positive attitude have a tendency to reflect on past experiences.
However, unlike the past-negative attitude, this tendency generates feelings of warmth and senti-
mentality.
Present - fatalistic: This attitude reflects the predominantly helpless and hopeless attitude
towards life and the future in general. People who think this way often feel out of control in the
situations they are in.
According to Zimbardo (Zimbardo & Boyd, 1999), each individual time perspective is not
directly related to others. Each person has a unique combination of time perspectives. The more
meaningful is the life of a person, the more positively he perceives his present. With a high degree
of meaningfulness, the orientation of the positive past prevails (Zimbardo, 2015) and, in case of a
lower degree - the negative past is predominant.
Aims and Hypothesis
The present research aims to determine whether the marital status has an influence on the
dual cognitive attitudes (optimism-pessimism) and on individual`s time perspectives. According
to this were also explored the differences between four group marital status in terms of optimism-
pessimism as well as the time orientation to the past negative or positive, present fatalistic or
hedonistic and future.
The main hypothesis is that the marital status influences the women`s optimistic-pessimistic
attitudes and their time perspectives. There are statistically significant differences between the four
groups of marital status in terms of women`s attitudes to optimism and pessimism as well as their
time perspectives.
Methodology of Research
The analysis was conducted using SPSS 16. The data collected were analyzed by One Way
ANOVA to determine whether there are any statistically significant differences between the means
of independent groups (the marital status is divided into four groups). An Eta squared„η2” has been
used to effect size. It ranges between 0 and 1 (.02 ~ small; .13 ~ medium; .26 ~ large).
Research Instruments
Method of evaluation of optimism and negative expectations. The questionnaire was pub-
lished by Velichkov and Radoslavova (2005). It consists of 17 items divided into two subscales:
Optimism where 10 items are included, Negative expectations containing the remaining 7 items.
The evaluation of the questions is performed on a 5-point Likert scale: 1 – Completely Disagree;
2 - Disagree, 3 – Partly agree, partly disagree, 4 - Agree, 5 - Totally agree.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure and Bartlett`s test, which evaluates whether the distribution of
10
values is adequate for conducting a factor analysis gives a good result КМО=.754 p<.001 (Dzhonev,
2004, рp.77).
Time Perspective Questionnaire by Philip Zimbardo, adapted by Slavchov and Virmozelova
(2008). This questionnaire consists of 56 items distributed in 5 subscales: Past-negative, which in-
cludes the negative attitude towards the past and the negative memories of it. This subscale includes
10 items. Past positive subscale, this includes 9 items. Present fatalistic subscale in which 9 items
are included. Present hedonistic time perspective subscale where 15 items are present. Future time
perspective, this subscale includes 13 items. Answering the questions is done through a 5- point
Likert scale: 1 – Does not apply to me at all; 2 – Does not apply to me to a large extent 3 - I cannot
decide, 4 - To a great extent it applies to me and 5 - It is completely relevant to me.
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure and Bartlett`s test is adequate for conducting a factor analysis,
which gives a sufficient result КМО= .557 p<.001 (Dzhonev, 2004, pp.77).
Participants
The survey was conducted between March and May 2017. Both questionnaires were given to
the respondents through a non-government organization for family and child care and completed
simultaneously following the instructions, and the confidentiality of the surveyed persons was
observed when registering the forms.
Table 1. Marital status, number, and percent of the participants.
Marital status N (140) %

Singles 41 29.30
Cohabiters 8 5.70
Married 83 59.30
Divorced 8 5.70
Widowed 0 0
According to the aim of research participants that have been studied are only women (N=140)
aged between 32 and 67 years (M=41.09 SD=6.58). The Participants were divided into four groups
because there weren`t any widowers in the sample.
Results of Research
The presented statistical analysis in Table 2 shows a level of significance, per three out of six
factors, that allows interpreting the effect size and intergroup differences in the way they are given
in the hypothesis. These differences stand out more clearly from Table 2. The values obtained with
a coefficient of significance p<.05 showed that there are statistically significant differences between
the four groups of women with different marital status, with regard to their attitudes to optimism
and pessimism as well as to their time perspective.
Table 2. Means, standard deviation, f-criterion, eta-squared (η2) n=140.
Standard
Factor Marital status N Mean Minimum Maximum F|df| P η2
deviation
Singles 41 35.97 7,11 21.00 50.00

Cohabiters 8 32.12 4,94 27.00 42.00
Optimism 2.830|3| .04 .059
Married 83 37.97 5,74 17.00 50.00
Divorced 8 38.00 5,58 27.00 43.00
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Standard 11
Factor Marital status N Mean Minimum Maximum F|df| P η2
deviation
Singles 41 19.73 5,34 9.00 28.00

Negative Cohabiters 8 23.50 3,89 18.00 29.00
2.348|3| .07 .049
expectations Married 83 19.06 4,30 11.00 29.00
Divorced 8 18.75 4.49 15.00 28.00
Singles 41 26.19 7.35 9.00 42.00
Past Cohabiters 8 25.50 5.18 20.00 36.00
1.528|3| .21 .033
negative Married 83 27.60 6.96 13.00 41.00
Divorced 8 22.62 5.78 12.00 30.00
Singles 41 29.14 5.04 19.00 39.00
Past Cohabiters 8 28.37 2.92 23.00 33.00
3.424|3| .01 .070
positive Married 83 29.85 5.69 16.00 41.00
Divorced 8 23.50 5.95 17.00 36.00
Singles 41 48.17 8.61 31.00 64.00
Present Cohabiters 8 47.37 11.74 24.00 60.00
.395|3| .75 .009
hedonistic Married 83 46.27 9.31 23.00 70.00
Divorced 8 48.00 14.29 31.00 67.00
Singles 41 27.41 6.65 13.00 40.00
Present Cohabiters 8 26.00 6.45 19.00 37.00
1.295|3| .27 .028
fatalistic Married 83 29.26 5.87 13.00 44.00
Divorced 8 28.25 6.08 21.00 38.00
Singles 41 40.04 6.74 28.00 54.00
Future Cohabiters 8 42.25 5.87 33.00 53.00
5.733|3| .01 .110
Married 83 43.50 6.32 28.00 57.00
Divorced 8 34.75 10.05 19.00 53.00
The empirical data proves that the marital status has an impact on the following three factors:
Optimistic attitudes F|3|=2.830 p<.05 with medium effect size η2 =.059; Past-positive perspective
F|3|=3,424 p<.05 with medium effect size η2 =.070 and Future perspective F|3|=5.733 p<.05 with
medium effect size η2 =.110.
According to the statistical analysis used for detecting differences, the hypothesis is partially
proved. The reported results of Eta-squared describe the marital status as an influential factor in
the women`s optimistic-pessimistic attitudes and their time perspectives.
Optimism with a value of F|3| = 2.830 p<.05 shows that women with different marital status
have a different degree of optimism. It is noticeable that the divorced women have the highest mean
score М= 38.00 SD=5.58 on this factor. In contrast, cohabiters have the lowest mean value in terms
of optimism М= 32.12 SD=4.94. Here should be kept in mind, that in these two groups there are
only 8 women and the comparison of their mean value with the other groups: Singles (N=41) М=
35.97 SD=7.11 and Married (N=81) М= 37.97 SD=5.74, should not be perceived categorically. But
a comparison with the mean value of the divorced, who are also 8 respondents just as the cohabit-
ers, shows us a very interesting result. Although the divorce is a kind of final stage in the evolution
of a relationship, the divorced women experience high levels of optimism.
The group of married women shows the highest result М=29.85 SD = 5.69 on the Past-positive
time perspective scale F|3|=3.424 p <.05. Within the expected, the divorced women group has the
lowest score on this factor. This result in the context of the previous one for the high mean of the
divorced on optimism scale, it seems it could be said with some certainty, that the lack of fixation
in the past of the divorced women helps them to develop a strategy, which is not directed towards
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
mental repetition of past experiences, and their confrontation with dissatisfaction in a past period
12
of time has brought a sense of coping and confidence in one‘s own abilities to overcome difficult
situations. The highest mean value М=29.85 SD = 5.69 on this factor have married women. The
married women that were studied are probably still at the stage of determining the experiences
and shaping of the marital roles, so the accumulated pleasant emotions are still at the top of the
memories list.
On the third factor with significant differences, „Future time perspective” F|3|=5.733 p<.05,
again the married women, compared to other groups, М=43.50 SD=6.32 most often are headed
toward the future. A strong impression, however, makes the fact that the mean value of the di-
vorced women is significantly lower М=34.75 SD=10.05 compared to all other groups in terms of
future orientation.
No significant differences between the other factors (Negative expectations, Past- negative time
perspective, Present-hedonistic, and Present-fatalistic time perspective) on the grouping variable
marital status were found.
Discussion
We postulated the marital status influences the women`s optimistic-pessimistic attitudes and
their time perspectives. And the results obtained partially proved the hypothesis. Karney (2010)
points out those individuals who estimate themselves as happy overall, have a greater ability to high-
light the positive attributes of their marriage or relationship. Schneider and colleagues (2012) state
that married people who exchange optimism will experience greater success in problem-solving than
do pessimists. The authors of the methodology Optimism and Negative Expectations, Radoslavova
and Velichkov (2005) report, that optimism and pessimism are not opposite to one another but
relatively independent, they are not allocated as opposing trends on one axis. The findings repre-
sented here on the Optimism scale argue their admission and this is surprising to the extent that
the initial conviction was that the highest values of optimism would have women in cohabitation
and marriage. Considering the assumption that in an active relationship with a partner, ideas and
expectations for life are more positive and optimistic. One explanation is probably that after a final
end in an intimate relation, people tend to focus on life with an optimistic attitude, that every un-
pleasant thing they fight off is bearing power and a sense of coping with the new challenges. While
cohabiters have two different perspectives, on one side, this position brings the feeling of freedom
and comfort because of the lack of annoying conventions in property matter, but on the other hand
the lack of a clear boundary imposed by society does not confront personal needs and frustrations,
which leaves the person in a moratorium on the development of partner interrelationships.
The research attention was also driven by the problem of defining the framework of mental
time. Mental time is formed on the basis of the identification of causal links between major events
in people‘s lives. This determinacy of causality has its specificity - it is available and defined both
between the events of the present by the events of the past, thus determines the present from the
future, i.e. from the goals and predicted results of the life activity, similar relationships reported in
his studies also Zimbardo (2008).
The findings here about the married women, who have a look toward the positive past and
the future, prove the Zimbardo’s (1999) hypothesis that people with a positive experience in the
past tend to see positive prospects for their future, so it has been confirmed also in the present
study. In contrast, the divorced women direct their thoughts towards the future considerably less
than the women of the other groups. According to Sobol-Kwapinska and Jankowski (2015) when
the people experience high intensity of Past-Positive and Future and low intensity of Past-Negative
and Present-Fatalistic it helps to adopt a flexible strategy to different conditions of life and effective
performance of tasks.
The relationship between the three-time patterns (past, present, and future) is determined by
the psychological past (which is a set of realized connections), psychological present these links
unite the events of the chronological past and the events of the future, so the psychological future
represents the potential relations, the realization of which has not yet begun because they bring
together the supposed events of the chronological future.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
One important novelty of this study is the accent of the marital status as a predictor of the
13
past, present or future time perspective, as well as the marital status, determines how the person
perceives and reacts to the world. The family context in which the people are, in turn, determines
expectations (positive or negative), as well as the readiness and skill to interact with the environ-
ment, to get to know their selves and to develop their abilities.
The knowledge of the time perspective attitudes, the optimistic and pessimistic expectations,
and the marital status gives the people opportunity to develop their selves within the boundaries
defined by the societies and our own capabilities to realize our potentials.
With regard to the limitations of this study, it is important to stress that we include only one
demographic indicator, among the many possible individual dimensions that could have been
sampled. Further researches on this topic might benefit by expanding the pool of demographic
markers in an effort to optimize the prediction of future orientation because of the time perspec-
tive dimensions, as well as the dual cognitive attitudes (optimism and pessimism), depending on
the group which is investigated (Ryack, 2012).
Conclusions
In this research the importance of marital context was justified. The outcomes suggest the
marital status as a predictive dimension of the optimism and individuals time perspectives. A
practical usage of these findings could be to help people improve their everyday life functioning
in their contact with partners and mates, however, to make positive evaluations regarding their
future and strategies to tackle difficulties. It is important to notice that the participants that have
been investigated are adults and not students. It makes sense to use the results as the direction in
counseling and social work with families.
References
Carstensen, L. L., Isaacowitz, D. M., & Charles, S. T. (1999). Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional
selectivity. American Psychologist, 54, 165-181.
Dzhonev, S. (2004) Sotsialna psihologiya [Social psychology], Vol. 5. Sofia.
DeVolder, M. M. de (1979). Time orientation: A review. Psychologica Belgica, 19, 61-79.
Erikson, E. (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: Norton.
Gonzales, A., & Zimbardo, P. G. (1985). Time in perspective: A Psychology Today survey report. Psychol-
ogy Today, 19, 21-26.
Hooghe, M., Vanhoutte, B. (2011). Subjective well-being and social capital in Belgian communities: The
impact of community characteristics on subjective well-being indicators in Belgium. Social Indicators
Research, 100 (1), 17–36.
Karney, B. (2010). Keeping marriages healthy, and why it’s so difficult. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/
science/about/psa/2010/02/sci-brief.aspx.
Kim, H. K., Mckenry, P. C. (2002). The relationship between marriage and psychological well-being. A lon-
gitudinal analysis. Journal of Family Issues, 23 (8), 885-911.
Kohler, H. P., Behrman, J. R., & Skytthe, A. (2004). “Partner + Children = Happiness? An assessment of the
effect of fertility and partnerships on subjective well being”. The University of Pennsylvania.
Minaker, K. L. (2001). An interview “Anti-Aging or Successful Aging”. Tufts University Health & Nutrition
Letter, 19 (2), 1-2.
Pierce, C. A., Block, C. A., & Aguinis, H. (2004). Cautionary note on reporting eta-squared values from mul-
tifactor ANOVA designs. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64 (6), 916-924.
Radoslavova, M., & Velichkov, A. (2005). Metodi za psihodiagnostika [Methods of psychodiagnostics]. Sofia:
Pandora Prim.
Ryack, K. (2012). Evidence that time perspective factors depend on the group: Factor analyses of the CFC and
ZTPI scales with professional financial advisors. Personality and Individual Differences, 52, 723–727.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Schneider, F. W., Gruman, J. A., & Coutts, L. M. (2012). Applied social psychology: Understanding and ad-
14 dressing social and practical problems. London: Sage Publications.
Slavchov, B., Vizrmozelova, N. (2008). Osobenosti na vremevata orientaciya na studentite I izbora im na
spetsialnost [Characteristics of the time orientation of the students and their choice of the university
subjects] V-th Congress of Psychology. Sofia.
Sobol-Kwapinska, M., Jankowski, T. (2016). Positive time: Balanced time perspective and positive orientation.
Journal of Happiness Studies, 17 (4), 1511-1528.
Stamatov, R. (2000). Detska psihologiya [Child psychology]. Plovdiv: Hermes.
Wade, J. B., Hart, R. P., Wade, J. H., Bajaj, J. S., & Price, D. D. (2013). The relationship between marital
status and psychological resilience in chronic pain. Pain Research, and Treatment, Article ID 928473.
doi:10.1155/2013/928473.
Wilson, C. M., Oswald, A. J. (2005). How does marriage affect physical and psychological health? A
survey of the longitudinal evidence. Working Paper. Coventry: University of Warwick, Department of
Economics. Warwick economic research papers (No.728).
Zimbardo, P., & Boyd, J. (1999). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual differences metric.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 1271-88.
Zimbardo, P. G., & Boyd, J. N. (2008). The time paradox: The new psychology of time that will change your
life. New York, NY: The Free Press.
Zimbardo, P. G., Boyd, J. N. (2015). Putting time in perspective: A valid, reliable individual-differences metric.
In: Stolarski M., Fieulaine N., van Beek W. (Eds.), Time perspective theory; review, research, and ap-
plication. Springer, Cham.
Received: October 05, 2017 Accepted: December 23, 2017
Natasha Angelova PhD., Chief Assistant, Professor SWU “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria.
E-mail: natasha_v@swu.bg
Magdalena Trencheva Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria.

E-mail: magi79@abv.bg
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
15
A 2-YEAR PRELIMINARY LONGITUDINAL

STUDY OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL
FUNCTIONING IN HASHIMOTO’S
THYROIDITIS UNDER LEVOTHYROXINE
TREATMENT: ONLY TRAIL MAKING TEST
IS MAKING A DIFFERENCE
Vaitsa Giannouli
Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria
Nikolaos Syrmos
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Abstract
Few studies have examined longitudinally depression, stress and cognition in Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis (HT)
under levothyroxine (LT4) treatment. Although HT is claimed to cause several mood changes and cognitive
deficits in patients who are left untreated, we still know little about the longitudinal profile of these patients
when they are under stable treatment. Sixteen middle-aged euthyroid HT women and sixteen healthy control
women were examined with a detailed neuropsychological battery covering different cognitive functions
(attention, visual and verbal memory, executive functions and mood), and with thyroid functions tests at
three time points at one and two years post-baseline. Depression and perceived stress, along with verbal and
visual memory were found to be stable at a two-year retesting in euthyroid HT women. Only TMT-Parts A
and B deteriorated at one and two years in euthyroid HT. Although impaired performance in attention and
executive deficits are linked with heighted levels of depression and stress, here they were not accompanied
by changes in mood. The present study failed to detect any noticeable changes longitudinally in the cogni-
tive and emotional function in euthyroid HT women under stable and continuous LT4 treatment. Patients’
restricted deficits may indicate that the decline in attention and executive functioning performance might
be related to the effects of a specific progressive degenerative process associated with the disorder, rather
than the effects of aging.
Keywords: Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis, depression, stress, longitudinal neuropsychological assessment, LT4
treatment.
Introduction
Although it is generally accepted that thyroid function has an impact on various aspects of cog-
nition and mood, only in the recent years an increasing number of studies report on the association
of Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis (HT) with cognitive and emotional disturbances also in the euthyroid
state (Leyhe & Müssig, 2014). Thyroid hormones (within and outside normal ranges) and cognition
are closely linked differentially by sex, race, and elevated depressive symptoms status (Beydoun et
al., 2013).
ISSN 2538-7197 (Online) Vaitsa GIANNOULI, Nikolaos SYRMOS. A 2-year preliminary longitudinal study of neuropsychological functioning in Hashimoto’s
PROBLEMS thyroiditis under levothyroxine treatment: Only trail making test is making a difference
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
More specifically, «within reference ranges elevated free thyroxine (fT4) is associated with better
16
performance on tests of visuospatial/visuo-construction ability (overall, women, and African Ameri-
cans) and learning/memory (women and African Americans), whereas a higher total thyroxine (tT4)
level is associated with better performance in the domain of psychomotor speed (individuals without
elevated depressive symptoms) and higher levels of both fT4 and tT4 are linked to better language/
verbal test performance among men. In contrast, higher T3 is related to better performance on tests
of visuo-spatial/visuo-construction ability and psychomotor speed among whites. Thus, a within
reference range fT4 is linked to better performance on visuo-spatial/visuo-constrution ability and
psychomotor speed, whereas a below normal range TSH level (compared with the reference range) is
linked to better performance in domains of psychomotor speed and attention» (Beydoun et al., 2013).
In addition to that, in the case of Subclinical hypothyroidism (SCH), also called mild thyroid failure,
which is diagnosed when peripheral thyroid hormone levels are within normal reference laboratory
range but serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels are mildly elevated, a recent meta-analysis
demonstrates a relationship between sHT and cognitive impairment only in individuals younger than
75 years of age and those with higher TSH concentrations (Pasqualetti et al., 2015).
Nevertheless, cognitive performance in subclinical hypothyroidism and euthyroid HT, whether
under levothyroxine (LT4) treatment or not, still remains a vastly unexplored topic, while emotional
factors that directly influence performance during neuropsychological assessment, such as stress and
depression, are disregarded (Giannouli, Toulis, & Syrmos, 2014).
Some researchers claim poor performance on various domains of neurocogni-
tive functioning (attention and verbal memory tests) as well as lower levels of well-being in euthy-
roid HT patients compared with those of the general population (Τoudou Daouda et al., 2016), thus
supporting that neurocognitive functioning and psychological well-being may not be completely
restored in patients with hypothyroidism despite T4 treatment (Wekking et al., 2005). In addition,
even slightly higher levels of free T3 and thyroglobulin antibodies levels within the normal range
are claimed to associate with slower cognitive performance and more errors on neuropsychological
tests of executive function (Grigorova & Shewin, 2012), while other studies find no such detrimental
influences on cognition when baseline measures are of neurocognitive functioning is normal (Gian-
nouli, Toulis, & Syrmos, 2014).
Therefore, still little is known about the different aspects of cognition in specific homogeneous
groups, such as middle-aged women, who are more likely to be found suffering from HT than other
groups from the general population (Canaris et al., 2000; Caturegli, De Remigis & Rose, 2014) and
who are under treatment for this disease. It still remains unanswered which is their neuropsychological
profile in concurrent assessment of demographically equated patients and healthy participants, but
also when taking into account their cognitive performance in time. Thus, this study aims to describe,
compare and document the progression of cognitive abilities in euthyroid HT women who have nor-
mal cognitive functioning at baseline over a time period of two consecutive years, while controlling
for the influence of emotional variables that can have a confounding influence, such as depression
and perceived stress.
General Background of Research
This study was motivated by the need for data regarding the cognitive capacities of euthyroid HT
women under treatment. The two groups of participants (healthy women and women with a diagnosis
of euthyroid HT), were compared with the use of a neuropsychological battery consisting of several
questionnaires and tests that covered a wide range of cognitive capacities and emotional variables.
Sample of Research
Sixteen middle-aged women without a diagnosis of a physical health and/or psychiatric-

neurological problem, and not taking dietary or any other medical supplements (baseline:
Vaitsa GIANNOULI, Nikolaos SYRMOS. A 2-year preliminary longitudinal study of neuropsychological functioning in Hashimoto’s ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
thyroiditis under levothyroxine treatment: Only trail making test is making a difference PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Mage = 58.00, SDage = 6.66; Meducation = 12.00, SDeducation = 1.46; MGeriatric Depression Scale = 3.00, SDGeriatric Depression
17
Scale
= 1.54; M Perceived Stress Scale = 8.06, SD Perceived Stress Scale = 6.80) and sixteen women with similar demo-
graphics (baseline: Mage = 56.93, SDage = 7.70; Meducation = 12.50, SDeducation = 1.36; MGeriatric Depression Scale =
3.06, SDGeriatric Depression Scale = 2.20; M Perceived Stress Scale = 8.66, SD Perceived Stress Scale = 5.24), but with a diagnosis
of HT under levothyroxine sodium treatment (Myears of diagnosis-treatment = 6.68, SDyears of diagnosis-treatment = 2.54)
were included in this research.
Diagnosis of Hashimoto’s disease was based on signs and symptoms and the results of blood
tests that measure levels of thyroid hormone and thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) produced in the
pituitary gland, including hormone tests, as well as antibody tests. The women with the HT diagnosis
did not have any other medical diagnosis (e.g. cancer).
The two groups were equated regarding age (t(30) = .417, p = .680), education years (t(30) =
1.000, p =3.25), perceived stress (t(29) = .275, p = .785), and depression reported symptoms (t(30)
= .093, p = .927).
Instrument and Procedures
Data were collected using a data sheet containing socio-demographic, clinical, and therapeutic
information of the patient. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included
in the study.
Women with a diagnosis of HT were screened with thyroid function tests and thyroid antibod-
ies including measures of thyroglobulin antibodies (Anti-TG) (> 150 IU/ml at all three testings),
thyroid peroxidase antibodies (Anti-TPO) (> 150 IU/ml at all three testings), vitamin B12 (200-870),
free thyroxine (fT4) (0.8-2), free triidothyronine (fT3) (2-4.8), thyroxine (T4) (5-12), and thyroxine,
thyrotropin (TSH) (0.3-5 μIU/ml). These scores did not differentiate between the three time points
and were within the normal range. In addition to that, they were under synthetic T4 (levothyroxine
sodium) everyday treatment (dose range 75mcg-100mcg that had not been interrupted or changed
during the last six months from the baseline and the other testings). All the women were recruited
during a study examining attitudes (Giannouli & Syrmos, 2017) and after that in a study on cognitive
functioning (Giannouli, 2017). Two women were excluded from the initial sample of the study on
cognitive functioning, because these patients had a change in their treatment doses one year after.
Several cognitive domains were assessed with the following neuropsychological tests: attention
[Trail Making Test-Part A (TMT-A, time to completion), Digit Span (WAIS-III) forward (greatest span)],
executive functioning [Trail Making Test-Part B (TMT-B, time to completion), Digit Span (WAIS-III)
backward (greatest span)], fluency (total number of words generated on semantic and on phonological
fluency), verbal memory [word list learning (number of words on immediate and delayed recall), story
learning (number of words on immediate and delayed recall)], and visual memory [Rey-Osterrieth
Complex Figure Test (number of correct components on immediate and delayed recall trials)]. Mood
was also examined with Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) and Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).
Data Analysis
Data were processed statistically by means of SPSS 21 using descriptive statistics for presenting
the baseline, one-year and two-year cognitive performance of the two groups of participants in a
number of neuropsychological tests. A mixed between-within subjects analysis of variance (ANOVA)
was performed with one categorical independent between-subjects variable with two levels (healthy
women and HT euthyroid patients), one categorical independent within-subjects variable with three
levels (baseline, first re-examination at one-year interval and second re-examination at two-year
interval), and as continuous dependent variables the neuropsychological test scores.
Results of Research
For the depression levels there was no statistically significant effect in GDS for time F(2,60) =
3.019., p = .060), no statistically significant interaction between time and group F(2,60) = 1.698, p =
.192), and no statistically significant difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = .091, p = .765). In the
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
same line, no statistically significant effect in stress, as measured with the self-report PSS, was found for
18
time F(2,52) = .976, p = .383), no statistically significant interaction between time and group F(2,52) =
.435, p = .649), and no statistically significant difference for the two groups (F (1,26) = .086, p = .771).
Therefore, in the statistical analyses depression and stress were not included as possible influ-
encing factors as they did not differentiate. The mixed between-within ANOVA with one categorical
independent between-subjects variable with two levels (healthy women and HT euthyroid patients),
one categorical independent within-subjects variable with three levels (baseline, first re-examination
at one-year interval and second re-examination at two-year interval), and as continuous dependent
variables the neuropsychological test scores revealed a number of interesting findings (presented in
Table 1).
Table 1. Cognitive assessment for healthy participants and euthyroid HT

participants at baseline, one year and two years follow-up.
One-year re- Two-year re-

Neuropsychological test Group Baseline
examination examination
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Visual memory
Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure Healthy 30.56 4.35 32.00 2.89 31.81 2.74
Test design copy HT patients 28.34 7.24 28.15 7.36 28.00 7.29
Test immediate design recall HT patients 14.31 7.75 14.18 7.60 14.06 7.55
Test delayed design recall HT patients 13.68 4.60 10.84 7.16 10.68 7.01
Verbal memory
Healthy 29.00 5.49 29.81 5.00 29.50 5.52
Word list learning
HT patients 26.87 6.40 26.68 5.94 26.12 4.99
Healthy 20.68 4.72 17.62 4.74 18.25 5.42
Immediate memory of story
HT patients 17.87 6.48 18.37 5.40 17.56 4.80
Healthy 6.62 1.45 6.81 1.22 7.37 1.08
Delayed memory of words
HT patients 6.31 1.66 5.87 2.02 6.12 2.12
Healthy 19.56 1.03 19.00 2.52 19.00 2.55
Word recognition
HT patients 19.18 1.32 17.87 4.27 18.06 3.97
Healthy 11.06 3.41 10.12 4.14 10.12 4.45
Delayed memory of story
HT patients 8.75 5.44 9.75 4.35 9.87 4.31
Executive functioning
Healthy 90.50 50.07 87.31 42.28 88.87 48.09
Trail Making Test-Part B
HT patients 111.68 48.65 115.12 50.37 118.18 52.57
Healthy 9.12 3.53 9.18 4.08 9.06 3.66
Fluency semantic
HT patients 8.87 3.28 9.06 3.43 9.06 3.56
Healthy 9.18 3.44 9.62 2.72 9.81 2.40
Fluency phonological
HT patients 8.87 2.82 9.00 2.80 9.42 2.70
Healthy 5.18 1.64 4.87 1.62 4.93 1.61
Digit span backward
HT patients 4.56 1.71 4.81 1.51 4.62 1.54
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
One-year re- Two-year re- 19

Neuropsychological test Group Baseline
examination examination
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Attention
Healthy 63.56 26.45 62.93 26.43 62.37 25.89
Trail Making Test-Part A
HT patients 66.43 23.59 69.93 23.51 71.75 24.54
Healthy 7.12 1.20 6.31 2.15 6.25 2.20
Digit span forward
HT patients 6.56 2.09 6.06 1.76 5.93 1.61
Mood
Healthy 3.00 1.54 2.75 2.23 2.56 1.26
Geriatric Depression Scale
HT patients 3.06 2.20 2.81 2.19 3.00 2.03
Healthy 8.06 6.80 8.00 6.79 8.50 4.92
Perceived Stress Scale
HT patients 8.75 4.71 8.41 4.39 7.62 6.44
More specifically, for the Rey design-Copy condition there was no statistically significant effect for
time F(2,60) = .551, p = .579), no statistically significant interaction between time and group F(2,60)
= 1.148, p = .2.92), and no statistically significant difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = 3.043, p =
.092). For the Rey design-Immediate design recall condition there was no statistically significant ef-
fect for time F(2,60) = .340, p = .713), no statistically significant interaction between time and group
F(2,60) = 1.019, p = .367), and no statistically significant difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = 398,
p = .533). For the word list learning there was no statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = 1.625,
p = .901), no statistically significant interaction between time and group F(2,60) = .224, p = .800), and
no statistically significant difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = 3.183, p = .085). For the immedi-
ate memory of story there was no statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = 2.069, p = .035), no
statistically significant interaction between time and group F(2,60) = 3.644, p = .065), and no statisti-
cally significant difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = 0.76, p = .784). For the delayed memory of
words no statistically significant effect for time was found F(2, 60) = 1.496, p = .232), no statistically
significant interaction between time and group F(2,60) = 1.968, p = .149), and no statistically signifi-
cant difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = 2.670, p = .113). For the word recognition there was no
statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = .2,247 p = .115), no statistically significant interaction
between time and group F(2,60) = .321, p = .727), and no statistically significant difference for the two
groups (F (1,30) = .915, p = .346). For the Rey design-delayed recall condition word recognition there
was a statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = 3.372, p = .041), no statistically significant inter-
action between time and group F(2,60) = 6.362, p = .430), and no statistically significant difference for
the two groups (F (1,30) = .881, p = .355). For the delayed memory of story there was no statistically
significant effect for time F(2,60) = .011, p = .989), no statistically significant interaction between time
and group F(2,60) = 1.672, p = .196), and no statistically significant difference for the two groups (F
(1,30) = .509, p = .481).
For the digit span backward there was no statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = .120, p
= .887), no statistically significant interaction between time and group F(2,60) = 1.042, p = .359), and
no statistically significant difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = .407, p = .528). For the digit span
forward there was a statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = 7.604, p = .001), no statistically
significant interaction between time and group F(2,60) = 2.712, p = .075), and no statistically significant
difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = .000, p = 1.000).
For the semantic fluency test there was no statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = .175,
p = .874), no statistically significant interaction between time and group F(2,60) = .175, p = .873), and
no statistically significant difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = .010, p = .921). For the phonological
fluency test there was no statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = 3.029, p = .061), no statistically
significant interaction between time and group F(2,60) = .235, p = .792), and no statistically significant
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = .206, p = .653).

20
Statistically significant differences were found for executive functioning (only for the Trail Making
Test-Part B) and attention (Trail Making Test-Part A). For the Trail Making Test-Part A there was a
statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = 8.260, p = .001), and a statistically significant interac-
tion between time and group F(2,60) = 19.971, p = .000). For the Trail Making Test-Part Β there was a
marginally statistically significant effect for time F(2,60) = 3.102, p = .052), and a statistically significant
interaction between time and group F(2,60) = 7.693, p = .001). In Trail Making Test Part A and B, it is
clear that women with HT need more time to complete these two tasks at baseline, and although under
treatment they deteriorate (have longer completion times) for both tests. This deterioration trend dif-
ferentiates the HT women scores from healthy women who respond faster to the tasks and thus have
reduced their reaction times at one year retesting and at two years (see Table 1).
Discussion
The present study did not detect any baseline visual and verbal memory deficits in middle-aged
euthyroid women with HT who are under chronic LT4 treatment and no statistically significant dif-
ferences were found at one and two years retesting. This is in line with previous results from a case
study of a 62- year-old woman (Giannouli, Toulis & Syrmos, 2014), but not in line with results from
a research in euthyroid patients with primary hypothyroidism on adequate thyroxine (T4) treatment,
which supports that neurocognitive functioning as well as psychological well-being may not be com-
pletely restored in patients with hypothyroidism, despite T4 treatment (Wekking et al., 2005). In this
study, although a slightly better cognitive performance for healthy women is reported, it does not
reach statistical significance. This seems to support that any possible cognitive deficits due to prior
hypothyroidism are largely reversible with the treatment if it is followed uninterrupted (Samuels, 2014).
Of course, in this sample there was no pre-treatment neuropsychological testing, but this new view
of memory functions from a long-term perspective supports that LT4 medication may be an effective
way to protect against memory decline.
Although visual and verbal memory as measured with several tests were not affected, only execu-
tive functioning (Trail Making Test-Part B) and attention (Trail Making Test-Part A) deteriorated in
HT women under treatment. These specific tests seem to be sensitive to changes, that are not detected
in other cognitive domains. The above findings are in contrast to research that supports that in euthy-
roid women with low T4 levels (within the normal range) there is a greater risk of cognitive decline
over a 3-year period (Volpato et al., 2002), as in this case cognitive impairment is found only in two
tests and not in overall cognitive functioning. The cognitive deterioration in Trail Making completion
times cannot be linked to depression and stress or to changes in treatment or thyroid function as no
changes were recorded for these variables.
The methodology used demonstrates the potential to increase our understanding of how neuro-
psychological functioning changes and interacts with treatment over time, but some methodological
limitations of this study should be considered in the interpretation of the results: the small sample size
of the groups studied and the possible existence of practice effects (for the retest conditions), due to the
learning that may result from the repeated exposure to the testing materials. Although a strength of the
present study is that we used for the first time a wide range of measures, which are commonly used in
neuropsychological assessment in Greece, nonetheless, the results are constrained by these measures.
Conclusions
While this study only provided data for some of the relationships between euthyroid HT param-
eters, emotional and cognitive functioning in middle-aged women, it appears that there are remaining
gaps in knowledge and issues for further research.
Future research should further investigate if and how HT diagnosis without treatment can cause
morphological or functional changes in brain areas related to attention and executive functions that
are evident later in the functioning of the patients, and should further clarify if these findings are
applicable across age groups and across the two genders, while the reasons for the wide deviation in
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
neuropsychological scores of HT euthyroid patients which are evident at all examinations, should be
21
also taken into account.
Ethical Approval
All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with
the ethical standards of the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments.
References
Beydoun, M. A., Beydoun, H. A., Kitner-Triolo, M. H., Kaufman, J. S., Evans, M. K., & Zonderman, A. B. (2013).
Thyroid hormones are associated with cognitive function: moderation by sex, race, and depressive symp-
toms. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 98 (8), 3470-3481.
Canaris, G. J., Manowitz, N. R., Mayor, G., & Ridgway, E. C. (2000). The Colorado thyroid disease prevalence
study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 160 (4), 526-534.
Caturegli, P., De Remigis, A., & Rose, N. R. (2014). Hashimoto thyroiditis: Clinical and diagnostic criteria. Au-
toimmunity Reviews, 13 (4), 391-397.
Giannouli, V. (2017). Memory and Hashimoto’s thyroiditis under levothyroxine treatment: Is there a placebo or
nocebo effect? Endocrine, 57 (1), 183-186. doi: 10.1007/s12020-017-1262-0.
Giannouli, V., & Syrmos, N. (2017). Exploring attitudes towards endocrine diseases in Greece. Endocrine, 55
(2), 655-657.
Giannouli, V., Toulis, K. A., & Syrmos, N. (2014). Cognitive function in Hashimoto’s thyroiditis under levothy-
roxine treatment. Hormones (Athens), 13 (3), 430-433.
Grigorova, M., & Sherwin, B. B. (2012). Thyroid hormones and cognitive functioning in healthy, euthyroid women:
A correlational study. Hormones and Behavior, 61 (4), 617-622.
Leyhe, T., & Müssig, K. (2014). Cognitive and affective dysfunctions in autoimmune thyroiditis. Brain, Behavior,
and Immunity, 41, 261-266.
Pasqualetti, G., Pagano, G., Rengo, G., Ferrara, N., & Monzani, F. (2015). Subclinical hypothyroidism and
cognitive impairment: systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &
Metabolism, 100 (11), 4240-4248.
Samuels, M. H. (2014). Psychiatric and cognitive manifestations of hypothyroidism. Current Opinion in Endo-
crinology, Diabetes, and Obesity, 21 (5), 377-383.
Toudou Taouda, M., Samuel Obenda, N., Maazou, L., Camara, D., Assadeck, H., & Souirti, Z. (2016). Neurological
manifestations in Hashimoto’s Thyroiditis. IOSR Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences, 15 (5), 62-68.
Volpato, S., Guralnik, J. M., Fried, L. P., Remaley, A. T., Cappola, A. R., & Launer, L. J. (2002). Serum thyroxine
level and cognitive decline in euthyroid older women. Neurology, 58 (7), 1055-1061.
Wekking, E. M., Appelhof, B. C., Fliers, E., Schene, A. H., Huyser, J., Tijssen, J. G., & Wiersinga, W. M. (2005).
Cognitive functioning and well-being in euthyroid patients on thyroxine replacement therapy for primary
hypothyroidism. European Journal of Endocrinology, 153 (6), 747-753.
Vaitsa Giannouli PhD, Researcher, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria.

Nikolaos Syrmos PhD, Department of the Physical Education and Health,

Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece.
E-mail: milanako76@yahoo.gr
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
22
BODY IMAGE AND MENTAL

REPRESENTATION IN TABLE TENNIS
PLAYERS WHO DO VERSUS DO NOT USE
A PROSTHESIS
Damian Jeraj, Lisa Musculus, Babett H. Lobinger

German Sport University Cologne, Germany
E-mail: damianjeraj@gmx.de, l.musculus@dshs-koeln.de, lobinger@dshs-koeln.de

Abstract

The prosthesis that athletes use should take over the function of the missing limb. Playing table tennis
without constraints is one exemplary goal. The question arose whether table tennis players who used a
prosthesis and players who did not show similar body image values and mental representation of move-
ments. Five matched pairs of active table tennis players (n = 10) completed a body image questionnaire.
Additionally, the mental representation of a forehand table tennis serve was assessed. Results revealed
no significant differences between the two groups of athletes on mental representations. Furthermore, the
integration of the prosthesis into the body image was considered satisfying by four out of the five athletes
with prosthesis, the use of a prosthesis did not appear to affect athletes’ body image. Based on the research
results it can be recommended that in technical and mental training sessions, one methodological approach
be used for all athletes, regardless of whether they use a prosthesis. Finally, it is suggested to foster the
integration of athletes who use a prosthesis into the established leagues in which athletes compete who
do not use prosthesis.
Key words: functional body image, mental structure, SDA-M, athletes with disabilities.
Introduction
The construct of body image consists of functional and aesthetic dimensions, on both cognitive
and affective levels. The goal of the present research was to further understand the link between
body image, especially its functional dimensions, and the mental representation of movement,
which also reflects the function of the investigated movement. The question arose whether the two
functional related measures mentioned are influenced by the usage of a prosthesis.
Body image is seen as a multidimensional construct that is built by several perceptions of the
individual’s body (Brown, Cash, & Milulka, 1990; Cash, Melnyk, & Hrabosky, 2004; Cash, Thé-
riault, & Annis, 2004). Body image has been used as a measure in a variety of interventions, such
as the treatment of eating disorders (Grabe, Ward, & Hyde, 2008), and in comparisons of athletes
and nonathletes (Hausenblas & Downs, 2001). For instance, athletes showed higher values on the
functional dimensions of body image than nonathletes (Abbott & Barber, 2011; Jaffe & Lutter,
1995), though different patterns emerged among athletes for different activities (Varnes, et al.,
2013). Abbott and Barber (2011) concluded that “perceiving the body as physically competent or
being satisfied with the way one’s body functions may be contingent on other additional factors […]
Damian JERAJ, Lisa MUSCULUS, Babett H. LOBINGER. Body image and mental representation in table tennis players who do versus do ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
not use a prosthesis PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
rather than purely on valuing and investing in the functional qualities of the body” (p. 338). For
23
sports participants who have a disability, a prosthesis takes over some of these specific functions.
The body of a person who uses a prosthesis has to work in the specific sports activities. Thus, the
question arises whether and how strongly especially these functional aspects of a prosthesis affect
such a person’s body image.
The integration of a prosthesis into one’s body image can depend on several aspects, such as
the fixation method, the weight of the prosthesis, or the length of time the prosthesis has been used
(Carlson, Alvarez, Wu, & Verstraten, 2010). However, studies have shown that the body image was
adapted when wearing or not wearing the prosthesis (Canzoneri, Marzolla, Amoresano, Verni, &
Serino, 2013) and that even tools have been integrated into the body image (Maravita, Spence, &
Driver, 2003). In the case of tools, it has been argued that familiarization and training with the
tool are essential for the tool to be integrated into the body image (Aglioti, Smania, Manfredi, &
Berlucchi, 1996; Maravita & Iriki, 2004; Maravita, Spence, Kennetta, & Driver, 2002), requirements
that can both be seen as being fulfilled by people who use a prosthesis. Thus, it would be interest-
ing to explore whether and how strongly a prosthesis is seen as a part of the body. Furthermore,
the integration of a tool into the body image, such as a table tennis racket in the present research,
would be relevant for athletes with and without prosthesis use, as well.
This presumed integration of the prosthesis into the body image does not necessarily mean that
an athlete who uses a prosthesis produces a similar mental representation of a complex movement
to that of athletes who do not use a prosthesis. An analysis of the mental structures of participants
with limb aplasia was feasible (Bläsing, Schack, & Brugger, 2010). Participants were asked to sort
verbal labels of body parts and activities according to a hierarchical splitting paradigm, the so-
called structural dimensional analysis–motoric (SDA-M; see Schack, 2012). Results revealed that
even absent body parts were represented within the different clusters. This suggests that in terms
of mental representation, people might be unaffected by a missing body part and that a prosthesis
can replace an absent body part and its functions in mental representations. Yet to our knowledge,
the mental representation of a complex athletic movement, such as the table tennis serve used in
the present research (Schütz, Klein-Soetebier, & Schack, 2009), of athletes who use a prosthesis has
not been investigated so far. The question arises whether the mental representation of a complex
movement is unchanged by the use of a prosthesis because the absence of different body parts (i.e.,
forearm, shank) and their replacement by a particular prosthesis would affect different functional
aspects of the investigated movement.
In the present research it is investigated whether athletes who use a prosthesis had a similar
body image to that of athletes who did not use a prosthesis, especially in its functional dimensions.
In addition, mental representation is used as an additional measure of a movement’s function, as-
suming that the functional image would be similar to its mental representation (cf. Bläsing at al.,
2010). This exploratory research extends previous research in two ways: First, the functional body
image of people who use a prosthesis is investigated and how their prosthesis is integrated into
their body image. Second, the mental representation of a complex movement as a supplemental
functional point of view is explored. The combination of the two areas (body image and mental
representation) has never been used before, although their functional relation is important. The
interesting part of the present research is that with this explorative approach a comparison of two
subsamples might be possible. This explorative approach is also the reason why a formulation of
clear hypotheses is not possible.
Background of Research
The present research is based on an online questionnaire that was active for four weeks in
summer 2016. The aim was to determine whether athletes who use a prosthesis differ in their body
image and in their mental representation of a table tennis skill, as compared to athletes who do
not use a prosthesis.
ISSN 2538-7197 (Online) Damian JERAJ, Lisa MUSCULUS, Babett H. LOBINGER. Body image and mental representation in table tennis players who do versus do
PROBLEMS not use a prosthesis
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Sample of Research
24
Initially, N = 85 male and female table tennis players completed an online questionnaire. Of
this group, five male players self-reported using one or more prostheses. Five male players from the
remaining 80 are selected to generate five matched pairs. According to the cognitive action archi-
tecture approach, the mental representation of a skill is stored in long-term memory as a result of
the learning process (Schack, 2004; Tenenbaum & Land, 2009). Thus, the pairs are matched based
on age and the players’ table tennis experience in years, their level of play (competition leagues),
and their training time in hours per week (Table 1). Because of gender differences in body image,
the focus was on male participants only (Smolak & Murnen, 2008). The resulting sample consisted
of n = 10 participants.
Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Matched-Pairs Sample.
Player Level of play

Age Training time
Player experience (competition Kind of prosthesis
(years) (hours/week)
(years) league)
A1 58 6 2 9th Both shanks
A2 53 4 2 8th —
B1 29 17 9 9 th
Thigh, shank, both forearms
B2 29 16 9 7 th
—
C1 74 63 2 7th Thigh
C2 71 60 2 — —
D1 37 13 4 8 th
Thigh
D2 28 15 4 9th —
E1 26 1 2 — Thigh
E2 63 3 3 8 th
—
Note. Pairs were labeled A–E. All participants were male. The 7th division of the German Table Tennis League is more skilled
than the 8th league.
Instruments
Online questionnaire. An online questionnaire is composed consisting of a demographic

section that included questions about the possible use of prostheses, a body image section, and
an SDA-M section. All three sections were created in and displayed by the software package SoSci
(SoSci Survey, Munich, Germany), which is specifically designed for professional scientific surveys
and commonly used in noncommercial institutions. All sections of the questionnaire were designed
so that anonymity would be ensured.
Body image. This section consisted of 20 items addressing the functional perception of the
participant’s own body, for example (translated from German), “I am satisfied with my body’s
function because I am able to do everything I want to do.” Each item was rated on a 6-point Likert
scale ranging from 1 (I do not agree at all) to 6 (I agree completely). The multidimensional body
image section had a four-factor representation with an overall Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of α =
.84 (Musculus, Vogel, Kraus, & Lobinger, 2016): (a) functional-affective body image, (b) aesthetic-
affective body image, (c) functional-cognitive body image, and (d) aesthetic-cognitive body image.
One addition item asked how integrated into the participant’s body image the prosthesis and the
table tennis racket were. This item was rated on a 10-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all)
to 10 (completely). A second additional item asked the participants whether they saw the prosthesis
and the table tennis racket as a part of their body. Both additional questions were chosen to assess
the amount of integration of the prosthesis into the body image.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
SDA-M. The SDA-M instrument was used to assess the mental representation of a forehand
25
backswing serve. The version used in the present research consisted of 13 text items (Schütz,
Klein-Soetebier, & Schack, 2009). Each item was paired with every other item, resulting in a 13
× 12 matrix (156 decisions). Participants were asked to decide for each pair if the two displayed
items were functionally related together or not (Schack, 2012). The items were (1) legs a little more
than shoulder width apart, (2) toss ball to head height, (3) shift center of mass backward, (4) move
racket backward, (5) rotate hip and shoulder to the right (left), (6) lay the wrist back, (7) focus on
the ball, (8) lower body toward the point of ball contact, (9) rotate hip and shoulder into the ball,
(10) move racket downward and forward, (11) open racket, (12) chopping motion of the wrist, and
(13) sweep racket through.
Procedure
Participants completed the online questionnaire by using a link that was distributed through the
national table tennis organization and the national disabled sports organization. They were informed on
the first page of the questionnaire that they could cancel their participation without any consequences
and that the data collection was completely anonymous. The aim of the research was presented together
with an opt-in button where participants had to give their consent before completing the question-
naire. After providing consent, the participants filled out a demographic data sheet and an optional
prostheses section, followed by the SDA-M section. Finally, all participants were asked to complete
the body image section. In sum, they needed about 17 minutes to fill out the complete questionnaire.
Before the start of the research, the university ethics committee approved the research design.
Data Analysis
For all calculations, a significance criterion of α = .05 was defined. For body image, the mean
of the four factors’ data was analyzed in a descriptive way. In addition, a Mann–Whitney U test was
calculated to test for differences in athletes who did and did not use prostheses, as well as the cor-
responding Pearson correlation coefficient r for a measure of the effect size. To analyze the SDA-M,
several steps were necessary, starting with a hierarchical splitting procedure for each case, which
resulted in the calculation of normalized Z matrices (for details, see Schack, 2012). The following
distance calculations of the SDA-M used the mental representation of the matched pairs: (a) The
Adjusted Rand Index (ARI) was used as a measure of similarity (Rand, 1971; Santos & Embrechts,
2009), which resulted in an index ranging from -1 (not similar) to 1 (same), and (b) the λ value
was used as a measure of invariance. Whereas the critical value of a cluster fusion resulted in dcrit =
3.434 (Lander, 2002; Schack, 2012), the calculated range of the λ value was between 0 and 1, where
a comparison of two mental representations were seen as invariant when λ ≥ .683 and variant when
λ < .683 (Lander & Huth, 1999). Finally, (c) a descriptive analysis for each case was used. Data were
analyzed using SPSS 24 and R 3.4.0 software.
Results of Research
Four of the five participants who used a prosthesis self-reported that they saw their prosthesis
as part of their body image, and all five self-reported that the table tennis racket was not integrated
into their body image. A Mann–Whitney U test was used to look for a difference in athletes who did
and did not use a prosthesis in the four factors of the body image. None of the calculations revealed
a significant test value for the functional-affective body image: U = 11.00, Z = -.314, p = .841, r = .10,
the aesthetic-affective body image: U = 9.50, Z = -.649, p = .548, r = .21, the functional-cognitive
body image: U = 10.00, Z = -.530, p = .690, r = .17, or the aesthetic-cognitive body image: U =
12.50, Z = .000, p = .999, r = .00. Thus, there was no difference between the two groups of athletes
(see Figure 1). All participants, independent of whether they wore a prosthesis, agreed more with
functional aspects than aesthetic aspects of the body, at least on a descriptive level.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
26
Figure 1: Means and standard deviations of the four factors of the body image
for the two groups of participants.
The calculations (ARI and λ values) and the resulting tree diagrams of the distance measures of
each mental representation of the matched pairs are shown in Figure 2. According to the similarity
measure, all five matched pairs were seen as similar: all ARI values were .909 or higher. According
to the invariance measure, three matched pairs (B1–B2; C1–C2; D1–D2) were invariant (λ ≥ .683),
whereas the remaining two (A1–A2; E1–E2) were variant (λ < .683). A descriptive analysis of the
content of the items did not reveal a systematic difference among the five pairs. The number of
clusters was almost identical for all pairs, although the content of the clusters was slightly different
for the members of each matched pair.
Distance
Athlete using a prosthesis Athlete not using a prosthesis
measures
ARI: .932
λ: .655
ARI: .953
λ: .865*
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Distance 27
Athlete using a prosthesis Athlete not using a prosthesis
measures
ARI: .924
λ: .756*
ARI: .909
λ: .686*
ARI: .924
λ: .617
Figure 2: Tree diagrams with calculated distance values of each matched pair
of athletes.
The dotted lines represent the critical d value of 3.434 defined by structural dimensional analysis–motoric calculation. The item
number refers to the number of the item described in the Materials section; clustering is identified by underlining the involved
item numbers. The Adjusted Rand Index (ARI) value represents the similarity of two mental structures (higher values = more
similar). The λ value represents the invariance value of two mental structures; invariant values above the critical value of λ =
.683 are indicated by an asterisk.
Discussion
The present research investigated whether athletes who use a prosthesis perceived their body image
similarly to athletes who do not use a prosthesis and whether they showed similar mental structures
of a complex movement. Therefore, the body images and mental structures of the two samples using
matched pairs are compared.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
There are no differences found in the body image reported by athletes who used a prosthesis
28
and those who did not, in either its functional or aesthetic dimensions. The use of a prosthesis seemed
to have no influence on the resulting body image, as four of the five table tennis players who used a
prosthesis self-reported that the prosthesis was part of their body image. This was also independent
of the type of prosthesis. This suggests that the prosthesis had taken over the function of the missing
limb in a perfect manner. Although different sports lead to different body image patterns, in general,
athletes tend to rate the functional dimensions of body image higher compared to nonathletes (Abbott
& Barber, 2011; Jaffe & Lutter, 1995; Varnes, et al., 2013). These functional dimensions were similar
in the present sample, as well; the use of a prosthesis did not appear to affect athletes’ body image. In
the light of studies comparing athletes and non-athletes (Abbott & Barber, 2011; Jaffe & Lutter, 1995;
Varnes et al., 2013) the results obtained allow concluding that sports, whether or not people use a pros-
thesis, promotes a functional body image. Future research could also examine whether sports might
even serve as a protective factor. In particular in the sense that when people who use a prothesis keep
doing or even start doing sports, they might be less affected by negative changes in their aesthetic or
functional body image. This intepretation is in line with studies showing that, due to familarization
and training, even tools can be integrated into the body image (Maravita et al., 2003). Thus, sports can
be considered as a suitable context for promoting the integration of prostheses.
There are no differences found in participants’ mental representation of the investigated table
tennis serve according to the similarity measure. The slight difference found in the invariance measure
might have been caused by those participants who are less experienced with table tennis, this is also
assumed by the grounded theoretical framework of building mental representations (Tenenbaum &
Land, 2009). Although one could recognize slight differences in the descriptive analysis in the tree
diagrams of the matched pairs, no systematic difference emerged. This complements the body image
findings and strengthens the assumption that athletes integrated their prosthesis into their body image.
It also shows that slight individual differences occur which have to be analyzed in detail for further
deductions, such as specific training programs as, for example, used in other sports for athletes who
do not use a prosthesis (for an overview see Hennig, Velentzas, & Jeraj, 2016).
Three specific limitations of the present research deserve mention: First, the sample consisted
of five matched pairs, but as there are fewer table tennis athletes who use a prosthesis than those who
do not (Dehghansai, Lemez, Wattie, & Baker, 2017), one can assume that the sample is representa-
tive enough. Second, according to the cognitive action architecture approach (Schack, 2004), one can
argue that the investigated mental structures were not identical compared to those an expert would
produce. In comparison to Schütz and colleagues’ (2009) results, the present tree diagrams exhibited
more variation and less structured clusters. Reinvestigating the research question with athletes at the
international competition level, who generally have a clearer representation, would clarify whether one
can compare mental structures of athletes who do and do not use a prosthesis within one research. Third,
one could discuss whether the results obtained with a very specific table tennis skill, can be transferred
to other table tennis skills or other sport movements. As the present results in the two measures (body
image and mental representation) seem to be systematic and go hand in hand, a transfer to other
skills and sport movements is promising. Taken former and present research of mental representation
into account that was conducted in other sports and other movements with athletes who do not use
a prosthesis (Hennig et al., 2016), the results are stable here as well. However, one has to consider that
the present results and the theoretical framework they are based on suppose that all functional aspects
of the prosthesis are covered.
Conclusions
Given the similarities of the functional body images and mental structures reported here by ath-
letes who do and do not use a prosthesis, one could deduce the necessity of matching methodological
approaches in daily training to athletes using prostheses. Regardless of whether they use a prosthesis,
athletes can be trained with the same methodological approaches. Therefore, further education for
coaches who supervise athletes who use a prosthesis, as the social inclusion movement in Germany
has requested, is not necessary. Furthermore, one could question whether the differentiation in the
degree of handicap is still meaningful for the level of play, given that the functional aspects of the use
of a prosthesis are ensured. Also, one could think about integrating athletes who use a prosthesis into
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
the established leagues in which athletes compete who do not use prosthesis, as is already done in some
29
regions. Finally, in regard to the interindividual characteristics found in the present sample, it might
be beneficial when analyzing data to do so not only on the group level but also on the individual level,
especially when developing training recommendations and supporting the individual development
of athletes.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to thank all members of the Department of Performance Psychology of
the Institute for their critical feedback and Jannick Busch for his help in data collection. Also, the
authors would like to thank all their participants.
References
Abbott, B. D., & Barber, B. L. (2011). Differences in functional and aesthetic body image between sedentary
girls and girls involved in sports and physical activity: Does sport type make a difference? Psychology
of Sport and Exercise, 12, 333-342.
Aglioti, S., Smania, N., Manfredi, M., & Berlucchi, G. (1996). Disownership of left hand and objects related
to it in a patient with right brain damage. Neuroreport, 8, 293-296.
Bläsing, B., Schack, T., & Brugger, P. (2010). The functional architecture of the human body: Assessing body
representation by sorting body parts and activities. Experimental Brain Research, 203, 119-129.
Brown, T. A., Cash, T. F., & Milulka, P. J. (1990). Attitudinal body-image assessment: Factor analysis of the
Body-Self Relations Questionnaire. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 135-144.
Canzoneri, E., Marzolla, M., Amoresano, A., Verni, G., & Serino, A. (2013). Amputation and prosthesis implan-
tation shape body and peripersonal space representations. Scientific Reports, 3, 2844.
Carlson, T. A., Alvarez, G., Wu, D.-A., & Verstraten, F. A. (2010). Rapid assimilation of external objects into
the body schema. Psychological Science, 21, 1000-1005.
Cash, T. F., Melnyk, S. E., & Hrabosky, J. I. (2004). The assessment of body image investment: An extensive
revision of the appearance schemas inventory. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 35, 305-316.
Cash, T. F., Thériault, J., & Annis, N. M. (2004). Body image in an interpersonal context: Adult attachment, fear
of intimacy and social anxiety. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23, 89-103.
Dehghansai, N., Lemez, S., Wattie, N., & Baker, J. (2017). A systematic review of influences on development
of athletes with disabilities. Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly, 34(1), 72-90.
Grabe, S., Ward, L. M., & Hyde, J. S. (2008). The role of the media in body image concerns among women: A
meta-analysis of experimental and correlational studies. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 460-476.
Hausenblas, H. A., & Downs, D. S. (2001). Comparison of body image between athletes and nonathletes: A
meta-analytic review. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 323-339.
Hennig, L., Velentzas, K. & Jeraj, D. (2016). The Measurement of Mental Representations within the Context
of Motor Actions. In T. Heinen, I. Čuk, R. Goebel, & K. Velentzas (Hrsg.), Gymnastics Performance
and Motor Learning – Principles and Applications (pp. 89-117). New York: Nova Science Publishers.
Jaffe, L., & Lutter, J. M. (1995). Adolescent girls: Factors influencing low and high body image. Melpomene
Journal, 14(2), 14-22.
Lander, H. J. (2002). Strukturdimensionale Analyse von Begriffssystemen [Structural dimensional analysis of
item systems]. In T. Schack, T. Heinen, & F. Engel (Eds.), Kognition und Bewegungssteuerung [cognition
and motor control]. Cologne, Germany: MRI.
Lander, H. J., & Huth, M. (1999). Ein Verfahren zur Ermittlung der Strukturierung und Dimensionierung
begrifflich repräsentierten Wissens im Langzeitgedächtnis [An approach for the determination of structu-
ring and dimensioning of item represented knowledge in long-term memory]. In E. Witruk & H. J. Lander
(Eds.), Informationsverarbeitungsanalysen - Kognitionspsychologische und meßmethodische Beiträge
[information processing analyses – cognition psychological and measure methodological contributions]
(pp. 83-98). Leipzig, Germany: Leipzig University Press.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Maravita, A., & Iriki, A. (2004). Tools for the body (schema). Trends in Cognitive Science, 8, 79-86.
30
Maravita, A., Spence, C., & Driver, J. (2003). Multisensory integration and the body schema: Close to hand
and within reach. Current Biology, 13, R531-R539.
Maravita, A., Spence, C., Kennetta, S., & Driver, J. (2002). Tool-use changes multimodal spatial interactions
between vision and touch in normal humans. Cognition, 83, B25-B34.
Musculus, L., Vogel, A., Kraus, U., & Lobinger, B. (2016). Hauptsache, der Körper funktioniert! Das funktionale
Körperbild bei Leistungssportlern ästhetischer und nicht-ästhetischer Sportarten [The important thing is
that the body functions! The functional body image of athletes from aesthetic and unaesthetic sport]. In
B. Halberschmidt, D. Dreiskämper, T. Utesch, M. Tietjens, K. Staufenbiel, L. Schücker, . . . B. Strauß
(Eds.), Spitzenleistungen und Sportpsychologie: Der Weg zu Olympia - 48. Jahrestagung der Arbeitsge-
meinschaft für Sportpsychologie [Elite performance and sport psychology: the road to Olympia – 48th
annual meeting of the German Society for Sport Psychology] (p. 134). Münster.
Rand, W. M. (1971). Objective criteria for the evaluation of clustering methods. Journal of the American Sta-
tistical Association, 66, 846-850.
Santos, J. M., & Embrechts, M. (2009). On the use of the Adjusted Rand Index as a metric for evaluating su-
pervised classification. In C. Alippi, M. Polycarpou, C. Panayiotou, & G. Ellinas (Eds.), Lecture Notes
in Computer Science 5769: Artificial Neural Networks, ICANN 2009, Part 2 (pp. 175-184). Berlin,
Germany: Springer.
Schack, T. (2004). The cognitive architecture of complex movement. International Journal of Sport and Exercise
Psychology, 2, 403-438.
Schack, T. (2012). Measuring mental representations. In G. Tenenbaum, R. C. Eklund, & A. Kamata (Eds.),
Measurement in sport and exercise psychology (pp. 203-214). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Schütz, C., Klein-Soetebier, T., & Schack, T. (2009). Modeling of biomechanical parameters based on LTM
structures. In G. S. Helge Ritter (Ed.), Human centered robot systems: Cognition, interaction, technology
(pp. 161-191). Berlin: Springer.
Smolak, L., & Murnen, S. K. (2008). Drive for leanness: Assessment and relationship to gender, gender role
and objectification. Body Image, 5, 251-260.
SoSci. (2015). SoSci Survey [Computer software]. Munich, Germany.
Tenenbaum, G., & Land, W. M. (2009). Mental representations as an underlying mechanism for human perfor-
mance. Progress in brain research, 174, 251-266.
Varnes, J. R., Stellefson, M. L., Janelle, C. M., Dorman, S. M., Dodd, V., & Miller, M. D. (2013). A systematic
review of studies comparing body image concerns among female college athletes and non-athletes,
1997–2012. Body Image, 10, 421-432.
Damian Jeraj Dr., Associate Researcher, German Sport University Cologne, Institute of
Psychology, Am Sportpark Muengersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany.
E-mail: damianjeraj@gmx.de
Website: http://www.dshs-koeln.de/psychologie
Lisa Musculus Research assistant/PhD Student, German Sport University Cologne,

Institute of Psychology, Am Sportpark Muengersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne,
Germany.
E-mail: l.musculus@dshs-koeln.de
Babett H. Lobinger Dr., Senior Researcher, German Sport University Cologne, Institute of
Psychology, Am Sportpark Muengersdorf 6, 50933 Cologne, Germany.
E-mail: lobinger@dshs-koeln.de
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
31
EMOTIONAL CREATIVITY INVENTORY:

FACTOR STRUCTURE, RELIABILITY AND
VALIDITY IN A GEORGIAN-SPEAKING
POPULATION
Khatuna Martsksvishvili, Nino Abuladze, Natia Sordia

Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, Georgia
E-mail: khatuna.martskvishvili@tsu.ge, nino.abuladze499@sps.tsu.edu.ge, natia.sor-
dia900@pes.tsu.edu.ge
Aljoscha Neubauer
University of Graz, Austria
E-mail: aljoscha.neubauer@uni-graz.at
Abstract
The concept of emotional creativity is based on a social constructivist theory of emotion and refers to
an individual’s ability to experience and express novel, sincere, and effective mixtures of emotions. The
present research examines the psychometric properties of the Georgian version of Emotional Creativity
Inventory (G-ECI; Averill, 1999). 834 individuals across five studies completed the G-ECI. Results from
exploratory factor analysis indicate that the factor structure of the original ECI broadly replicates in
the Georgian translation. The Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities of the G-ECI scales are mostly acceptable.
There are significant gender differences. Examining the construct validity of G-ECI with other constructs
(namely, with emotional intelligence, creativity and flow) showed the expected relationships. In conclusion,
the Georgian version of the emotional creativity inventory seems well suited for future research purposes.
Keywords: emotional creativity, emotional intelligence, creative abilities, dispositional flow.
Introduction
People differ from each other in ability to experience novel, different and unusual emotions.
The phenomenon is conceptualized as trait emotional creativity - concept based on the social
constructivist theory of emotion, refers to an individual’s ability to experience and express novel,
sincere, and effective mixtures of emotions (Averill & Thomas-Knowles, 1991). How can we detect
creativity in emotional processes?
Csikszentmihalyi (1996) posits that creativity should be observed in relation to an external
system – a domain, which consists of a set of symbolic rules and procedures. According to the social
- constructivist approach, emotions are culturally constructed syndromes, which are constituted
and regulated by social rules and expectations. Emotions that differ from socially constructed
stereotypes should be considered creative.
Studies suggest that emotional and cognitive creativity are empirically independent constructs
(Ahmadi, Ahmadi, & Delshad, 2015; Averill & Thomas-Knowles, 1991; Fuchs, Kumar, & Porter, 2007;
ISSN 2538-7197 (Online) Khatuna MARTSKSVISHVILI, Nino ABULADZE, Natia SORDIA, Aljoscha NEUBAUER. Emotional creativity inventory: Factor structure,
PROBLEMS reliability and validity in a Georgian-speaking population
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Ivcevic, Brackett, & Mayer, 2007). According to Amabile’s (1996) componential model, creativity
32
occurs in presence of three variables: domain-relevant skills, creativity relevant skills, and “creative
personality”. Emotional creativity (EC) is associated to different measures of self-report creativity
inventories (Ahmadi et al., 2015; Averill & Thomas-Knowles, 1991; Fuchs et al., 2007) and shows
high correlations to personality traits associated with creativity (Fuchs et al., 2007; Ivcevic et al.,
2007). On the contrary, ability measures of creativity show inconsistent correlations with emotional
creativity. Creative abilities measured by Cognitive Consequences Test (Torrance, 1962; 1974) and
Remote Associations Test (Shames, 1985) were not correlated to emotional creativity (Ivcevic et
al., 2007), while Averill and Thomas-Knowles (1991) found that EC weakly correlated to cogni-
tive consequences. EC is related to creative activities, but only when emotional context is relevant
for the activity. In particular, EC is successful in prediction of behavioral creativity only when the
creative product involves expression of emotions, such as writing a poem about an emotional state
(Ivcevic et al., 2007). Emotionally creative people better integrate and express complex feelings in
symbols. Their narratives and paintings are distinguishable by richness, complexity and originality
(Gutbezahl & Averill, 1996). Holt (2004) also demonstrated EC’s positive link to creative activities
and interests (as citied, Fuchs, 2007). These studies, addressing direct relation of EC and creativity,
assessed mostly the “little C creativity” (Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009), which refers to everyday crea-
tive activities in which average individuals participate. One of the components in componential
model - specialization of domain-relevant skills - is largely demonstrated by accomplishment level
in specific field and possibly, is free from emotional context. Accomplishment level or creative
achievement (Diedrich, Jauk, Silvia, Gredlein, & Neubauer, in press) is manifestation of the “Big
C creativity”, representing professional level of creativity driven by exceptional gift and dedicated
training (Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009).
To address Amabile’s third component of creativity, motivation, EC is an important predictor
of intrinsic motivation (Oriol, Amutio, Mendoza, De Costa, & Miranda, 2016). Csikszentmihalyi
(1975) investigated the nature and conditions of enjoyment among people who were engaged in
intrinsically rewarding activities, like chess players, musicians, and artists. Flow was defined as a
state of intrinsic motivation in which people get fully immersed in difficult tasks for the sake of the
activity itself (Baumann & Scheffer, 2011). Accordingly, we can assume that emotional creativity
might be related with flow.
The factors of emotional creativity (preparedness, effectiveness, novelty and authenticity) show
a significant conceptual overlap with the construct of emotional intelligence (EI), but theoreti-
cally, the element of novelty or originality differentiates EC from EI. Confirmatory factor analyses
demonstrated that EI and EC could indeed be modeled as distinct abilities (Ivcevic et al., 2007).
According to these authors the relationship between emotional intelligence and emotional creativity
should be similar to the relationship of cognitive intelligence and creative ability, i.e. the threshold
hypothesis (cf. Jauk, Benedek, Dunst, & Neubauer, 2013)
While EC predicts academic achievement, it does not show significant correlations with IQ
(Averill, 1999). But research revealed that EC predicts metacognitive skills, which are important
predispositions of academic success (Ahmadi et al., 2015).
EC was found to be related also to well-being (Frolova & Novoselova, 2015). It shows a com-
plex relationship with alexithymia (Abuladze & Martskvishvili, 2016; Averill, 1999). Emotionally
creative people see challenges where others see threats (Averill, 1999). Emotionally creative people
perceive differently negative affect, enjoy benefits of solitude (Long & Averill, 2003) and overcome
hardiness (Frolova & Novoselova, 2015). They tend to experience such positive emotions as grati-
tude, hope, and love (Oriol et al., 2016).
Present Research
The aim of the research is to examine the psychometric properties and factor structure of
the Georgian translation of Emotional Creativity Inventory (ECI; Averill, 1999). The instrument
represents a self-report questionnaire and consists of 30 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale from
1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The original ECI items load on four factors: Emotional
Preparedness - tendency to think about and understand emotions, analyze emotional experience;
Khatuna MARTSKSVISHVILI, Nino ABULADZE, Natia SORDIA, Aljoscha NEUBAUER. Emotional creativity inventory: Factor structure, ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
reliability and validity in a Georgian-speaking population PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Effectiveness - to experience emotions that have positive impact on one’s or other people’s goals;
33
Authenticity - ability to experience emotions consistent to one’s self; Novelty - tendency to experi-
ence new, different, unusual emotions. The current research investigates the factor structure, reli-
ability and construct validity of the ECI by examining the relations to emotional intelligence, IQ,
flow, and creativity.
The quantitative study has been designed to examine the psychometric properties of the
Georgian translation of Emotional Creativity Inventory (ECI; Averill, 1999). A factor analysis has
been used to define the factor structure of the instrument. Descriptive statistics and internal con-
sistencies have also been checked and for assessing the instrument validity correlational analysis
has been used.
Participants
Data collection was based on five independent samples. As the presented results, depending
on the relationships under examination, involve either one or several samples, we report only the
total sample size, mean age, and reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alphas) for each of the variables.
In the research for measuring factor structure of the Emotional Creativity Inventory, 834
participants (534 females) were examined (M age= 23.43, SD = 8.91).
Emotional creativity Inventory. Prior to the present study, a panel of experts prepared two
independent translations. After discussion, the two translated versions were combined to create the
first Georgian version of ECI (G-ECI). Next, the questionnaire was back-translated to check whether
the content of items matched the original content. As a result, a number of items were amended.
Following this, five experts assessed the content validity of the 30 items on a 3-point Likert type
scale ranging from 1 (absolutely unsuitable for the scale), to 3 (absolutely suitable for the scale).
Those items for which there was a large disagreement between expert ratings were revised. Next,
an initial administration of the test was conducted (N = 40) to assess item coherence, as a result of
which, several items have been modified.
Creative potential. The creative potential was measured by Alternative Uses (AU) and Alterna-
tive Instances (AI) tasks (cf. Jauk et al., 2013). Participants were expected to produce original and
useful uses of such usual objects as knife, brick and hairdryer. Also, they had to find original and
useful answers to such questions as “What can make noise?” “What can be elastic?” and “What
could one use for locomotion?”. To accomplish each of the tasks participants were given two min-
utes. Ideational fluency was defined as the number of ideas given in the task. Ideational originality
was measured by averaging four independent raters’ assessments. Originality was assessed on the
3-point scale where 1 means “not creative” and 3 – “very creative”.
Creative activities and creative achievements. Creative activities and achievements were as-
sessed by The Inventory of Creative Activities and Achievements (ICAA; Diedrich, Jauk, Silvia,
Gredlein & Neubauer, in press) which assesses creative activities and creative achievements in eight
domains different domains (literature, music, arts and crafts, creative cooking, sport, visual art,
performing art and science and engineering): 1) how often creative activities were conducted, 2)
the amount of creative achievements, and 3) the time spent in the domain.
Intelligence. Intelligence was measured by The Raven’s Advanced Progressive Matrices Test
(APM, Set II with 40 min time limit; Raven, 1976), which is independent from language and formal
schooling and is one of the most robust predictors of general intelligence.
Emotional competencies. For measuring emotional competencies, we used The Emotional
Management Abilities Test (EMA; Freudenthaler & Neubauer, 2005; Freudenthaler, Neubauer,
& Haller, 2008). This Situational Judgment Test allows assessing interpersonal and intrapersonal
skills. Intrapersonal emotion regulation is assessed by 23 situations and the ability to manage oth-
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
ers’ emotions (intrapersonal) is assessed by 18 situations. Participants are expected to choose one
34
of four given answers to each emotionally loaded situation, which are rated from 1 to 4 depending
on expert-rated effectiveness to deal with the emotional situation.
Trait emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence as a personality trait was measured by the
Georgian version (Martskvishvili, Arutinov, & Mestvirishvili, 2012) of The Trait Emotional Intel-
ligence Questionnaire (TEQue; Petrides, 2009). 153 items of the questionnaire allow us to assess
15 aspects and 4 main factors of emotional intelligence as well as the global score of emotional
intelligence.
Flow. The Dispositional Flow Scale (Jackson & Eklund, 2002) used in the study, was composed
of 36 items assessing nine scales: (1) Challenge/skill balance; (2) Action awareness; (3) Sense of
control; (4) Clear goals; (5) Concentration; (6) Clear Feedback; (7) Loss of self- consciousness; (8)
Time transformation; (9) Autotelic experience. Respondents indicated the extent of their agreement
with the items on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Means, standard deviations, and reliability coefficients (Cronbach’s alpha) of the used measures
are reported in Table 1.
Table 1. means, standard deviations, and reliability coefficients of the

measures.
N Item N Cronbach’s α M SD
ICAA
Creative activities 322 48 .90 .857 .48
Creative achievements 322 87 .86 5.41 4.48
Creative potential
Ideational fluency 342 6 .89 19.17 7.28
Originality 342 4 .77 6.06 .55
Intelligence 342 36 .87 109.75 14.23
DFS
Challenge-skill balance 80 4 .64 14.66 8.35
Action awareness 80 4 .64 13.09 9.65
Clear goals 80 4 .88 15.11 4.18
Feedback 80 4 .88 15.13 3.49
Concentration 80 4 .84 14.61 3.86
Control 80 4 .77 14.39 3.21
Consciousness 80 4 .87 13.40 4.68
Time 80 4 .81 15.58 3.94
Enjoy 80 4 .86 15.60 3.81
Flow total score 80 36 .94 132.56 23.9
TEIQue
Adaptability 320 9 .76 4.36 .94
Assertiveness 319 9 .77 4.70 0.97
Emotion Expression 318 10 .81 4.39 1.12
Emotion Management 319 9 .73 5.18 .86
Emotional Perception 319 10 .77 4.74 .91
Emotion Regulation 319 12 .71 4.11 .85
Impulsiveness 318 9 .68 4.52 .93
Relationships 320 9 .65 5.18 .87
Self-esteem 319 9 .73 4.97 .93
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
N Item N Cronbach’s α M SD 35
Self –motivation 320 10 .73 4.64 .92
Social Awareness 320 11 .73 4.91 .77
Stress management 320 10 .69 4.40 .94
Trait empathy 318 11 .80 5.27 .84
Trait happiness 320 8 .81 5.21 1.03
Trait optimism 320 8 .78 4.99 1.09
Emotionality 315 4 .68 4.90 .68
Sociability 318 3 .77 4.93 .72
Well-being 319 3 .81 5.06 .88
Self-control 317 3 .78 4.34 .76
Global Score 309 15 .88 4.77 .57
Emotional Management Abilities
Intrapersonal 140 18 .54 52.39 7.37
Interpersonal 140 23 .51 68.50 6.97
Note: ICAA=Inventory of Creative Activities and Achievements, DFS= Dispositional Flow Scale, TEIQue=Trait Emotional Intel-
ligence Questionnaire
Results of Research
Factor Structure
30 items of the ECI were submitted to a principal axis factor analysis (Table 2). Before, the
suitability of data for PCA was assessed. The KMO value was .88, exceeding the recommended value
of .6 (Kaiser, 1974) and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (Bartlett 1954) reached statistical significance,
supporting the factorability of the correlation matrix. The scree plot and Kaiser Eigenvalue extrac-
tion criteria suggested the presence of four factors (the first four eigenvalues were, respectively,
6.327, 1.999, 1.841, 1.452). The eigenvalues and standard deviations were generated through the
“Marley Watkins Monte Carlo PCA for Parallel Analysis” program (Watkins, 2002) using the fol-
lowing parameters: 30 variables, 834 participants, and 1,000 replications. The results supported a
four-factor structure of emotional creativity inventory. The four factors explained 38.7 % of the
total variance. The factor pattern matrix and factor intercorrelations are presented in Table 2 and
Table 3, respectively.
Table 2. Factor pattern matrix G-ECI items
Authenticity Effectiveness Novelty Preparedness
EC20 .692
EC23 .584
EC5 .560
EC4 .494
EC13 .489
EC2 .380 .366
EC11 .375
EC14 .317
EC18 .770
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
36 Authenticity Effectiveness Novelty Preparedness
EC22 .621
EC6 .515
EC10 .510 .323
EC25 .326
EC7 .679
EC19 .657
EC1 .322 .540
EC17 .347 .512
EC3 .334 .500
EC9 .479
EC27 .460
EC21 .457
EC30 .427
EC15 .423
EC29 .321
EC28 .710
EC12 .605
EC16 .567
EC24 .556
EC8 .504
EC26 -.388 .424
Principal component analysis.
Rotation: Oblimin with Kaizer normalization.
Table 3. G-ECI Inter factor correlations.
Novelty Effectiveness Authenticity Preparedness
Novelty - - - -
Effectiveness .344** - - -
Authenticity .558** .353** - -
Preparedness .427** .259** .511** -
Note. **p < .01

Descriptive Statistics and Internal Consistencies
Minimum, maximum, skewness, and kurtosis of the four factors, and the global EC score are
given in Table 4. Also, descriptive statistics and internal consistencies of G-ECI are provided for
men and women, respectively. According to our results, significant gender differences were detected,
females scoring higher on all EC facets, though with small effect sizes. The global construct of
emotional creativity and factors 1 and 3 display acceptable reliabilities. However, preparedness and
effectiveness have Cronbach’s alphas below .60.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Table 4. Descriptive statistics and internal consistence of the emotional

creativity inventory (N = 834).
37
Cron- Male Female
N of items bach’s α
Skewness
Maximum
Minimum
Kurtoses
Female
Global
Male
M SD M SD t η2
Novelty 11 .74 .71 .77 3.18 .629 3.29 .661 -2.35** .01 1.09 5.00 -.142 -.208
Effectiveness 5 .60 .56 .61 3.29 .720 3.48 .702 -3.67** .02 1.00 5.00 -.253 .009
Authenticity 8 .73 .64 .71 3.66 .697 3.94 .647 -5.87** .04 1.38 4.75 -.506 .087
Preparedness 6 .53 .55 .49 3.44 .702 3.61 .697 -3.56** .02 1.00 5.00 -.511 .126
EC global score 30 .85 .83 .84 3.26 .504 3.43 .481 -4.74** .03 1.33 4.63 -.311 .357
Note. **p < .01
Construct Validity
Correlations with other constructs are provided in Table 5. Emotional creativity is basically
positively correlated with trait emotional intelligence indices - with the global score as well as with
almost all main factors and facets with some exceptions. Namely, it is negatively correlated to the
self-control factor and the facets of impulsiveness and emotional regulation.
The global score of emotional creativity is associated with creative activities (r = .130, p <
.01) but not with creative achievements and creative potential (ideational fluency and originality).
Emotional creativity as unitary construct is not correlated with IQ, but the aspect of effectiveness
is negatively associated with IQ (r = -.149, p < .01). Emotional creativity is associated with flow
(r = .327, p <. o1) as with a unitary construct as well as with its subscales. The strength of cor-
relation varies across factors, but still remains logical and significant. Moreover, it conforms well
with expectations that emotional creativity correlates significantly with intrapersonal but not with
interpersonal emotional management abilities.
Table 5. Correlations matrix.
Age
N M SD ECI N E A p
ICAA
Creative Activities 577 23.94 9.75 .130** .146** .170** .081 .037
Creative
577 23.94 9.75 .038 .065 .095* -.022 -.32
Achievements
Creative Potential
Fluency 342 21.87 5.83 .086 .033 .088 .107* .078
Originality 342 21.87 5.83 .048 .055 -.046 .104 .006
IQ (RAPM) 339 21.87 5.83 -.083 -.105 -.149** .058 -.003
DFS
Challenge skill
80 21.74 1.84 .291** .181 .251* .108 .308**
balance
Action awareness 80 21.74 1.84 .176 .113 .244* .008 .129
Clear goals 80 21.74 1.84 .219 .151 .218 .120 .126
Feedback 80 21.74 1.84 .261* .160 .277* .173 .126
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
38 Age
N M SD ECI N E A p
Concentration 80 21.74 1.84 .268* .243* .187 .082 .195

Control 80 21.74 1.84 .342** .307** .175 .195 .237*
Consciousness 80 21.74 1.84 .095 .085 .179 .012 -.040
Time 80 21.74 1.84 .294** .241* .206 .188 .221*
Enjoy 80 21.74 1.84 .230* .114 .241* .154 .176
Flow total score 80 21.74 1.84 .327** .241* .301** .157 .214
TEIQue
Adaptability 339 21.87 5.83 .199** .137* .230** .126* .157**
Assertiveness 339 21.87 5.83 .166** .161** .241** .085 -.016
Emotion Expression 339 21.87 5.83 .321** .109 .571** .185** .272**
Emotion Management 339 21.87 5.83 .341** .291** .271** .281** .198**
Emotion Perception 339 21.87 5.83 .083 -.076 .250** .047 .176**
Emotion Regulation 339 21.87 5.83 -.113* -.128* -.037 -.150** .026
Impulsiveness 339 21.87 5.83 -.199** -.274** -.057 -.203** .051
Relationships 339 21.87 5.83 .107 -.053 .302** .075 .136*
Self-esteem 339 21.87 5.83 .216** .087 .321** .149** .181**
Self-motivation 339 21.87 5.83 .053 -.012 .128* -.068 .207**
Social Awareness 339 21.87 5.83 .317** .204** .404** .197** .235**
Stress management 339 21.87 5.83 -.095 -.129* .010 -.124* .004
Trait empathy 339 21.87 5.83 .378** .252** .312** .332** .347**
Trait happiness 339 21.87 5.83 .166** .053 .224** .147** .131*
Trait optimism 339 21.87 5.83 .122* .033 .211** .034 .147**
Emotionality 339 21.87 5.83 .318** .091 .511** .225** .326**
Sociability 339 21.87 5.83 .325** .263** .362** .220** .155**
Well-being 339 21.87 5.83 .193** .065 .290** .125* .177**
Self-control 339 21.87 5.83 -.163** -.212** -.034 -.188 .032
Global Score 339 21.87 5.83 .225** .067 .375** .118* .249**
Emotional Management Abilities
Intrapersonal 140 21.13 1.73 .250** .085 .205* .313** .140
Interpersonal 140 21.13 1,73 .068 -.045 .025 .151 .102
**p < .01 *p < .05 Note: ECI = Emotional Creativity Inventory; N = Novelty; P = Preparedness; A = Authenticity; E = effective-
ness, ICAA=Inventory of Creative Activities and Achievements, DFS= Dispositional Flow Scale, TEIQue=Trait Emotional
Intelligence Questionnaire
Discussion
The factor structure of ECI is similar to the original idea (Averill & Thomas-Knowles, 1991),
which suggests four factors of emotional creativity, but inconsistent with the later study (Averill,
1999) suggesting a three-dimensional factor structure. Our results indicate that the scales of ef-
fectiveness and authenticity belong to different factors.
Results replicate previous studies in most aspects of emotional creativity relations to self-
report and ability measures of emotional intelligence. Correlations are not so strong that we could
view them identical constructs. Generally, the results expand the knowledge with the insight that
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
EC is associated with intrapersonal but not interpersonal emotional competencies. Previous stud-
39
ies measuring emotional competencies did not include such a differentiation. Emotional creative
people are more skillful to manage or regulate their inner emotional experiences than to deal with
interpersonal emotional situations.
There is no significant correlation between EC and IQ as it was expected based on previous
research (Averill & Thomas-Knowles, 1991; Ivcevic et al., 2007).
Results indicate correlations between EC and creativity, but only with creative activities. Crea-
tive achievement and creative potential are not linked to emotional creativity.
Results are consistent to the findings that EC is not linked to ability measures of creativity
(Fuchs et al., 2007) except of Averill and Thomas-Knowles’ study (1991), which indicates moderate
correlation between ECI and Cognitive Consequences Test. The results are explainable by the no-
tion that EC is related to creativity only when emotional involvement is appropriate for the activity
(Ivcevic et al., 2007).
The results in this article indicate that emotional creativity is manifested in everyday creative
activities. It was expected considering previous findings about emotionally creative people’s dis-
tinguished ability to express their emotions in a symbolic way (Gutbezahl & Averill, 1996), better
performance at creative behavior test (which includes writing poems on emotional state) (Fuchs
et al., 2007), inclination toward creative activities and interests (Holt, 2004; as citied in Fuchs et al.,
2007). In addition, empirical evidence supports the hypothesis that art faculty students have higher
emotional creativity than non-art faculty students (Abuladze & Martskvishvili, 2016).
Results of the present study, regarding relation between EC and creative achievements indicate
that level of accomplishment is not associated with EC. It should be mentioned, that the creative
achievement test follows highly skewed distribution and the result may be influenced by this fac-
tor. Although, there were no relevant studies indicating relation of “Big C creativity” and EC,
results are somehow contributed by finding that emotionally creative people do not use a creativity
strategy of final product orientation (Fuchs et al., 2007). Instead, they are intrinsically motivated
and mostly engage in process for the activity itself, which is manifested in EC’s strong relation to
flow presented in this article. According to empirical research, EC predicts intrinsic motivation by
generating positive affect (Orio, Amutio, Mendoza, Da Costa, & Miranda, 2010). Besides, emotion-
ally creative people are prone to engage in creative activities as it was mentioned, and therefore,
not surprisingly, they have frequent experiences of flow. Affective change during flow (Baumann
& Scheffer, 2009) may also facilitate the tendency of flow experience among emotionally creative
people, because individuals make combinations of contradicting emotional states like changes from
negative to positive affect.
Conclusions

In conclusion, psychometric properties of Georgian version of ECI are satisfactory. Factor
analysis suggests four factors of ECI structure consistent to most of previous studies. Construct
validity was also confirmed. In sum, because of its factor structure, the internal consistencies and
convergent validities regarding other constructs, the Georgian version of The Emotional Creativity
Inventory seems well suited for future research purposes.
Acknowledgements
This Research was supported by the grant from The Shota Rustaveli National Science Foun-
dation of Georgia.
References
Abuladze, N., & Martskvishvili, Kh. (2016). No words for emotions: emotional creativity and alexithymia in
art. Problems of Psychology of 21th Century, 10 (2).
Ahmadi, F., Ahmadi, J., & Delshad, R. (2015). The relationship between emotional and cognitive creativity and
metacognitive skill. GMP Review, 18 (1), 456-461.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Amabile, T. M. (1985). Motivation and creativity: Effects of motivational orientation on creative writers. Journal
40 of Personality and Social Psychology, 48, 393–397.
Amabile, T. M. (1996). Creativity in context: Update to “The Social Psychology of Creativity”. Boulder, CO:
Westview Press.
Averill, J. R. (1999). Individual differences in emotional creativity: Structure and correlates. Journal of Per-
sonality, 67, 331-371.
Averill, J.R., & Thomas-Knowles, C. (1991). Emotional creativity. International Review of Studies on Emotion,
1, 269-299.
Bartlett, M. S. (1954). A note on the multiplying factors for various chi square approximations. Journal of the
Royal Statistical Society, 16, 296-298.
Baumann, N., & Scheffer, D. (2011). Seeking flow in the achievement domain: The flow motive behind flow
experience. Motivation and Emotion, 35, 267–284.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond boredom and anxiety. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. Harper Collins Publishers.
Diedrich, J., Jauk, E., Silvia, P. J., Gredlein, J. M., & Neubauer, A. C. (in press). Assessment of real-life creativ-
ity: The inventory of creative activities and achievements (ICAA). Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity,
and the Arts.
Freudenthaler, H. H., & Neubauer, A. C. (2005). Emotional intelligence: The convergent and discriminant validi-
ties of intra- and interpersonal emotional abilities. Personality and Individual Differences, 39 (3), 569-579.
Freudenthaler, H. H., Neubauer, A. C., & Haller, U. (2008). Emotional intelligence: Instruction effects and sex
differences in emotional management abilities. Journal of Individual Differences, 29, 105-115.
Frolova, F. V, Novoselova. K. I. (2015). Emotional creativity as a factor of individual, family and psychologi-
cal well-being. International Annual Edition of Applied Psychology: Theory, Research, and Practice,
2 (1), 31-43.
Fuchs, G. L., Kumar, V. K., Porter, J. (2007). Emotional creativity, alexithymia, and styles of creativity. Creativ-
ity Research Journal, 19, 233-145.
Gutbezahl, J., Averill, J. R. (1996). Individual differences in emotional creativity as manifested in words and
pictures. Creativity Research Journal, 9, 327-337.
Holt, N. J. (2004). Controllable oddness? Creativity, altered states of consciousness and ego-strength. Unpub-
lished doctoral study, University of Northampton, UK.
Ivcevic, Z., Brackett, M. A., Mayer, J. D. (2007). Emotional intelligence and emotional creativity. Journal of
Personality, 75, 199-236.
Jackson, S., & Eklund, R. C. (2002). Assessing flow in physical activity: The flow state scale-2 and dispositional
flow scale-2. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24, 133-150.
Jauk, E., Benedek, M., Dunst, B., & Neubauer, A.C. (2013). The relationship between intelligence and creativ-
ity: New support for the threshold hypothesis by means of empirical breakpoint detection. Intelligence,
41, 212-221.
Kaiser, H. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31-36.
Kaufman, J. C., & Beghetto, R. A. (2009). Beyond big and little: The four C model of creativity. Review of
General Psychology, 13, 1-12.
Long, C. R., Averill, J. R. (2003). Solitude: An exploration of benefits of being alone. Journal for the Theory
of Social Behavior, 33, 21-44.
Martskvishvili, Kh., Arutinov, L., & Mestvirishvili, M. (2012). A psychometric investigation of the Georgian
version of the trait emotional intelligence questionnaire. European Journal of Psychological Assessment,
29, 84-84. DOI: 10.1027/1015-5759/a000135.
Orio, X., Amutio, A., Mendoza, M., Da Costa, S., & Miranda, R. (2016). Emotional creativity as predictor of
intrinsic motivation and academic engagement in university students: The mediating role of positive
emotions. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 12-43.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Petrides, K. V. (2009). Technical manual for the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaires (TEIQue). London:
London Psychometric Laboratory.
41
Raven, J. C. (1976) Advanced progressive matrices set ll. Oxford, England: Oxford Psychologist Press.
Shames, V. A. (1994). Is there such a thing as implicit problem-solving? [Monograph]. Retrieved from http://
arizona.openrepository.com/arizona/handle/10150/186778.
Torrance, E. P. (1962). Guiding creative talent. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Torrance, E. P. (1974). Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Lexington, MA: Ginn.
Watkins, M. W. (2002). Monte Carlo PCA for Parallel Analysis (Computer software). Retrieved from http://
www.personal. psu.edu/mww10/Watkins3.html.
Khatuna Martsksvishvili PhD, Associate Professor, Faculty of Psychology and Educational

Sciences, Department of Psychology, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State
University, I. Chavchavadze av.#1, 0179, Tbilisi, Georgia.
E-mail: khatuna.martskvishvili@tsu.ge
Nino Abuladze PhD Student, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences,

Department of Psychology, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, I.
Chavchavadze av. #1, 0179, Tbilisi, Georgia.
E-mail: nino.abuladze499@sps.tsu.edu.ge
Natia Sordia Ph.D Student, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences,

Department of Psychology, Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University, I.
Chavchavadze av. #1, 0179, Tbilisi, Georgia.
E-mail: Nnatia.sordia900@pes.tsu.edu.ge
Aljoscha Neubauer Dr., Full Professor for Differential Psychology, Institute of Psychology,
University of Graz, Universitätsplatz 2, 8010 Graz, Austria.
E-mail: aljoscha.neubauer@uni-graz.at
Website: https://psychologie.uni-graz.at/en/dips/team/aljoscha-neubauer
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
42
INTRASEXUAL COMPETITION AMONG

HUMANS: PROSOCIAL TOWARDS THE
OPPOSITE SEX AND PROSELF TOWARDS
THE SAME SEX?
Grzegorz Pajestka
Opole University, Poland
E-mail: gpajestka@uni.opole.pl
Abstract
In a research conducted on a sample of participants from three countries (N = 256): Poland, Ukraine and
Denmark, a hypothesis of the moderating impact of other person sex on the level of social value orientation
of men and women was tested. The study applied the now rarely used method of measuring social value
orientation: the Warsaw Method, which was expected to reveal more subtle differences between men and
women than those observed in the studies using the most popular social value orientation measurement
tools, such as decomposed games. The direction of the observed relationship proved to be compatible with
the predictions resulting from the phenomenon of intrasexual competition for a partner, however only in
the case of men. Men were more prosocial in interaction with women than with other men, and more pro-
self- interacting with men rather than women. Similar relationships assumed in the case of women were
only partially confirmed: women were more pro-self in interaction with same-sex partners compared to
interactions with opposite sex partners (however, the relationship was statistically significant only within
the individualistic value orientation), but at the same time they were prosocial (but only within the coop-
erative value orientation).
Keywords: intrasexual competition, social value orientation, sex differences.
Introduction
Prosocial behaviour in humans can be considered in the context of intrasexual competition

for partners. This is particularly noticeable in the attitude of males to other males — they are more
competitive than towards females (Buunk, & Massar, 2012) and more conciliatory towards women
than men (Moskowitz, Sutton, Zuroff, & Young, 2014). Men are also more generous in the presence
of women (Saad, & Gill, 2001) and are generally more likely to help others when they have an audi-
ence or helping is associated with risk (Eagly, 2009). In social psychology, this kind of behaviour of
men towards women was considered as a remnant of the medieval knight’s code which made men
treat women in a special way, with courtesy (Glick & Fiske, 2001). However, the greater heuristic
value of the interpretation of this phenomenon derived from evolutionary psychology, where men’s
behaviour could be explained using the costly signalling theory (Smith & Bird, 2000). This theory
has derived directly from the handicap principle (Zahavi, 1975). According to this principle, al-
truistic behaviour is costly, therefore it is a valuable signal of males phenotypic as well as genetic
quality: hence males’ altruistic behaviours can be perceived as one of the mating strategies. In this
context, it is easy to explain the greater tendency of men rather than women to express prosocial
Grzegorz PAJESTKA. Intrasexual competition among humans: Prosocial towards the opposite sex and proself towards the same sex? ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
behaviours that require putting their life or health in danger. Competitive and altruistic behaviours
43
appear as two sides of the same coin: they are a consequence of male struggle for resources, prestige,
or recognition, which are especially appreciated by women in the process of sexual selection (e.g.
Buss &Schmitt, 1993). In this evolutionary context, however, it is difficult to embed prosocial and
competitive behaviours of women. Competition is especially seen here as a “man’s thing”, which is
difficult to find with such intensity in women as in men (cf. Buunk, & Massar, 2012).
And, after all, the double process of sexual selection described by Darwin (1871) suggests
that just as males fight with each other for females, females should fight with each other for male
partners. The consequence of the double sexual selection, considered as the power forming human
nature, should be widespread preference for behaviours related to the sex of an interaction partner:
in the case of men greater prosocial behaviour towards women and, in the case of women – greater
prosocial behaviour in relation to men. However, research on prosocial behaviour conducted in
the context of social value orientation (defined as generalised preferences of distribution of goods
between oneself and an interaction partner) did not confirm these assumptions. Comprehensive
meta-analysis (Balliet, Li, Macfarlan, & Van Vugt, 2011), including data from over a 50-year history
of research in this area, which compares the 272 effect sizes, showed that interactions between men
were based more on cooperation than interactions between women (d = .16). On the other hand,
women are more likely to work in mixed pairs (d = -.22). In contrast, in the study conducted by
Buunk & Massar (2012), the immediate purpose of which was to review the assumptions about
the male tendency to compete with men and to express prosocial behaviour in interactions with
women, consistent with predictions based on the mainstream evolutionary approach was observed:
the level of prosocial behaviour (cooperative value orientation) is higher when a man’s partner is a
woman, and when the partner is male, the competitive value orientation is dominant.
The differences in the results can probably be explained by the differences in the operationali-
sation of social value orientation (SVO) and, consequently, a variety of tools used to measure SVO.
A meta-analysis conducted by Balliet et al. (2011) included research in which the measurement
was made using social dilemmas (e.g. the prisoner’s dilemma, the public goods dilemma). In the
study of Buunk & Massar one of the most popular methods of measuring social value orientation
was used: the decomposed game. Although these two methods differ significantly, they are linked
with their use of money (or points) as a representation of the goods. As it is clear from the research,
the use of such representation enhances the tendency to compete (Grzelak, Poppe, Czwartosz, &
Nowak, 1988). It cannot be excluded that this is so mainly among men (competition for money is
a stereotypically male field), which may lead to an erroneous assessment of social value orientation
in women in the context of sex (which conforms to the stereotype that women are rather passive
and submissive, the assumption of which is also present among scientists, cf. Hrdy, 1999). In ad-
dition, the studies based on the prisoner’s dilemma measure two value orientations: cooperation
and competition. Decomposed games include one value orientation more: individualism. Since
men’s behaviour towards women is explained as the result of altruism understood in the context of
the costly signalling theory, it is worth including altruistic value orientation to the analysis. Meet-
ing both these objectives is possible in the case of SVO measurement using the so-called Warsaw
Method (Grzelak et al., 1988), which is used in this research to verify the following hypotheses:
H1: males are more prosocial (cooperative, but also altruistic, in their pattern of social value
orientation) interacting with women rather than with men, and women in the interaction with
men rather than with women (H2)
H3: males are more competitive and individualistic in interaction with other men than with
women, and women in interaction with other women than with men (H4).
General Background of Research
The research was part of a wider project in which research in three countries was conducted:
Poland, Denmark, and Ukraine. This enabled the universality/specificity of the predictions to be
verified — at least in the context of the three examined cultures. In the study one of the versions
ISSN 2538-7197 (Online) Grzegorz PAJESTKA. Intrasexual competition among humans: Prosocial towards the opposite sex and proself towards the same sex?
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
of the Warsaw Method was used. The presentation of the Warsaw Method is taken from Szmajke
44
and Zomerska (2003), since it seems to be the most clear and holistic (if needed, for more details
see also Grzelak et al., 1988).
Sample of Research
The research involved 256 persons aged 17 to 28 (M = 20.95, SD = 2.13) of which 84 people
were Poles (43 men and 41 women) - they were students at Opole University of Technology; 83
people were Danes (40 men and 43 women) - they were students from the Roskilde University; 89
people were Ukrainians (45 men and 44 women) - they were students from the National University
of the State Tax Service of Ukraine in Irpin and the Kyiv Slavonic University. The participants were
randomly assigned to groups of varying stimulus material.
In this research, the value orientation was measured by presenting the participants with iconic
images of faces: happy, neutral and sad, as in the example in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The examples of iconic images of faces used in the research.
Each of the 9 presented offers consisted of two faces (one representing the participant, second
representing his/her partner of interaction) as in the example in Figure 2.
Figure 2: The examples of two from nine offers presented to participants.
The participants marked how satisfying each offer was for them on a scale, which was a 10-cen-
timetre section. Given that the face icons were designated as in Figure 1, that is 1(satisfaction), 0
(neutral), -1 (dissatisfaction), the offers evaluated by the participants can be represented as in Table 1.
Table 1. Numerical representation of the iconic offers presented to the

participants. Notice: in the study each offer was represented by icons.
For example: offers number two and four were represented by icons
like presented in figure 1.
OFFER NO. I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
I 1 1 1 0 0 0 -1 -1 -1
HE/SHE 1 0 -1 1 0 -1 1 0 -1
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
For each type of social value orientation, the ideal arrangement of the offers is different, as
45
shown in Table 2. These arrangements reflect the definition properties of each value orientation types:
in the case of individualistic to maximise their benefits regardless of the outcome of the interaction
partner; in the case of cooperative – to maximise common benefits; in the case of competitive — to
maximise the advantage over the partner; in the case of altruistic — to maximise the partner’s result.
Table 2. The ideal arrangement of the offers for four different social value
orientations.
THE MOST
THE LEAST ATTRACTIVE OFFER
ATTRACTIVE OFFER
INDIVIDUALISM I = II = III > IV = V = VI > VII = VIII = IX

COMPETITION III > II = VI > I = V = IX > IV = VIII > VI
COOPERATION I > II = IV > V > VI = VIII > III = VII > IX
ALTRUISM I = IV = VII > II = V = VIII > III = VI = IX
The final step in the diagnosis of social value orientation in the Warsaw Method is computing
(Spearman rank correlation with tie-correction)1 the similarity coefficient for the arrangement of
offers of a participant with each of the four ideal arrangements (patterns of these ideal arrange-
ments are shown in Table 2).
The arrangement of offers of each participant of the study was thus described with four
correlation coefficients, hereinafter referred to as coefficients of social value orientation. In other
words, the social value orientation of an individual is thus described by four correlation coefficients
indicating the saturation of a social value orientation with components of individualism, competi-
tion, cooperation and altruism. These coefficients, which are dependent variables, were subject to
further analysis in order to verify the relationships that were assumed.
The experimental manipulation consisted of sexual stigmatisation of the iconic images of the
face: a participant was shown icons presenting the interaction partner as a “man” (in a male-male
condition2 and female-male) or a “woman” (in female-female and male-female conditions), addi-
tionally described as “I” and “He” or “She” (Fig. 3). In the control condition the icons were devoid
of sexual stigmatisation and a label of the interaction partner did not suggest their sex (“he/she”).
a) b) c)
Figure 3: The sample offers presented to the participants of the study: a) the
male-female condition, b) the female-female condition, and (c) the
male-male condition.
To sum up: nine offers were presented to each participant. Offers were consisted by icons: one
representing the participant, second the hypothetical partner of the interaction. Attractiveness of
each offer was evaluated by participants on scale. Participants’ ratings were computed to give the
coefficients of SVO. SVO coefficients (for individualism, competition, cooperation and altruism)
were subjected to a further analysis as the dependent variables.
1 Analysing the data correlation coefficients subject to Fisher z-transformation was used (according to the formula: z’
= .5 x [ln(1+r) – ln (1-r)], hence the values of the coefficients of each value orientation exceed “1” (absolute value).
2 In order to facilitate description, I used the following abbreviations for mean values in this text: m-m: the male-male
condition, m-f: male-female condition, m-con: male-control condition and similarly in the case of women.
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Data Analysis
46
Hypotheses one to four were examined in two steps: first by running MANOVAs with repeated
measurements. Second by running four univariate ANOVAs to examine the effect of independent
variables on each of the dependent variables separately. Statistica 12.5 was used for data analysis.
Results of Research
The multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measurements testing the relationship
between social value orientations and independent variables showed no main effect of the sex of
the participants: F(1, 235) = .30, p = .58. However, the main effect of the partner’s sex was signifi-
cant: F(2, 235) = 9.65, p < .001, η2 = .08. It was the same with the effect of the country of origin of
the participants: F(2, 235) = 6.91, p < .001. The interaction of these two variables (sex and country
of origin) was statistically non-significant: F(4, 235) = 1.58 p = .18. The participant’s and partner’s
sex interaction was also non-significant: F(2, 235) = .92, p = .40, as well as the interaction of a
participant’s sex and their country of origin: F(2, 235) = .49, p = .61. The participant’s sex and their
country of origin and the partner’s sex interaction was also not of significance: F(16, 709) = .15, p
= .96. On the other hand, the analysis of the interaction of social value orientation coefficients (as
the repeated measurements) and independent variables showed a variety of significant results. The
interaction related directly to the proposed hypotheses was the one that took social value orientation
coefficients, the sex of the partner and the sex of the participant into account: F(6, 705) = 3,65, p <
.001; η2 = .003. To examine the effect of independent variables on each of the dependent variables
separately, the univariate tests were carried.
Competitive Value Orientation and the Participant’s and Partner’s Sex
The participant’s and partner’s sex interaction for competitive value orientation variable was
statistically significant (ANOVA, F(2, 250) = 4.13, p < .01, η2 = .032). An analysis of simple effects
did not confirm the predictions about the competitive value orientation of women: the difference
between average competition values during interaction with a female partner and interaction with
a male partner proved to be statistically non-significant (ff = 0.38, fm = 0.29; d = -.24). On the
other hand, the predictions concerning men were proved: men’s competition value was higher in
interaction with another male partner (mm) than with a female partner (mf). The mean values
were respectively: mm = 0.38, mf = 0.13 and the difference was statistically significant (p < .01,
LSD, d = .68). In the control condition competition coefficients were independent of sex (m = 0.28
vs. f = 0.39, p = .17).
Figure 4: Dependency of the competition coefficient on the participant’s and

interaction partner’s sex.
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
47
Individualistic Value Orientation and the Participant’s and Partner’s Sex
The interaction of the sex of the participant and sex of the partner for individualism was
statistically significant: F(2, 249) = 3.69, p = .026, η2 = .029. In the case of men interacting with a
same-sex partner, the individualism coefficient was slightly higher than in the case of men inter-
acting with an opposite sex partner (mm = 0.95 vs. mf = 0.83), but this difference was statistically
non-significant (p = .28, LSD, d = .23). In the case of women, the individualism coefficient in the
interaction with another woman turned out to be significantly higher than in the case of interaction
with a man (fm = 0.87 vs. ff = 1.16, p < .006, LSD, d = -.69). In the control condition, the difference
in individualism coefficient was statistically non-significant (m-con = 1.02 vs. f-con = 1.13, p = .29).
Figure 5: Dependency of the individualism coefficient on the participant’s and

partner’s sex.
Cooperative Value Orientation and the Participant’s and Partner’s Sex
The interaction of sex of the participant and sex of the interaction partner with a cooperating
value orientation proved to be statistically non-significant: F(2,250) = .11, p = .89.
The analysis of simple effects did not confirm the assumptions from hypothesis 2 that the co-
operative value orientation in females would be stronger in interaction with a male partner than in
interaction with a female partner (ff = 1.15, vs. fm = 0.85, p < .01, LSD, d = .65). In the case of males,
the cooperation coefficient measured in the interaction with another males (mm) was substantially
lower than the cooperation coefficient for men whose interaction partner was a woman (mf = 1.20
vs. mm = 0.83, p < .001, LSD, d = .66). In the control condition, there were no differences between
men and women in this coefficient (m = 1.20, f = 1.07, p = .69).
Altruistic Value Orientation and the Participant’s and Partner’s Sex
The interaction of the sex of the participant and the sex of the interaction partner was statisti-
cally significant for altruism: F(2, 250) = 3.97, p < .05 η2 = .031. In the case of males, the altruism
coefficient was higher when their interaction partner was a woman than when it was a man (mf =
0.58 vs. mm = 0.25, p < .001, LSD, d = .80). In the case of women, the altruism coefficient turned
out to be similar regardless of whether the interaction partner was a woman or a man (ff = 0.31
vs. fm = 0.33, p = .86, LSD). In the control condition, there were no differences between men and
women in this coefficient (m-con = 0.45 vs. f-con = 0.33 p = .19).
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
48
Figure 6: Dependency of altruism coefficient on the participant’s and partner’s

sex.
Cross-cultural Comparison
To explore the cross-cultural differences, an analysis of variance for each dependent variable
was carried out. It turned out that the interaction of the participants’ country of origin, their sex
and the sex of their partner (and thus the interaction which takes the probable dependencies in
the intercultural context into account) is non-significant for each of the dependent variables. For
competitive value orientation: F(4, 238) = .33, p = .86; for individualistic value orientation: F(4,
235) = .11, p = .98; for cooperative value orientation: F(4, 238) = .12, p = .98; for altruistic value
orientation F(4, 238) = .73, p = .57. Thus, the country of origin had no apparent effect on the level
of the SVO of the participants in the context of their sex and the sex of their partners.
Discussion
The research was designed to verify the assumptions about the difference in the social value
orientation of men and women depending on the sex of their partner. The presented analyses show
that the partner’s sex acts as a facilitator of social value orientation. The result pattern emerging
from these analyses is compliant with the predictions – men are more prosocial in interactions with
women and less prosocial in interactions with another man, and more individualistic and competi-
tive in interactions with other men then with a woman. This pattern is particularly visible in the
case of competitive, altruistic and cooperative value orientation — here the differences between
males interacting with a same-sex or opposite sex partner reached the level of statistical significance.
In the case of individualistic value orientation, despite the fact that the significance level was not
reached, the direction of the relationship was consistent with the predictions, and the differences
between males were noticeable on the level of the size of the effect. Therefore, male prosociality in
interaction with women has been further confirmed on the grounds of social value orientation.
Similar results were also obtained by the aforementioned researchers, who verified their assump-
tions using another method – decomposed games (Buunk, & Massar, 2012). These results can be
explained based on the evolutionary psychology paradigm, the costly signalling theory in particular.
On the other hand, male prosociality towards women is sometimes explained differently and
can be perceived as a consequence of benevolent sexism (Glick & Fiske, 2001). A cultural norm or-
dering men to protect women and treat them with courtship was reflected in this study in the pattern
of males’ social value orientations: they were more prosocial and less competitive or individualistic
in interactions with women rather than men. This prosociality would be the consequence of the
patriarchal attitude of men associated with the stereotypical perception and treatment of women. If,
however, the stereotypical perception would have an impact on the social value orientations of men
in the interaction with women, this should be reflected in the results of the studies conducted in
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
different countries. Denmark is, after all, a country where gender inequalities are much lower than
49
in Poland, and in Poland they are lower than in Ukraine (cf. Human Development Reports: Gen-
der Inequality Index – “United Nations Development Programme”, 2016). However, in conducted
analysis, which includes these three European countries, male prosociality in relationships with
women is seen rather as a common characteristic of men, regardless of their country of origin. Of
course, this individual result in limited intercultural context does not prejudge the universality of
the observed phenomenon, however, together with the study of Buunk & Massar (2012) it provides
a consistent and theoretically justifiable conclusion. At this point, the theoretical assumption seems
more consistent in the evolutionary psychology paradigm than in the social psychology paradigm.
Less consistent, however, are the results of females, at least in terms of the hypotheses made for
the purpose of this paper. The competitive value orientation in females did not depend on the sex
of their partner, although the direction of the relationship was consistent with the predictions and
was noticeable at the level of the effect size. By contrast, in the interaction with other women their
level of both cooperative and individualistic value orientation was higher (than in the interaction
with men). It is difficult to find a meaningful theoretical justification for this discrepancy, hence it
should stop with a conclusion that is not very original – that this requires further research. Buunk’s
& Massar’s (2012) conclusion on a higher individualistic value orientation in women than in men
saying that it reflects the greater propensity of women to collect resources rather than to fight for
them, is far from sufficient. It reflects a simplified belief that competition is characteristic for men,
and affects women only to a small extent — limited mainly to the physical appearance (cf. Buss,
1988, Franzoi, 2001)3. In this context, a conclusion of Hrdy (1999), who believes that competition
among female primates has been well documented excluding one species — humans, seems valuable.
Furthermore, considering the possibility that the competition among women is subtler in nature
than among men (cf. Campbell, 2002), it is advisable to use other methods of measuring social value
orientation than the prisoner’s dilemma or decomposed game. These should be methods which,
on the one hand, focus less on economic goods and, on the other hand, are more sensitive to the
variance of the results. These criteria are met by the Warsaw Method used in this study.
Conclusions
To sum up: a confirmation of the hypotheses applies to result pattern for males who are more
prosocial in interactions with females than with other males, and more competitive and individu-
alistic in interactions with males than with females. The inconsistency of the predictions with the
results applies to the social value orientation of women. The pattern of these value orientations
is incoherent and theoretically unclear. Its importance can be decrypted in subsequent research,
in which the focus should be on the mechanism of the observed relationships. The lack of the
identification of such a mechanism should undoubtedly be considered the weak side of this study.
References
Balliet, D., Li, N. P., Macfarlan, S. J., & Van Vugt, M. (2011). Sex differences in cooperation: A meta-analytic re-
view of social dilemmas. Psychological Bulletin, 137 (6), 881–909. https://doi.org/10.1037/a002535A4.
Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating.
Psychological Review, 100 (2), 204-232. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.2.204.
Buss, D. M. (1988). The evolution of human intrasexual competition: Tactics of mate attraction. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 54 (4), 616–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.616.
Buunk, A. P., & Massar, K. (2012). Intrasexual competition among males: Competitive towards men, prosocial
towards women. Personality and Individual Differences, 52 (7), 818–821. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
paid.2012.01.010.
Campbell, A. (2002). A mind of her own: The evolutionary psychology of women. Oxford: Oxford University
Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198504986.001.0001.
3
In this study, the error of such reasoning is visible in generally higher competitive value orientation of women than
men: F(1, 250) = 3.85, p = .05, ղ2 = .015.
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
50 Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. London: Murray. http://dx.doi.
org/10.5962/bhl.title.2092.
Eagly, A. H. (2009). The his and hers of prosocial behavior: An examination of the social psychology of gender.
American Psychologist, 34 (8), 644–658. https://doi:10.1037/0003-066X.64.8.644.
Franzoi, S. L. (2001). Is female body esteem shaped by benevolent sexism? Sex Roles, 44 (3-4), 177-188. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1010903003521.
Glick, P., Fiske, S. (2001). An ambivalent alliance. Hostile and benevolent sexism as complementary justifica-
tions for gender inequality. American Psychologist, 56 (2),109-118. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0003-
066X.56.2.109.
Grzelak, J. L., Poppe, M., Czwartosz, Z., & Nowak, A. (1988). “Numerical trap”. A new look at outcome rep-
resentation in studies on choice behaviour. European Journal of Social Psychology, 18 (2), 143–159.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2420180206.
Hrdy, S. B. (1999). The woman that never evolved. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kuwabara, K. (2005). Nothing to fear but fear itself: Fear of fear, fear of greed and gender effects in two-person
asymmetric social dilemmas. Social Forces, 84 (2), 1257–1272. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2006.0020.
Moskowitz, D. S., Sutton, R., Zuroff, D. C., & Young, S. N. (2015). Fetal exposure to androgens, as indicated
by digit ratios (2D:4D), increases men’s agreeableness with women. Personality and Individual Differ-
ences, 75, 97–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2014.11.008.
Saad, G., & Gill, T. (2001). Sex differences in the ultimatum game: An evolutionary psychology perspective.
Journal of Bioeconomics, 3, 171–193. https://doi:10.1023/A:1020583425623.
Simpson, B. (2003). Sex, fear, and greed: A social dilemma analysis of gender and cooperation. Social Forces,
82 (1), 35–52. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2003.0081.
Smith, E. A., & Bird, R. L. B. (2000). Turtle hunting and tombstone opening. Evolution and Human Behavior,
21 (4), 245–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-5138(00)00031-3.
Szmajke, A., Zomerska, J. (2003). Blaski i cienie rywalizacji. Orientacja społeczna a ustosunkowanie do innych
ludzi, czyli: o dwóch typach egoizmu [Lights and shadows of competition. Social orientation and atti-
tudes towards other people, that is: about two types of egoism]. In: J. Jonkisz i M. Lewandowski (Eds.),
Wychowanie i kształcenie w reformowanej szkole (pp. 161-176). Wyd. WTN Wrocław.
Zahavi, A. (1975). Mate selection-A selection for a handicap. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 53 (1), 205–214.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3.
United Nations Development Programme. (2016). Human development reports 2015: Gender Inequality Index
(GII). Retrieved from http://hdr.undp.org/en/composite/GII.
Grzegorz Pajestka PhD, Assistant Professor, Institute of Psychology, Opole University, Plac
Staszica 1, Opole, Poland.
E-mail: gpajestka@uni.opole.pl
Website: http://www.psychologia.uni.opole.pl
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
51
IMPROVING POSITIVE AFFECT BASED

ON SELF-COMPASSION THROUGH LIFE
GOALS EXPRESSIVE WRITING: BASIS
FOR AN EGO IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT
AMONG STUDENTS
Dennis Relojo
Psychreg, United Kingdom
E-mail: dennis.relojo@gmail.com
Rona dela Rosa

Bulacan State University, Philippines
Abstract
The act of written emotional disclosure has been widely studied for the past several decades. Yet, in spite
of this, there are limited studies which examine the interplay of expressive writing, self-compassion and
positive affect, along with its potential to augment ego identity among students. Using repeated measures
experimental design, the present research explored the efficacy of expressive writing in improving levels of
positive affect among university students ageing 18-25 (M = 19.23; SD = 1.21). Participants were tested
in groups and wrote either about life goals (n = 46), positive experiences (n = 49) or a control topic (n =
46). Two separate three-way ANOVA were carried out to investigate whether writing about life goals has
an impact on the students’ positive affect. It further examined how students could benefit according to their
self-compassion levels. Regardless of the form of expressive writing, students did not significantly differ on
the levels of positive affect. The results of this study are aimed at designing intervention for students to help
them develop their ego identity. Future studies employing randomised, controlled designs are warranted.
Keywords: expressive writing, positive affect, self-compassion.
Introduction
Expressive writing, sometimes called written emotional disclosure, essentially involves ex-
pressing oneself through writing. This form of therapy was introduced by James Pennebaker and
Sandra Klihr Beall (1986). Their pioneering work involved asking participants to write about a ‘past
trauma’, as a way of conveying their deepest feelings and thoughts. In contrast, control groups were
told to write about neutral topics like writing about their plans for the day, which consequently
prevent them from revealing their hidden emotions. Both groups were requested to do this for 15
minutes each day for four consecutive days. Since its introduction, expressive writing (EW) has been
increasingly used in a variety of ways to improve wellness, ranging from raising the self-concept of
adolescents (Facchin, Margola, Molgora, & Revenson, 2014) to helping people with traumatic injury
(Bugg, Turpin, Mason, & Scholes, 2009), as well as improving the regulation of emotion-related
experiences, physiological responses and behaviours (Lepore, Greenberg, Bruno, & Smyth, 2002).
ISSN 2538-7197 (Online) Dennis RELOJO, Rona dela ROSA. Improving positive affect based on self-compassion through life goals expressive writing: Basis for
PROBLEMS an ego identity development among students
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Owing to the capacity of expressive writing to improve well-being, the present study would
52
like to investigate whether expressive writing can deliver the same effect to improving positive af-
fect (PA). Ultimately, the research aims to assess whether this intervention could be employed to
improved ego identity among students.
As an important aspect of personality, PA needs to be augmented among students. It has
been observed that PA develops creative thinking among students. For instance, in one study (Bye,
Pushkar, & Conway, 2007), it was reported that non-traditional students reported higher levels
of intrinsic motivation for learning than did traditional students. Intrinsic motivation correlated
with positive affect more strongly for non-traditional than for traditional students. For all students,
interest and age emerged as significant predictors of intrinsic motivation to learn, and both inter-
est and intrinsic motivation significantly predicted positive affect. Other findings indicated that
participants in the high flow condition reported higher increases in PA and flow than those in the
low flow condition, and that change in flow mediated the relationship between group and change
in PA (Rogatko, 2009).
PA is an important aspect of emotion, especially among adolescents. Numerous studies show
that happy individuals are successful across multiple life domains, including marriage, friend-
ship, income, work performance, and health. A conceptual model has been suggested to account
for these findings, arguing that the happiness-success link exists not only because success makes
people happy, but also because positive affect engenders success. Three classes of evidence (cross-
sectional, longitudinal, and experimental) are documented to test their model. Relevant studies
are described and their effect sizes combined meta-analytically. The results reveal that happiness
is associated with and precedes numerous successful outcomes, as well as behaviours paralleling
success. Furthermore, the evidence suggests that positive affect, the hallmark of well-being, may
be the cause of many of the desirable characteristics, resources, and successes correlated with hap-
piness (Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005).
Although research on coping over the past 30 years has produced convergent evidence about
the functions of coping and the factors that influence it, psychologists still have a great deal to learn
about how coping mechanisms affect diverse outcomes. One of the reasons more progress has not
been made is the almost exclusive focus on negative outcomes in the stress process. Coping theory
and research need to consider positive outcomes as well. The study (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000)
focused on one such outcome, positive affect, and review findings about the co-occurrence of
positive affect with negative affect during chronic stress, the adaptive functions of positive affect
during chronic stress, and a special class of meaning-based coping processes that support positive
affect during chronic stress.
Aim of Research
The aim of this research is to identify whether positive affect, based on levels of compassion,
can be improved through life goals expressive writing. The overarching aim of the research is to
utilise this finding to design an intervention to help students develop their ego identity.
The result of this research would be beneficial to the students themselves, teachers, parents,
and to other stakeholders.
General Background
Since this research wants to implement an intervention programme for students, it has been
decided that the participants for the study would also be students. The present research uses quan-
titative approach and the participants came from a private university in Manila, Philippines. They
were briefed about the nature of the research and informed consents were obtained. Permission
was also sought from the university. The study was conducted in 2016 and was limited to university
students in the Philippines.
Dennis RELOJO, Rona dela ROSA. Improving positive affect based on self-compassion through life goals expressive writing: Basis for ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
an ego identity development among students PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Sample Selection
53
A total of 141 university students ageing 18–25 (M = 19.23, SD = 1.20) were recruited to
write either about life goals, positive experiences, or a review of a film they have recently seen.
Participants were recruited inside the university lectures. Their participation was voluntary, and
no credits or tokens were given.
Instruments and Procedures
Self-compassion was assessed using Self-compassion Scale (SCS; Neff, 2003). The SCS is a 26-
item measure tapping self-kindness, self-judgement, common humanity, isolation, mindfulness, and
over identification. Participants respond to various items such as ‘How I typically act toward myself
in difficult times’ on a five-point scale, with higher total scores indicating greater self-compassion.
In the current study, internal consistency is good (α = .72).
The Types of Positive Affect Scale (TPAS; Gilbert et al., 2008) is an 18-item scale in which
participants rate their feelings on a series of five-point scale to indicate how characteristic those
feelings are of them. The scale measures three types of positive affect: activating positive affect
(e.g., energetic, excited, active); relaxed positive affect (e.g., relaxed, peaceful, calm); and safeness/
contentment positive affect (e.g., safe, secure, warm). In the current study, the internal consistency
was high (baseline, α = .82; follow-up, α = .86) and test-retest reliability was also high (α = .80).
Using this scale, emotion words such as secure, calm, active, etc. were rated by participants on how
characteristic these words were of them, at that moment.
Data Analysis
In analysing the main variables, the obtained TPAS scores were grouped into two, whereby
scores of 28-48 were categorised as low positive affect and scores of 49-69 were categorised as high
positive affect. Similarly, SCS were categorised as low self-compassion (27-40), and high self-compas-
sion (41-53). In addition, the three subscales of TPAS: active positive affect, relaxed positive affect,
and safe/warmth positive affect were also analysed relative to their baseline and follow-up scores.
Two separate three-way independent ANOVA were carried out to investigate whether the
forms of expressive writing (life goals, positive experiences, or life goals) and self-compassion have
an impact on positive affect.
Results of Research
It was explored whether there were any baseline differences between each of the experimen-
tal conditions before conducting the main analyses (refer to Table 1). This analysis revealed that
participants in the life goal condition (M = 52.11) had greater TPAS scores compared to those in
the positive experiences condition (M = 50.16) and the control condition (M = 51.1). Therefore,
in order to control for these baseline differences, scores on self-compassion have been included in
the succeeding analyses. Baseline scores indicate that participants have high levels of positive affect.
TPAS was further explored relative to its three subscales (refer to Table 2). The analysis revealed
that active positive affect showed an increase from the baseline scores, following the writing tasks.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics for positive affect at baseline and follow-up.
Life Goals Positive Experiences Film Review
Baseline Follow-up Baseline Follow-up Baseline Follow-up
M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD M SD
52.10 0.98 53.02 1.03 50.16 1.10 52.20 1.14 51.17 1.75 53.35 1.36
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
As can be seen from Table 1, the group who did expressive writing on life goals had higher scores
54
compared to those who wrote about positive experiences and the control group (i.e., film review).
Table 2. Descriptive statistics for subscales of TPAS.
Baseline Follow-up
M SD M SD
Active 2.98 .04 3.04 .05

Relaxed 2.63 .06 2.75 .07
Safe 2.88 .05 2.94 .02
Participants in the life goals writing tasks and control condition have lower levels of self-
compassion, whereas those who did the positive experiences writing tasks have higher levels of
self-compassion.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics for SCS.
Life Goals Positive Experiences Control
M SD M SD M SD
SCS 40.91 .78 41.40 .76 39.82 .91
As can be seen from Table 3, those who wrote about their positive experiences had higher
levels of SCS compared to those who wrote about life goals and the control group.
Table 4. Analysis of variance controlling for positive affect.
df F η ρ
Writing tasks 2 .76 .46 .01

Self-compassion 1 .41 .52 .05
Writing tasks X self-compassion 2 .34 .71 .05
Error 128
A three-way independent ANOVA was carried out to determine if writing tasks and self-
compassion have main effect on positive affect, with follow-up scores on TPAS as the dependent
variable. Data analysis revealed that there was no significant main effect between the independent
variables on positive affect. Furthermore, there was no significant main effect between writing tasks
and positive affect, F(2, 128) = 0.76, p = .01; and self-compassion and positive affect F(1, 128) =
.41, p = .05.
Discussion
The present research examined the effect of specific forms of EW i.e. life goals EW and posi-
tive experiences EW on positive affect. In addition, it also investigated whether the effect of EW is
moderated by levels of self-compassion. Previous findings (e.g. Troop et al., 2013) reveal that EW
shows promise as a means by which people may decrease their self-criticism.
One study (Dunkley, Zuroff, & Blankstein, 2003) examined both dispositional and situational
influences of self-critical (SC) perfectionism on stress and coping, which explain its association with
high negative affect and low positive affect. Participants completed questionnaires at the end of the
day for seven consecutive days. Structural equation modelling indicated that the relation between SC
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
perfectionism and daily affect could be explained by several maladaptive tendencies associated with
55
SC perfectionism (e.g., hassles, avoidant coping, low perceived social support). Multilevel modelling
indicated that SC perfectionists were emotionally reactive to stressors that imply possible failure,
loss of control, and criticism from others. As well, certain coping strategies (e.g., problem-focused
coping) were ineffective for high-SC perfectionists relative to low-SC perfectionists.
This study reveals no beneficial effects of EW (whether writing about life goals or positive
experiences) on positive affect. This is a novel finding as it indicates that the positive effects of EW
may, initially at least, be achieved depending on how it has been delivered and considering the
nature of the sample. For instance, are the participants predisposed to be influenced by writing
tasks? This is not the first study however to have observed that EW may not generate beneficial
effects. For instance, O’Connor and colleagues (2011) reported absence of beneficial effects of EW,
specifically writing about success stories on the self-reported measures of body image, self-esteem
and psychological well-being. Similarly, another study (Fernández & Páez, 2008) found no effects
by EW were found on positive affect, probably because the study had only one writing session of
brief duration. Stronger feelings of joy, use of positive words, and low use of negative words in the
narratives predicted low emotional activation at follow-up.
Results are contrary to previous studies whereby EW resulted in significant positive outcomes
(e.g. Smyth, Hockemeyer, & Tulloch, 2008; Kirk, Schutte, & Hine, 2011; Lafont, 2011; Arigo &
Smyth, 2012), and a number of factors may account for this inconsistency. First participants spent
15 minutes of writing about their designated topic and no other writing tasks followed. This is con-
trary to previous studies (e.g. O’Connor et al., 2011) where participants are usually invited again to
continue the writing tasks. Therefore, this could be a mechanism whereby EW conditions may not
have been powerful or lengthy enough to affect positive changes in any of the outcome variables.
However, it is interesting to note than on some occasions that EW was administered one-off task
(e.g. Kuiken, Dunn, & LoVerso, 2008) such as writing about dreams that follow trauma and loss and
they have shown effects. But it should be underscored that the present work examined immediate
short-term impact on positive affect.
Lafont and Oberle (2014) investigated the effects of expressive writing on body image of women
varying in eating disorder symptomatology. Ninety-two female undergraduates were randomly
assigned to the writing topic conditions: traumatic events, body image, and room description. At
three times (before, immediately after, and one month after the two-week intervention), participants
selected from among nine figures (a) the figure deemed closest to their current figure, (b) the figure
deemed closest to the ideal figure, and (c) the figure deemed closest to the figure that men prefer.
The current figure ratings decreased after the writing intervention for the high-symptom group
but not the low-symptom group. The ideal and male-preferred figure ratings were not affected by
the intervention and did not differ between the symptom level groups. Based on the first finding,
writing may improve body image perceptions in women with an already distorted body image.
Furthermore, given that participants were not selected on the basis of their levels of self-
compassion, the absence of significant effect may then be attributable to the sample being relatively
‘healthy’. Lastly, given that this is the first study to explore EW on a Filipino population, it remains
unknown whether asking participants to write on their native language has the capacity to influence
the results. This is an interesting area that needs to be addressed in the future.
Drawing from the baseline scores on SCS, it should be considered though that the participants’
levels of self-compassion were not dramatically low to begin with i.e. it could be postulated that
there were no factors about which EW have to protect against.
The present study provides insight into several boundary conditions of EW by examining
whether it would be as effective if it will just be given on a single occasion. It also explored available
findings from a non-Western population. This may also serve as a framework for longitudinally-
designed studies following the effects on positive affect, self-compassion and ego identity.
Limitations and Future Directions
It is recognised that the current study has a number of shortcomings and limitations that
require further comment. First, using a sample of convenience will undoubtedly influence the
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
generalizability of this study, aside from the fact that the experiment was carried out in groups,
56
which may limit the effectiveness of EW. However, EW has been done in groups in the past (e.g.
Klein & Boals, 2001) albeit it has shown positive outcomes.
The study also relied on self-report measures to assess the results of the experiments, but then
previous studies also relied on self-reported measures. Finally, the investigator is mindful that this
is the first study to employ a Filipino sample; therefore, future studies ought to attempt to replicate
the current findings.
Implications
Notwithstanding the limitations described above, the implications of this study are threefold.
First, although the present study reveals that EW does not have significant beneficial effects, its
results could still contribute to current literatures on EW as an intervention tool, as well as on the
available literatures on the roles of self-compassion on positive affect; and as a potential interven-
tion to improve ego identity among students. It will also compare the results with other existing
literatures which is important to avoid ‘hegemony’ as pointed out in an earlier study (Relojo, 2017)
whereby the ruling class values and norms have become naturalised within the scientific research
and knowledge-production on mental illness.
Second, the effectiveness of EW has been well-established on Western population. There were
a few studies that explored it on non-English speakers (e.g., Lu, Zheng, Young, Kagawa-Singer, &
Loh, 2012), but with a relatively small sample. To date, this was the first study to investigate EW
as an intervention tool on a Filipino population. Although the present study did not reveal the
anticipated beneficial results of EW, its findings will lead to comparison on future studies that will
examine the effects of EW on Southeast Asian population.
Lastly, the result of this study will best serve as a pilot for future studies that will evaluate the
efficacy of EW as an intervention tool relative to form of EW (i.e. writing about life goals and writ-
ing about positive experiences), and relative to how it is administered (i.e. whether to administer
it individually or in groups, and whether to administer it on a single instance or for a consecutive
number of periods) to better ascertain its effects. Future works that intend to explore the effects of
EW relative to positive affect should further consider different kinds of positive emotions such as
active positive affect, relaxed positive affect, safe/warmth positive affect as it may yield interesting
insights in this area.
This study could also benefit adolescence. For instance, one investigation focused on the rela-
tive contribution of subscales of cognitive distortion (self-criticism, self-blame, helplessness, and
preoccupation with danger) and the dimensions of parent-child relationship (mother care, mother
overprotection, father care, and father overprotection). However, there are many other variables
that might contribute towards adolescent depression which might be studies in the future. This
finding calls for the improvement of access to adolescent mental health services.
Conclusions
The formation of an ego identity is a major event in the development of personality.
Occurring during late adolescence, the consolidation of identity marks the end of childhood
and the beginning of adulthood. Given that ego identity is such an integral aspect among adoles-
cents, it is vital to help them achieve its optimum development. One of the goals of this study is
discover new and effective interventions to address this.
In light of the results of this study, two robust conclusions have emerged. First, drawing from
a host of literatures, it has been identified that EW may result to a host of health benefits. However,
there is no assurance that it will work all the time. Results of this study offers insights as to what
factors contribute to ensure the efficacy of EW as an intervention tool. This may be attributable to
the fact that EW affects people on a number of aspects: biological, cognitive, emotional and social;
making a single explanatory theory unlikely. Second, a variety of mechanisms can be posited to
ensure its efficacy. Needless to say, future research should further explore its boundary conditions.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
In addition to addressing theory-relevant questions, researchers and therapists must now address
57
how, when and with whom this form of therapy is most beneficial and, at the same time, further
evaluate how and why this intervention produces positive outcomes. This pilot study should pave
the way to further research examining the efficacy of EW to ascertain the difference against Western
population. Future studies employing randomised, controlled trial designs are warranted.
References
Acharya, S., Pilao, S.J., dela Rosa, R. (2017). The role of cognitive distortion and parental bonding in depres-
sive symptoms: Exploring he role of family subsystems. Psychreg Journal of Psychology, 1 (1), 53–63.
Arigo, D., & Smyth, J. M. (2012). The benefits of expressive writing on sleep difficulty and appearance con-
cerns for college women. Psychology & Health, 27 (2), 210–226. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.
2011.558196.
Bugg, A., Turpin, G., Mason, S., & Scholes, C. (2009). A randomised controlled trial of the effectiveness of
writing as a self-help intervention for traumatic injury patients at risk of developing post-traumatic stress
disorder. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47 (1), 6–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2008.10.006.
Bye, D., Pushkar, D., & Conway, M. (2007). Motivation, interest, and positive affect in traditional and
nontraditional undergraduate students. Adult Education Quarterly, 57 (2), 141–158. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0741713606294235.
Dunkley, D. M., Zuroff, D. C., & Blankstein, K. R. (2003). Self-critical perfectionism and daily affect: Disposi-
tional and situational influences on stress and coping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84
(1), 234–252. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.84.1.234.
Facchin, F., Margola, D., Molgora, S., & Revenson, T. A. (2014). Effects of benefit-focused versus standard
expressive writing on adolescents’ self-concept during the high school transition. Journal of Research
on Adolescence, 24 (1), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12040.
Fernández, I., & Páez, D. (2008). The benefits of expressive writing after the Madrid terrorist attack: Implica-
tions for emotional activation and positive affect. British Journal of Health Psychology, 13(1), 31–34.
https://doi.org/10.1348/135910707x251234.
Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2000). Positive affect and the other side of coping. American Psychologist, 55
(6), 647–654. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.55.6.64.
Gilbert, P., McEwan, K., Mitra, R., Franks, L., Richter, A., & Rockliff, H. (2008). Feeling safe and content:
A specific affect regulation system? Relationship to depression, anxiety, stress, and self-criticism. The
Journal of Positive Psychology, 3 (3), 182–191. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760801999461.
Kirk, B. A., Schutte, N. S., & Hine, D. W. (2011). The effect of an expressive-writing intervention for employees
on emotional self-efficacy, emotional intelligence, affect, and workplace incivility. Journal of Applied
Social Psychology, 41 (1), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00708.x.
Klein, K., & Boals, A. (2001). The relationship of life event stress and working memory capacity. Applied
Cognitive Psychology, 15 (5), 565–579. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.727.
Kuiken, D., Dunn, S., & LoVerso, T. (2008). Expressive writing about dreams that follow trauma and loss.
Dreaming, 18 (2), 77–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/1053-0797.18.2.77.
Lafont, J., & Oberle, C. D. (2014). Expressive writing effects on body image: Symptomatic versus asymptomatic
women. Psychology, 5 (5), 431–440. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.55053.
Lepore, S. J., Greenberg, M. A., Bruno, M., & Smyth, J. M. (2002). Expressive writing and health: Self-regulation
of emotion-related experience, physiology, and behavior. In S. J. Lepore & J. M. Smyth (Eds.), The writ-
ing cure: How expressive writing promotes health and emotional well-being (pp. 99-117). http://
dx.doi.org/10.1037/10451-005.
Lu, Q., Zheng, D., Young, L., Kagawa-Singer, M., & Loh, A. (2012). A pilot study of expressive writing inter-
vention among Chinese-speaking breast cancer survivors. Health Psychology, 31 (5), 548–551. https://
doi.org/10.1037/a0026834.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Lyubomirsky, S., King, L., & Diener, E. (2005). The benefits of frequent positive affect: Does happiness lead
58 to success? Psychological Bulletin, 131 (6), 803–855. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.6.803.
Neff, K. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2
(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027.
O’Connor, D. B., Hurling, R., Hendrickx, H., Osborne, G., Hall, J., Walklet, E. & Wood, H. (2011). Effects of
written emotional disclosure on implicit self-esteem and body image. British Journal of Health Psychol-
ogy, 16 (3), 488-501. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910710x523210.
Pennebaker, J. W., & Beall, S. K. (1986). Confronting a traumatic event: Toward an understanding of inhibi-
tion and disease. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 95 (3), 274-281. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-
843x.95.3.274.
Relojo, D. (2017). Interview with Bruce Cohen, author of Psychiatric hegemony: A Marxist theory of mental
illness. Psychreg Journal of Psychology, 1 (1), 80-82.
Rogatko, T. P. (2009). The influence of flow on positive affect in college students. Journal of Happiness Stud-
ies, 10 (2), 133-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-007-9069-y.
Smyth, J. M., Hockemeyer, J. R., & Tulloch, H. (2008). Expressive writing and post-traumatic stress disorder:
Effects on trauma symptoms, mood states, and cortisol reactivity. British Journal of Health Psychology,
13 (1), 85-93. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910707x250866.
Troop, N. A., Chilcot, J., Hutchings, L., & Varnaite, G. (2013). Expressive writing, self-criticism, and self-
reassurance. Psychology and Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 86 (4), 374-386. https://
doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8341.2012.02065.x.
Received: July 17, 2017 Accepted: December 10, 2017
Dennis Relojo MSc Research Methods in Psychology, Founder, Psychreg, London,

United Kingdom.
E-mail: dennis.relojo@gmail.com
Website: http://www.psychreg.org/
Rona dela Rosa PhD, English Language Studies, Bulacan State University, Philippines.
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
59
STUDENTS’ SELF-ASSESSMENT OF
ONE’S ABILITIES FOR THEIR LIFE
GOALS ACHIEVEMENT
Stanislava Stoyanova, Stavroula Roumbou, Christos Douvlos,

Tsvetelina Hadzhieva, Stavroula-Vera Strychnou,
Dimana Arnautovska, Nikolay Ivantchev
South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Bulgaria
E-mail: avka@abv.bg, svroubou@gmail.com, chrdouv@hotmail.com, cufi86@abv.bg,
verastrychnou@gmail.com, dimana89@gmail.com, nikyart@swu.bg
Abstract
Goal achievement is considered to be related to need satisfaction, motivation, and self-esteem. The self-
assessed abilities for goal achievement were operationalized as positive self-talk, perceived self-efficacy,
the performance level of doing a task, the aspiration level, the in/congruence between performance and
prognosis, and frustration tolerance to pursue one’s goals in spite of some obstacles. In total, 392 students
whose mean age was 21 years old were investigated, divided in sub-samples, with the positive self-talk scale
from the ASTQS questionnaire, the self-efficacy scale by Schwarzer & Jerusalem, and the AHA computer-
ized test method from Vienna test system. Students’ self-assessment of one’s abilities for goal achievement
revealed the most frequent high levels of perceived self-efficacy and good performance in coding tasks.
The other self-assessed abilities for goal achievement were expressed more often at a medium level. The
gender differences in the performance level of doing a task were compared to some previous results that
indicated a variety of trends, because of the age peculiarities and the types of the tasks that were executed.
The advance in age was related to more frequent use of positive self-talk and lower aspiration level, besides
to lower performance level. The proposed model of the abilities for goal achievement was successfully
approbated in this study revealing the strengths in the students’ self-assessment of one’s abilities for goal
achievement and some weaknesses that should be the focus of further interventions in order to increase
the students’ frustration tolerance ability and the use of positive self-talk.
Keywords: aspiration level, frustration tolerance, life goal, perceived self-efficacy, positive self-talk.
Introduction
The personality characteristics are interrelated. Human performance reflects some personality
characteristics as the abilities that are manifested in the behavioural acts. Performance may depend on
the way one’s abilities and personality traits are self-perceived and self-assessed. Human performance
is considered to be successful when some positively evaluated goals are achieved. Goal achievement
means successful performance in different areas of human life. Self-assessment of goal achievement
may be related to the perceived life satisfaction and to the beliefs in one’s abilities for coping with
difficulties. Goal achievement follows from defining own needs and the motivation to satisfy them.
ISSN 2538-7197 (Online) Stanislava STOYANOVA, Stavroula ROUMBOU, Christos DOUVLOS, Tsvetelina HADZHIEVA, Stavroula-Vera STRYCHNOU, Dimana
PROBLEMS ARNAUTOVSKA, Nikolay IVANTCHEV. Students’ self-assessment of one’s abilities for their life goals achievement
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Goal Achievement Related to Need Satisfaction and Motivation

60
Human needs stimulate human activity, the direction and the goal of the behaviour. A need
is an internal state of perceiving some lack or imbalance that can provoke or strengthen some
behavioural response (Obuchowski, 1981, p.83; Pinder, 1998, p.544) searching for balance, com-
fort and survival. A need is apperception of some obstacle, harm or deficit that provokes a desire
(Murray, 1938, р.153) for moving to correspondence between the external and internal condi-
tions, as well as for internal harmony and balance at a given time period (Desev, 2006). The need
stimulates the personality for seeking a resource or a means for its satisfaction that is expressed
in motive for behaviour (Leontiev, 1971). Human activity is stimulated by the motives based on
some needs, but also by the attitudes, the habits, the interests, the values, the health status and the
temperament that interact with the motives determining the degree of expression of human activ-
ity, for example the habits support the choice between several contradictory motives (Stankova,
2007). The need has to be realized in order to become a motive and its satisfaction may have been
transformed into a habit (Kiknadze, 1968).
Need satisfaction (satisfaction of physical, emotional and intellectual needs), self-limiting
adaptation (needs to cope, needs for security, needs for belonging), creative expansion (needs for
productivity, leadership and self-expression) and upholding internal order (needs for constancy,
organization and unity of own personality) are related to self-determination, self-efficacy and
achievement of life goals in human development (Bühler, 1933; Derobertis, 2006).
The goal is a component of the act of the will, together with the motives, decision, set and
the act itself (Stankova, 2007). The goals may be determined in some constructive or destructive
ways. An example for a constructive goal is the goal for sports achievements. An example for a
destructive goal is the goal of success with all means, for example by means of cheating. There
are some gender and age differences in the goals that are formulated, because of gender and age
differences in motives (Stankova, 2007).
Motivation delivers energy, stimulates towards some activity, determines the direction of
behaviour for achieving some goals and supports the efforts for realizing these goals (Murry, 1938)
that are often voluntarily self-determined. Motivation answers why and how the human being
acts (in Desev, 2006, p.290). When one feels that what he or she does gives him/her satisfaction,
this person is motivated (Tomova, 2008).
Motivation gives meaning to human activity contributing to personal development and
self-realization (Allport, 1961; Stankova, 2007). Motivation activates and goal-directs the human
behaviour, and it contributes to building self-esteem (Stankova, 2007), because of one’s goals that
are realized and the achievements that are acquired. If the individuals do not manage to affirm
themselves in a constructive and socially approved way, they start posing some destructive goals
as the only possible way of goal achievement. That is the reason that some studies relate high self-
esteem with manifested aggression (Barry, Frick & Killian, 2003) as a way of achieving one’s goal
of self-recognition and self-affirmation, related to the striving for one’s importance formulated
by Adler (1997).
The Link between Self-Esteem and Aggression as a Means for Goal Achievement
The relation between self-esteem and aggression is controversial (Donellan, Trzesniewski,

Robins, Moffitt, & Caspi, 2005), as both low and high self-esteem have been associated with an-
tisocial and aggressive behaviour (Barry, Frick & Killian, 2003). Low self-esteem is assumed to
generate feelings of inferiority that urge people to express aggressiveness (Bushman et al., 2009;
Donnellan et al., 2005) in order to dominate others (Papps & O’Carroll, 1998), while individu-
als with high self-esteem tend to be aggressive in order to protect their self-image from threats
(Barry et al., 2003; Papps & O’Carroll, 1998). The issue becomes more complicated considering
that research has also shown that both aggressive and non-aggressive people are characterized
by high levels of self-esteem (Garofalo, Holden, Zeigler‐Hill, & Velotti, 2006). Diamantopoulou,
Rydell and Henricsson (2008) concluded that aggression in children is related to both low and high
Stanislava STOYANOVA, Stavroula ROUMBOU, Christos DOUVLOS, Tsvetelina HADZHIEVA, Stavroula-Vera STRYCHNOU, Dimana ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
ARNAUTOVSKA, Nikolay IVANTCHEV. Students’ self-assessment of one’s abilities for their life goals achievement PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
self-esteem. In particular, low self-esteem was related to negative emotions and aggression, while
61
exaggerated self-esteem was linked with externalizing problems, including aggression, especially
in boys. In a similar vein, Barry et al. (2003) revealed that self-esteem level mediates the link
between narcissism and conduct problems, as children with low self-esteem and high narcissism
were found to manifest the highest rates of symptoms of conduct problems.
Donnellan et al. (2005) found a strong relation between low self-esteem and antisocial
behaviour, aggression and delinquency. In addition, their results suggested that self-esteem can
predict future externalization of problems. In contrast, Bushman et al.’s (2009) findings from
their meta-analysis revealed that high self-esteem, in combination with high narcissism, results
in the highest levels of aggression, while there were no indications of the contribution of low self-
esteem to aggression. The researchers concluded that aggression is caused by threatened egotism,
in consistency with previous literature (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003; Bushman
& Baumeister, 1998).
In order to advance knowledge regarding the relation between self-esteem and aggression,
Garofalo et al. (2006) examined the mediating effect of emotion dysregulation. They found that
individuals with deficits in emotion regulation were prone to anger, hostility and aggressive behav-
iour, while self-esteem had an indirect effect on anger and aggression. Aggression as a means for
goal achievement was related to self-esteem, but self-esteem has some links to more constructive
ways of goal achievement. It has been found that students’ global self-esteem correlated positively
with their academic motivation (Peneva, & Stoyanova, 2011) and their needs for achievement
(in Dilova, Papazova, & Koralov, 2017; Peneva, & Stoyanova, 2011). Goal setting is effective
for strengthening self-esteem (Burton & Weiss, 2008; Mooney & Mutrie, 2000) that is why it is
important some categories of students, such as the students with special educational needs, to
define one’s goals and to strive for their achievement. Besides, goal setting is a means to enhance
and maintain performance (Brawley, Carron & Widmeyer, 1992; Du Brin, 2012). The individuals
with specific, challenging, but achievable goals perform better than those with effortless, or no
goals at all provided that they have adequate ability, realize and accept the goals, as well as attain
feedback that relates to performance (Latham, 2003). The students’ abilities for goal achievement
are present and self-assessed also by the students with special educational needs.
Interventions to Improve Goal Attainment of Students with Special Educational Needs
The students’ involvement in the educational process, their interaction and integration en-
hance their healthy development and achievement of their educational goals. Educational materi-
als, programs or books offer a variety of creative ways that the teacher can apply to support the
students’ achievements (Howe, 1996).
A basic prerequisite for the design and execution of specific educational programs is the
knowledge of characteristics of people with disabilities (Kroustalakis, 2005, p.67). The differences
in the education of these students compared to other students of their age are highlighted in
such areas as curriculum content, teaching strategies used, media and materials needed to teach,
acquired and used language, physical and motor skills, and social characteristics (Panteliadou &
Antoniou, 2008).
Inclusive education is a process of integration that brings together all students to learn
together, helping to recognize and appreciate the unique gifts everyone has. Every student with
disabilities, within the framework of acceptance, can be an active member of the normal learning
process by participating to the maximum extent in the events and activities. Inclusion is above all a
philosophy that accepts every student as a competent and remarkable member of the community,
regardless of the nature and degree of difficulty, he or she has the opportunity to participate in
social life (Cortenay-Frazier, Tomblin & Bishop, 2013).
The basic principles of inclusion for a disability student are (Norwich, 2010, pp. 47-111):
1. The student is an integral part of general education.
2. The student has the right to be respected for his/her personality and a positive approach
that will lead him/her to increase his / her participation and limit his / her isolation.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
3. Finally, the student has the right to personalized teaching, so the institution must be
62 prepared to respond to the diversity of each student.
According to the concept of inclusive education, separate special education should be abol-
ished and all students with special needs should be taught in general education. This means that
general education should redefine its goals, limit the emphasis only on academic progress, change
curricula and emphasize students’ social relationships (Porpodas, 1997, p.43).
For enhancing the possibilities of goal attainment of students with special educational needs,
the mistakes in the learning process must be identified by the teacher at the time they occur, so
that they are not consolidated and repeated by the students. It is recommendable a task to be de-
livered at a specific time, positive reinforcement to be used, and an appropriate classroom climate
to be created that favours good performance by students. Even eye contact with the teacher is a
prerequisite for gathering and maintaining attention (Thanopoulos, 2005, p.331). Continuous
exercise and repetition may enhance students’ confidence in their learning abilities, especially
when positive feedback is given to them. Reflection on own personality traits and implemented
actions in learning is related to the striving for self-importance (Stoyanova, 2016). It is important
every student to be self-confident, self-assured in one’s abilities for goal achievements in order to
set positively estimated goals striving for self-importance, as Adler (1997) indicated the regulative
power of striving for self-importance on human behaviour and goals in life.
Setting and Achieving Goals as a Kind of Novelty Seeking
People try to create a positive image of themselves that may be regarded as a goal in the
process of communication. The first impressions are the basis for further conclusions. People use
different attributes to build their first impressions – appearance, clothes, non-verbal and verbal
behaviour, and they strive to make a positive first impression. The way of self-expression depends
on the goals that the individual set and his/her personal preferences. The human goals determine
every aspect of human behaviour. The goals that are self-defined may be changed following some
modern trends in the society, the preferences for self-expression, the desire for manipulation of
others’ impressions, and the need for novelty seeking.
A Novelty seeker likes frequent changes that means he or she may change frequently his/
her life goals, because of his/her many-sided interests, love for taking risks and the desire for
change in daily routine. The results from some studies indicated that the type of Novelty seekers
was among the rarest career motivators for Bulgarian students from 2007 to 2015 (Ivantchev, &
Stoyanova, 2015), as it was non-preferred by the Greek students (Giannouli, & Stoyanova, 2014).
Some research findings reveal the existence of age differences in Novelty seekers (Giannouli, &
Stoyanova, 2014). The focus of this paper is on youth people that are in a situation of actively
seeking and experimenting with different roles and goals in their life.
The consuming society imposes more and more goals as the standards to be achieved in order
to be satisfied the human needs arising in comparison with the other members of the society. The
widespread of information in the technological world facilitates setting more various goals. Famous
people may impose their goals by means of promoting their values and desired qualities. Young
people often are influenced by the vogue trends in the society imitating their favourite celebri-
ties, referent personalities and groups in their life models and personal goals. An internal conflict
may arise in the young person who conformed only externally with the goal of another person/
group without being an equal partner in the process of exchange of ideas, goals, and models in
the society. The processes of dehumanization and easy manipulation may occur when following
others’ goals, values, and models. It is important young people to realize that they are supported
by their families and their referent people/groups in order to be authentic, to develop their abili-
ties and qualities in a constructive way encouraged by the society and accepted by themselves,
following one’s goals and dreams.
Such personality characteristic as high frustration tolerance may facilitate the persistence for
achievement of one’s goals. Frustration tolerance may be stimulated by positive self-talk. Positive
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
self-talk entails self-belief statements with explanatory function that encourage, uplift support,
63
and stimulate some attributes (Hardy, 2006; Moran, 1996).
Self-talk is related to performance and goal attainment, because self-efficacy affects self-talk
(Kolovelonis, Goudas, & Dermitzaki, 2011; Hardy, 2006; Hardy, Oliver & Tod, 2009). In addi-
tion, the utilization of self-talk regulates anxiety and thus, it promotes efficiency (Hardy, Jones,
& Gould, 1996).
Based on the above findings and literature review, three hypotheses were formulated to study
students’ self – assessment of one’s abilities for life goals achievement:
1. It was expected students’ self-assessment of one’s abilities for goal achievement to
reveal high levels of perceived abilities for goal achievement expressed in perceived
self-efficacy, frustration tolerance (being resistant to repeated negative feedback in
the attempts to goal achievement), positive self-talk, setting realistic goals, high per-
formance level of doing a task, and congruence between performance and prognosis.
2. Some gender differences were expected in students’ self-assessment of one’s abilities
for goal achievement (perceived self-efficacy, frustration tolerance, positive self-talk,
setting realistic goals, high performance level of doing a task, and congruence between
performance and prognosis).
3. It was expected age to correlate with the students’ perceived abilities for goal achieve-
ment (perceived self-efficacy, frustration tolerance, positive self-talk, aspiration level,
performance level, and target discrepancy).
Method of Research
General Background
Several methodological approaches have been applied to measure goal setting such as for
example think-aloud, self-monitoring, self-declaration inventories, and questionnaires (Cacioppo
& Petty, 1981; Farrow, Chivers, Hardingham, & Sachse, 1998; Glass & Arnkoff, 1997). This re-
search was a cross-sectional research – each participant was studied only once. The research lasted
within several months. It was focused on students as the social category that will make their most
important life goal decisions in the near future and they will strive to attain their goals related to
their career and family life. The participating students were randomly divided into three groups
and each group was studied with a different instrument (questionnaire/computerized test method).
The proposed research model of self-assessment of one’s life goals achievement included several
variables to be measured in order to obtain more detailed and precise research findings. The goal
achievement may be measured on the basis of the products from human activity in order to be
made some conclusions about the level of performance. The goal achievement may be more pre-
cisely assessed using some additional indicators, such as:
•• if the goal that was set may be considered as a realistic goal,
•• if the individual persisted to pursue the goal till its realization, in spite of some ob-
stacles,
•• if the individual uses positive self-talk (for example, to encourage goal pursuit, to
improve one’s performance increasing self-confidence in one’s abilities, etc.),
•• if there is congruence between performance and prognosis,
•• and if the individual perceives himself/herself as efficient.
Sample
The participants in the research were purposely selected to be students. Their participation
was voluntarily. The research was approved by the institutional board of South-West University
“Neofit Rilski” as a part of the project (RP-A14/17) “Study of students’ self-efficiency academic and
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
career motivation” financed on a decree by Bulgarian Ministry of Education. The students were
64
approached in groups in their classrooms, as well as individually. The procedure of the study was
explained to them and they voluntarily agreed to participate. The sample was divided into three
sub-groups, each of which was studied with one of the three instruments that were used in the
study. In this way the research was conducted in three stages in order to facilitate the participants
and to reduce the time of research process.
In total, 392 students were investigated. 252 were the female participants and 140 were the
male participants. Their age ranged from 16 to 58 years old (M = 21.3, SD = 6.3) years old. 185
participating students (47.2%) were from 16 to 20 years old. 157 participating students (40.1%)
were from 21 to 30 years old. 20 participating students (5.1%) were from 31 to 40 years old. 11
participating students (2.8%) were from 41 to 58 years old. 22 students (5.6%) did not indicate
their age.
Of the 168 participants studied with Positive self-talk scale, 84 (50%) were male, and 84
(50%) were female students, whose mean age was 17.4, and SD = 0.7 years old.
Of the 92 participants studied with Self-efficacy scale, 11 (12%) were male, and 81 (88%)
were female students, whose mean age was 29.2, and SD = 9.5 years old.
Of the 132 participants studied with the computerized method AHA, 45 (34.1%) were male,
and 87 (65.9%) were female students, whose mean age was 22.2, and SD = 3 years old.
Instruments
Self-assessment of the abilities for goal achievement was operationalized by using ques-
tionnaires and computerized tests for measuring positive self-talk, perceived self-efficacy, the
performance level of doing a task, the aspiration level (setting realistic or unrealistic goals); target
discrepancy between performance and prognosis; and frustration tolerance (being resistant to
repeated negative feedback).
For the assessment of Positive self-talk, the Automatic Self-Talk Questionnaire for Sports
(ASTQS) by Zourbanos et al. (2009) was utilized. It measures positive self-talk rated on a 5-point
scale from never to very often (Taylor, 2014; Zourbanos et al., 2009). It included such items as “I
believe in me”, “I am very well prepared”, “I can make it”, “I believe in my abilities”, “Concentrate
on your goal”, etc. Its Cronbach’s alpha was .732 for the data in this study. M = 66.4; SD = 4.9.
For the assessment of Self-efficacy, the unidimensional Self-efficacy scale by Schwarzer &
Jerusalem (n.d.), Stamova, Schwarzer, & Jerusalem (1993) was applied. It included such items as
“It is easy for me to stick to my aims and accomplish my goals”, “I can usually handle whatever
comes my way”, “If someone opposes me, I can find the means and ways to get what I want”, etc.
The answers were given on a 4-point scale from not at all true to exactly true. Its Cronbach’s alpha
was .712 for the data in this study. M = 30.7; SD = 3.2.
In addition, for the assessment of the performance level, the aspiration level, the target dis-
crepancy and the frustration tolerance ability, one computerized test method from Vienna test
system – Attitudes to work (AHA), was used. Its subtest “Coding symbols” assessed the perfor-
mance level; the aspiration level (whether the subject had a tendency towards setting realistic or
unrealistic goals); target discrepancy (whether prognosis for performance and performance itself
correlated); and frustration tolerance (if the subject was influenced by repeated negative feedback
in the attempts to achieve his/her goal). The participant corresponded four different figures fol-
lowing an indicated model. A high score on the performance level indicates good concentration
performance in specified coding tasks. Concerning the aspiration level, low and high scores indicate
unrealistic objectives. Low scores of frustration tolerance mean a low frustration tolerance. Low
scores on the target discrepancy indicate high agreement between performance and prognosis,
very high scores are considered to be a sign for great discrepancy (Kubinger, Ebenhöh, Karner,
& Sommer, 2003).
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Data Analysis
65
Data were statistically processed by means of SPSS 20, applying descriptive statistics for
computing the frequency of the levels of perceived abilities for goal achievement (expression of
perceived self-efficacy, frustration tolerance, positive self-talk, realistic goals, performance level,
and congruence between performance and prognosis. The Chi-square test, along with the One-
sample Binomial test were applied for comparisons of the frequencies of low, medium and high
expressions of the indicators of self-assessed abilities for goal achievement. Independent samples
T-test was used for gender comparisons in the indicators of self-assessed abilities for goal achieve-
ment. Pearson correlation coefficient estimated the correlations between the age and the indicators
of self-assessed abilities for goal achievement.
Results of Research
The indicators of the students’ abilities for goal achievement are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Frequency distribution of levels of expression of students’ abilities for

goal achievement.
Low level Low level Medium level Medium level High level High level
Indicators
frequency percent frequency percent frequency percent
Performance level 2 1.5 55 41.7 75 56.8

Perceived self-efficacy 0 0 43 46.7 49 53.3
Target discrepancy level 6 4.5 77 58.3 49 37.1
Frustration tolerance level 13 9.8 98 74.2 21 15.9
Positive Self-Talk 27 16.1 122 72.6 19 11.3
Aspiration level 30 22.7 88 66.7 14 10.6
The high levels of such abilities for goal achievement as perceived self-efficacy and the per-
formance level were the most frequent ones, followed by their medium levels of expression (see
Table 1). Self-assessment of the abilities for goal achievement revealed prevalence of medium level
of such abilities as frustration tolerance, positive self-talk, aspirations (i.e., setting realistic goals),
and target discrepancy (i.e., medium agreement between performance and prognosis), followed
by their high levels of expression (see Table 1). High level of target discrepancy indicates great
discrepancy between performance and prognosis, and taking into account good performance of
the participating students, they tended to underestimate their abilities for successful performance
and goal attainment.
There were some significant differences between the levels of positive self-talk (Chi-square
= 117.25; df = 2; p < .005). The medium level of positive self-talk was more frequent than it was
expected, while the low and the high levels of positive self-talk were less frequent than they were
expected (see Figure 1).
There were not any significant differences between the levels of the perceived self-efficacy
(One-sample Binomial test = 43; N = 92; p = .602).
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
66
Figure 1: Observed and expected frequencies of the levels of positive self-talk

used by students.
There were some significant differences between the levels of performance (Chi-square =
64.682; df = 2; p < .005). The medium and high levels of positive self-talk were more frequent than
they were expected, while the low level of positive self-talk was less frequent than it was expected
(see Figure 2).
Figure 2: Observed and expected frequencies of the levels of students’

performance on coding tasks.
There were some significant differences between the levels of aspirations (χ2 = 68.909; df = 2;
p < .005). The medium level of aspirations was more frequent than it was expected, while the low
and the high levels of aspirations were less frequent than they were expected (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Observed and expected frequencies of the aspirations levels.
There were some significant differences between the levels of frustration tolerance (χ2 =
100.136; df = 2; p < .005). The medium level of frustration tolerance was more frequent than it was
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
expected, while the low and the high levels of frustration tolerance were less frequent than they
67
were expected (see Figure 4).
Figure 4: Observed and expected frequencies of the levels of frustration

tolerance.
There were some significant differences between the levels of target discrepancy (χ2 = 58.136;
df = 2; p < .005). The medium and high levels of target discrepancy were more frequent than they
were expected, while the low level of target discrepancy was less frequent than it was expected (see
Figure 5).
Figure 5: Observed and expected frequencies of the levels of target

discrepancy.
There were not any gender differences in positive self-talk (t(166) = 0.592; p = .555), per-
ceived self-efficacy (t(90) = 0.763; p = .448), frustration tolerance (t(130) = 0.018; p = .985),
target discrepancy (t(130) = 0.647; p = .519), neither in aspirations (t(130) = 0.647; p = .519).
Performance in coding tasks was better (t(114) = 2.771; p = .007; Levene’s test for equality of
variances = 6.713, p = .011) in studied male students (M = 86.3; SD = 16.5) than in female stu-
dents (M = 76.8; SD = 22.5).
Advance in age was related to more frequent use of positive self-talk (r = 0.243; df = 166; p
= .001), lower performance level (r = -0.225; df = 130; p = .009), lower aspiration level, i.e. setting
slightly more unrealistic goals (r = -0.244; df = 130; p = .005). However, advance in age did not
correlate significantly with frustration tolerance (r = -0.075; df = 130; p = .39), target discrepancy
(r = 0.145; df = 130; p = .097), neither with perceived self-efficacy (r = -0.021; df = 68; p = .86).
Discussion
The results indicated that the first hypothesis was partially supported. It was expected stu-
dents’ self-assessment of one’s abilities for goal achievement to reveal high levels of perceived
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
abilities for goal achievement expressed in perceived self-efficacy, frustration tolerance (being
68
resistant to repeated negative feedback in the attempts to goal achievement), positive self-talk,
setting realistic goals, high performance level of doing a task, and congruence between perfor-
mance and prognosis.
Students’ self-assessment of one’s abilities for goal achievement revealed the most frequent
high levels only of perceived self-efficacy and good performance in coding tasks. Such consistent
findings indicate that the studied students realistically estimated their performance. The medium
level of the other self-assessed abilities for goal achievement prevailed - the medium level of such
abilities as frustration tolerance, positive self-talk, aspirations (i.e., setting realistic goals), and
target discrepancy (i.e., medium agreement between performance and prognosis). In support of
the first hypothesis, the medium level of such abilities was followed in frequency by their high
levels of expression. There was a trend the students to be prone to underestimate their abilities
for successful performance and goal attainment, not using enough positive self-talk to encourage
their persistence to overcome more difficulties in the process of goal attainment.
The second hypothesis also was partially supported. Some gender differences were expected
in students’ self-assessment of one’s abilities for goal achievement (perceived self-efficacy, frustra-
tion tolerance, positive self-talk, setting realistic goals, high performance level of doing a task,
and congruence between performance and prognosis).
The results indicated that genders differed only in their performance level when doing a task.
The studied male students performed better in coding tasks than the female students in contrast
to the findings by Dekker, Krabbendam, Aben, de Groot, & Jolles (2013) who support that girls
performed better than males on tasks related to information coding, but the age of the students
in both studies differed. Dekker et al. (2013) studied such students whose age varied between
13 and 15 years old, whilst our sample included the students above 16 years old. Another study
of children (4-7 years old) revealed no gender differences in performance on some simple tasks,
but better male performance than female on some advanced tasks (Sullivan, & Bers, 2016). An-
other study revealed no gender differences in performance or beliefs about one’s performance in
18-23 years old participants, but men were prone to choose more challenging tasks (more hard
and difficult tasks) than women, because of high risk taking in men, while women were either
risk averse or uncertain about their ability (Niederle, & Yestrumskas, 2008). Some other authors
also stated about some gender differences in the formulated goals, explaining them with gender
differences in motives (Stankova, 2007).
As Dekker et al. (2013) conclude, efficiency of information processing is developing in hu-
man life, i.e. performance on some tasks related to coding may vary in dependence on gender
and age. Besides, the task in our study and the tasks in the studies conducted by Dekker et al.
(2013), Niederle, & Yestrumskas (2008), Sullivan, & Bers (2016) differed that could explain the
variety of the findings regarding gender differences in task performance. The type of the executed
tasks may contribute to the contradictory results regarding gender differences in performance.
This research did not find any significant gender differences in self-assessment of such abili-
ties for goal achievement as positive self-talk, perceived self-efficacy, frustration tolerance, target
discrepancy, neither in aspiration level. These results were in correspondence with the findings
by Niederle, & Yestrumskas (2008) who found no gender differences in the beliefs about one’s
performance that may be considered as self-assessed abilities for goal achievement.
The third hypothesis was partially supported. It was expected age to correlate with the
students’ perceived abilities for goal achievement (perceived self-efficacy, frustration tolerance,
positive self-talk, aspiration level, performance level, and target discrepancy). The results indicated
that the advance in age was related to more frequent use of positive self-talk, lower performance
level, and lower aspiration level, i.e. setting slightly more unrealistic goals, in support of the third
hypothesis. Lower performance level with the age advance could be explained by a decline in
the abilities, because of the somatic and physiological changes in the human body when getting
older. Developing positive self-talk may be a means for an individual’s encouragement to put more
efforts in order to compensate the loss of some abilities. Diminishing the level of the aspirations
with the age advance, i.e. setting more unrealistic goals in the direction of underestimation of the
results that may be achieved, corresponds to the age differences in novelty seeking (Giannouli,
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
& Stoyanova, 2014) related to some changes of the goals during human life, as some authors
69
(Stankova, 2007) consider the existence of some age differences in the goals that are set. Besides,
diminishing the level of the aspirations with the age advance could facilitate the maintenance
of high enough level of perceived self-efficacy. The findings revealed that advance in age did not
correlate significantly with perceived self-efficacy, target discrepancy (in/congruence between
performance and prognosis), neither with frustration tolerance, i.e. the persistence to pursue
one’s goals seemed a stable personality trait, as some authors (Schröder, 1997, p.84) consider
frustration tolerance as emotional stability in reaction to (potentially) frustrating events such as
failures, loss, obstacles, etc.
Further studies may differentiate self-assessment of one’s abilities for goal achievement in
the students with special educational needs that as a category of students were not included in
this study, being one of its limitations. If the same subjects were studied with all the used instru-
ments, then some correlations between the operationalized indicators of the abilities for goal
achievement might be computed and examined that would reveal further information about self-
assessment of the structure of such abilities and the relationships between them. A longitudinal
study and a cross-cultural study with the same methods would contribute to further clarifying
the dynamics of the abilities for goal achievement and the significance of the environment for
their development and manifestation.
Conclusions
A model of the abilities for goal achievement has been created that includes such abilities
as positive self-talk, perceived self-efficacy, the performance level of doing a task, the aspiration
level (setting realistic or unrealistic goals); target discrepancy/congruence between performance
and prognosis; and frustration tolerance (being resistant to repeated negative feedback). It has
been applied in practice exploring the way these abilities were self-assessed. The results indicated
a relatively realistic self-assessment of one’s abilities for goal achievement by the students, as the
correspondence of the results on the different indicators implied. The abilities for goal achievement
are important for success in every activity. The sample in the research consisted of students whose
abilities for goal achievement are a necessary condition for their successful learning, because they
have chosen their occupation and status as one of their life goals. The results from the research
suggest that the students can successfully achieve their goals by setting mainly realistic objectives
and prone to high discrepancy between their performance and prognosis for it (underestimat-
ing one’s abilities or efforts), but, however, performing successfully, and perceiving themselves
as self-efficient, whose medium frustration tolerance and medium use of positive self-talk for
self-encouragement should be further developed to contribute more to their goal attainment.
Acknowledgments
The research was conducted as a part of the project (RP-A14/17) “Study of students’ self-effi-
ciency academic and career motivation” financed on a decree by Bulgarian Ministry of Education.
References
Adler, A. (1997). Ponât’ prirodu čeloveka [Understanding human nature]. Saint Petersburg, Russia:
Akademičeskij proekt.
Allport, G. (1961). Pattern and growth in personality. New York: Holt.
Barry, C. T., Frick, P. J., & Killian, A. L. (2003). The relation of narcissism and self-esteem to conduct prob-
lems in children: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology,
32 (1), 139-152.
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better
performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science in the
Public Interest, 4 (1), 1-44.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Brawley, L. R., Carron, A. V., & Widmeyer, W. N. (1992). The nature of group goals in sport teams: A phe-
70 nomenological analysis. The Sport Psychologist, 6 (4), 323-333.
Bühler, C. (1933). Der Menschliche Lebenslauf Als Psychologisches Problem [The course of human life as
a psychological problem]. Leipzig: S. Hirzel.
Burton, D., & Weiss, C. (2008). The fundamental goal concept: The path to process and performance success.
In T. S. Horn, T. S. Horn (Eds.), Advances in Sport Psychology (3rd ed.) (pp. 339-474). Champaign,
IL US: Human Kinetics.
Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and
displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence? Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 75 (1), 219-229.
Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., Thomaes, S., Ryu, E., Begeer, S., & West, S. G. (2009). Looking again,
and harder, for a link between low self-esteem and aggression. Journal of Personality, 77 (2), 427-446.
Cacioppo, J. X., & Petty, R. E. (1981). Social psychological procedures for cognitive response assessment:
The thought-listing technique. In T. V. Merluzzi, C. R. Glass, & M. Genest (Eds.), Cognitive assess-
ment (pp. 309-342). New York: Guilford Press.
Courtenay-Frazier, N., Tomblin, J. B., & Bishop, V. M. (2013). Understanding developmental language
disordes: From theory to practice. Athens: Gutenberg.
Dekker, S., Krabbendam, L., Aben, A., de Groot, R., & Jolles, J. (2013). Coding task performance in early
adolescence: A large-scale controlled study into boy-girl differences. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 550.
http://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00550.
Derobertis, E. M. (2006). Charlotte Bühler’s existential– humanistic contributions to child and adolescent
psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 46 (1), 48-76. DOI: 10.1177/0022167805277116.
Desev, L. (2006). Rechnik po psihologia [Dictionary in psychology]. Sofia: Bulgarika.
Diamantopoulou, S., Rydell, A. M., & Henricsson, L. (2008). Can both low and high self-esteem be related
to aggression in children?. Social Development, 17 (3), 682-698.
Dilova, M., Papazova, E., & Koralov, M. (2017). Bulgarian Standardization of Morris Rosenberg’s Self-
Esteem Scale. Psychological Thought, 10(1), 124-137. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.5964/psyct.v10i1.211.
Donnellan, M. B., Trzesniewski, K. H., Robins, R. W., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2005). Low self-esteem
is related to aggression, antisocial behavior, and delinquency. Psychological Science, 16 (4), 328-335.
Du Brin, A. J. (2012). Essentials of management. Mason, OH: Cengage South-Western.
Farrow, D., Chivers, P., Hardingham, C., & Sachse, S. (1998). The effect of video-based perceptual training
on the tennis return of serve. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 29 (3), 231-242.
Garofalo, C., Holden, C. J., Zeigler-Hill, V., & Velotti, P. (2016). Understanding the connection between self-
esteem and aggression: The mediating role of emotion dysregulation. Aggressive Behavior, 42 (1), 3-15.
Giannouli, V., & Stoyanova, S. (2014). The factor structure and psychometric properties of the Greek version
of career motivational types (CMT-Q): Cross-Cultural comparison in Greece and Bulgaria. Archives
of Assessment Psychology, 4 (1), 27-47.
Glass, C. R., & Arnkoff, D. B. (1997). Questionnaire methods of cognitive self-statement assessment. Journal
of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 65 (6), 911–927.
Hardy, J. (2006). Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport and
Exercise, 7 (1), 81-97.
Hardy, J., Oliver, E., & Tod, E. (2009). A framework for the study and application of self-talk within sport.
In S. D. Mellalieu & S. Hanton (Eds.), Advances in applied sport psychology. A review (pp. 37-74).
New York: Routledge.
Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1996). Understanding psychological preparation for sport: Theory and
practice of elite performers. Chichester: Wiley & Sons.
Howe, K. (1996). Educational ethics, social justice and children with disabilities. In Christensen, C. &
Rizvi, F. (Eds.), Disability and the dilemmas of education and justice (pp. 46-62). Berkshire: Open
University Press.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Ivantchev, N., & Stoyanova, S. (2015). Bulgarian students’ career motivation and career choice. Baltic Journal
of Career Education and Management, 3 (1), 35-42.
71
Kiknadze, D. (1968). Potrebnosti. Povedenie. Vospitanie [Needs. Behaviour. Education]. Moscow: Misl.
Kolovelonis, A., Goudas, M., & Dermitzaki, I. (2011). The effects of instructional and motivational self-talk
on students’ motor task performance in physical education. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 12 (2),
153–158. doi:10.1016/j. psychsport.2010.09.002.
Kroustalakis, G. S. (2005). Education. Course of life. Athens: Athens.
Kubinger, K. D., Ebenhöh, J., Karner, T., & Sommer, M. (2003). Attitudes to work. short test battery: Aspi-
ration level, frustration tolerance, performance motivation, impulsiveness/reflexivity. Release 26.00.
Mödling, Austria: Dr.G.Schuhfried Ges.m.b.H., Verlag Swets Test Services.
Latham, G. P. (2003). Goal setting: A five-step approach to behavior change. Organizational Dynamics, 32
(3), 309-318.
Leontiev, N., (1971). Potrebnosti, motivi I emotsii [Needs, motives, and emotions]. Moscow: University of
Moscow Press.
Mooney, R., & Mutrie, N. (2000). The effects of goal specificity and goal difficulty on the performance of
badminton skills in children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 12 (3), 270–283.
Moran, A. P. (1996). The Psychology of concentration in sport performers: A cognitive analysis. Hove, East
Sussex: Psychology Press.
Murray, H. A. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford University Press.
Niederle, M., & Yestrumskas, A. H. (2008). Gender differences in seeking challenges: The role of institutions.
Retrieved in November 2017, from https://web.stanford.edu/~niederle/Niederle.Yestrumskas.2008.
pdf.
Norwich, B. (2010). A response to special educational needs: A new look. In Terzi, L. (Ed.), Special Educa-
tional Needs: A new look (pp. 47-111). London: Continuum.
Obuchowski, K. (1981). Psihologia na choveshkite stremezhi [Psychology of human strivings]. Sofia: Nauka
I Izkustvo.
Panteliadou, S., & Antoniou, F. (2008). Teaching approaches and practices for students with learning difficul-
ties. Retrieved from http://www.edc.uoc.gr/~ptde/ptde/anounc/b_tomeas/diat/LD_Panteliadou_C.
pdf.
Papps, B. P., & O’Carroll, R. E. (1998). Extremes of self-esteem and narcissism and the experience and
expression of anger and aggression. Aggressive Behavior, 24 (6), 421-438.
Peneva, I., & Stoyanova, S. (2011). Adaptatsiya na skalata na M. Rozenberg za izsledvane na globalnata
samootsenka [Adaptation of the scale of M. Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale]. In G. Gercheva-Nestorova
(Ed.), Prilojna psihologia I socialna praktika [Applied psychology and social practice] (Vol. 2, pp.
117-128). Varna, Bulgaria: Varna Free University.
Pinder C., C. (1998). Work motivation in organizational behavior (1st edition). New York; Psychology Press.
Porpodas, K. (1997). Dyslexia, the specific disorder in the written language. Athens: Greek Letters.
Schröder, K. (1997). Self-regulation. Competence in coping with chronic disease. Berlin: Waxmann.
Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (n.d.). The General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE). Retrieved in November 2017,
from http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~health/engscal.htm.
Stamova, I., Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1993). The General Perceived Self-Efficacy Scale. Retrieved
in November 2017, from http://userpage.fu-berlin.de/~health/bulscal.htm.
Stankova, K. (2007). Phizichesko vazpitanie I physiologichni aspekti na sportno-dvigatelnata deinost,
formirashti lichnostta na uchenika [Physical education and physiological aspects of sports and motor
activity forming student’s personality]. Blagoevgrad: South-West University “Neofit Rilski” Press.
Stoyanova, S. (2016). Reflexia v obuchenieto i stremezh kam sobstvena znachimost [Reflection in education
and striving for self-importance]. Phylosophy, 25 (3), 313-321.
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
Sullivan, A., & Bers, M. U. (2016). Girls, boys, and bots: Gender differences in young children’s performance
72 on robotics and programming tasks. Journal of Information Technology Education: Innovations in
Practice, 15, 145-165.
Taylor, R. (2014). The relationship between self-talk and flow experiences in endurance athletes. Master’s
Degree Thesis. Murfreesboro, TN: Faculty of the Graduate School at Middle Tennessee State University.
Thanopoulos, T. (2005). Educational programs for children with particular learning difficulties and educa-
tional needs. Athens: Astrapos.
Tomova, D. (2008). Ekipna organizatsia na physicheskoto vazpitanie [Team organization of physical educa-
tion]. Blagoevgrad: South-West University “Neofit Rilski” Press.
Zourbanos, N., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Chroni, S., Theodorakis, Y., & Papaioannou, A. (2009). Automatic
Self-Talk Questionnaire for Sports (ASTQS): Development and preliminary validation of a measure
identifying the structure of athlete’s self-talk. The Sport Psychologist, 23 (2), 233–251.
Stanislava Stoyanova PhD, Professor, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad,

Bulgaria.
E-mail: avka@abv.bg
Stavroula Roumbou PhD Student, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad,

Bulgaria.
E-mail: svroubou@gmail.com
Christos Douvlos PhD Student, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad,

Bulgaria.
E-mail: chrdouv@hotmail.com
Tsvetelina Hadzhieva PhD Student, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad,

Bulgaria.
E-mail: cufi86@abv.bg
Stavroula-Vera Strychnou PhD Student, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad,

Bulgaria.
E-mail: verastrychnou@gmail.com
Dimana Arnautovska PhD Student, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad,

Bulgaria.
E-mail: dimana89@gmail.com
Nikolay Ivantchev PhD, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria.

E-mail: nikyart@swu.bg
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
73
SCIENTIFIC METHODICAL CENTRE
„SCIENTIA EDUCOLOGICA“
The Associated Member of
Lithuanian Scientific Society and International Council of
Association for Science Education /ICASE/
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/PPC/Problems_of_Psychology.htm
E-mail: problemsofpsychology@gmail.com
General Information
The publication language is English and Russian. All authors must take care of the language revision
by they own. The language must be clear and accurate. The work should be written in an impersonal style.
The editor reserves the right to send the manuscript to be reviewed. If English is a second language for
the author, please consider having the manuscript proof read and edited before submitting.
Format of Manuscripts
Abstract
The first page of the manuscript must begin with the title of the paper and an abstract which should
be in the interval of 150 - 500 words. For papers reporting original research, state in brief: the primary
objective (the research questions addressed or any hypothesis tested); the research design; the methods
and procedures employed; the number of subjects; the main outcomes and results; the conclusions drawn
from these data and results, including their implications for further research or application/practice.
Key words
Please provide 3 to 5 key words or short phrases in apphabetical order.
The structure of the manuscript (recommended)

The body of the text of the manuscript must generally have the following parts:
•• title (The title should be less than ten words and should reflect the factual content of the paper);
•• abstract + key words;
•• introduction (The introduction should contextualize the study);
•• methodology of research;
•• results of research;
•• discussion (The results should be interpreted in light of other published results);
•• conclusions (Bring out the significance of the research paper);
•• acknowledgements (if any);
•• references (in APA style);
•• summary (only for manuscripts which main text is in Russian),
•• appendix (if any).
P.S. The structure of paper can be different if the paper is only theoretical qualitative research. A
qualitative scientific paper is a description of an event, activity, observation, research or experience.
The structure of a qualitative paper includes an abstract, introduction, background to the problem, the
researcher’s role, theoretical perspective, methodology, ethical considerations, data analysis, results,
limitations, discussion, conclusions and implications, references and appendix.
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
74 The length of the manuscript

The manuscript should be not shorter than 5 pages (including references, tables and figures). Manu-
scripts should be typed on A4, in Times New Roman 12-point font size, single-spacing, 2,5 cm with all
the margins, word-document (Word 6.0 or later) format.
Titles
The name of the paper 14-point, bold with capital letters, align left; titles in the text (chapters):
12-point bold, not numbered; sub-titles (subchapters) 12-point, italic, not numbered; before a title of
subtitle 1 empty rows, after 1 empty row before text. Text chapters must be separated with 1 empty row.
The title should be concise and informative. Avoid abbreviations.
Author names and affiliations
Full names/surnames should be provided. Please indicate affiliations of the author (s). Below all
e-mails should be indicated.
Acronyms
Acronyms should be defined the first time they appear.
Tables and Figures

Tables and figures should be valuable, relevant, and visually attractive. Tables (made with Word or
another programme) and figures must be referred to in the text and numbered in order of their appearance.
Each table and figure should have a complete, descriptive title; and each table column an appropriate
heading. The texts in tables and figures should be 11-point (in some cases 10) and their width should be
12 cm at maximum. The figures should be in form of .jpg (if not done with Word or Excel); resolution
1200 dpi. Figures, tables (black and white colour, without ground-colour) and captions should be inserted
within the manuscript at their appropriate locations. All graphics (figures) must be editable. The font size
should be Times New Roman for all figures and tables. Figures should be carefully explained in the text
and cited in numerical order.
It is the author’s responsibility to obtain permission to reproduce illustrations, tables, etc. from
other publications.
References
The title „References“ must be used. APA style for writing references in the text and in the reference
list must be used. References in the text should be presented in brackets (Knox, 1988; Martin, 1995).
If necessary, the page can be indicated: (Martin, 1995, p.48). The list of references should be presented
after the text.
The author should make sure that there is a strict one-to-one correspondence between the names
and years in the text and those on the list. The all references should be listed in alphabetical order by
author’s name.
Notes
Note 1: Manuscripts in which references are not in the APA style will be returned without review.

Note 2: References to online sources should include the type of medium (such as “serial online” or
“monograph online”), the date of that specific reference (if applicable), the uniform resource locator
(URL), and the date that the source was accessed. A source accessed online should always be referenced
accordingly, even if it is also published in printed form.

Note 3: All papers must meet the criteria of originality and scientific quality. Obviously, they must also
comply with style and format requirements. The paper will not be subject to further review, if the manu-
script is NOT WITHIN THE SCOPE and/or there is POOR USAGE OF LANGUAGE (all manuscripts
must be written in clear and grammatical English or Russian).
PROBLEMS
OF PSYCHOLOGY
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
SCIENTIFIC METHODICAL CENTRE 75

Ä6&,(17,$('8&2/2*,&$³
The Associated Member of Lithuanian Scientific Society, European Society for the History of Science
(ESHS) and International Council of Association for Science Education /ICASE/,
SCIENTIA SOCIALIS Ltd
E-mail: scientia@scientiasocialis.lt Website: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt
Dear colleagues,
The international academic journal JBSE is a multidisciplinary peer-

review science education journal published by Scientia Socialis Ltd.
in cooperation with SMC µScientia Educologica¶.
The journal welcomes the submission of manuscripts that meet the
general criteria of significance and scientific excellence.
³Journal of Baltic Science Education´

ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/, ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
Impact Factor - 0.226 (2010), 0.425 (2011), 0.444 (2012), 0.481 (2013), 0.448
(2014). 5-Year IF: 0.412.
,QGH[&RSHUQLFXV,&9DOXH 4.64 (2005), 5.02 (2006), 5.32 (2007), 5.35

(2008), 9.00 (2009), 9.00 (2010), 10.59 (2011), 11.91 (2012), 139.88 (2014)
(Standardized Value 2014: 12.89).
H Index: 10; SNIP: 0.658; ICDS: 10.7
http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/jbse/
Responsible Publication
Peer Reviewed
Highly Cited
Social Scisearch Open Access
(Thomson Reuters)
SCOPUS Papers submitted to JBSE should be original work and substantively different
EBSCO from papers that have been previously published or are under review in a journal
INDEX or another peer-reviewed conference. Particularly we invite submission of papers
COPERNICUS describing innovative research on all aspects of science education and related
MIAR areas. Submitted papers will be assessed based on their novelty, scientific and
technical quality, potential impact, and clarity of writing.
OAJI
Instruction for authors and other details are available on our website
ROAD
at: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/requirements.htm
CIRC
http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/jbse/files/JBSE_requirements_2017.pdf
ZDB etc.
For contacts and papers submission: mail.jbse@gmail.com
Sincerely yours, Editorial Board

Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, ISSN 2029-8587 Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017
ISSN 2029-8587 (Print) ISSN 2538-7197 (Online)
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas (E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt)

Linguistic Editor Ilona Ratkevičienė
Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Linas Janonis
Contact person Vaidas Lamanauskas (E-mail: vaidas.lamanauskas@gmail.com)
31 December 2017. Publishing in Quires 9,5. Edition 150
Publisher
Scientia Socialis,
29 Donelaicio Street, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: scientia@scientiasocialis.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/centras.htm
http://www.scientiasocialis.lt
Printing
Šiauliai printing house
9A P. Lukšio Street
LT-76207 Šiauliai, Lithuania
Phone: +370 41 500 333.
Fax: +370 41 500 336
E-mail: info@dailu.lt

Problems of Psychology in The 21st Century, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Problems of Psychology in The 21st Century, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Psychology in The 21st Century, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2017

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century, Vol. 11, No.

Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

Index Copernicus (IC™ Value): 76.09 (2015). OAJI: 0.201 (2015).

ISSN 2029-8587 © Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, 2017

MOZART EFFECT AND MUSIC PSYCHOLOGY: RECENT DEVELOPMENTS AND

THE MARITAL STATUS AS PREDICTOR OF DIFFERENCES IN TIME PERSPECTIVE

A 2-YEAR PRELIMINARY LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL

BODY IMAGE AND MENTAL REPRESENTATION IN TABLE TENNIS PLAYERS WHO

EMOTIONAL CREATIVITY INVENTORY: FACTOR STRUCTURE, RELIABILITY AND

INTRASEXUAL COMPETITION AMONG HUMANS: PROSOCIAL TOWARDS THE

IMPROVING POSITIVE AFFECT BASED ON SELF-COMPASSION THROUGH

STUDENTS’ SELF-ASSESSMENT OF ONE’S ABILITIES FOR THEIR

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

JOURNAL OF BALTIC SCIENCE EDUCATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

MOZART EFFECT AND MUSIC

Received: November 12, 2017 Accepted: December 18, 2017

Vaitsa Giannouli PhD, Researcher, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,

THE MARITAL STATUS AS PREDICTOR

Marital Status and Family

Optimism and Pessimism

•• to have a positive attitude towards the future;

Aims and Hypothesis

Table 1. Marital status, number, and percent of the participants.

Marital status N (140) %

Table 2. Means, standard deviation, f-criterion, eta-squared (η2) n=140.

Singles 41 35.97 7,11 21.00 50.00

Singles 41 19.73 5,34 9.00 28.00

Received: October 05, 2017 Accepted: December 23, 2017

Magdalena Trencheva Blagoevgrad, Bulgaria.

A 2-YEAR PRELIMINARY LONGITUDINAL

General Background of Research

Sixteen middle-aged women without a diagnosis of a physical health and/or psychiatric-

Instrument and Procedures

Table 1. Cognitive assessment for healthy participants and euthyroid HT

One-year re- Two-year re-

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

One-year re- Two-year re- 19

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

difference for the two groups (F (1,30) = .206, p = .653).

Received: October 15, 2017 Accepted: December 24, 2017

Vaitsa Giannouli PhD, Researcher, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria.

Nikolaos Syrmos PhD, Department of the Physical Education and Health,

BODY IMAGE AND MENTAL

Damian Jeraj, Lisa Musculus, Babett H. Lobinger

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Matched-Pairs Sample.

Player Level of play

Online questionnaire. An online questionnaire is composed consisting of a demographic

Received: October 18, 2017 Accepted: December 20, 2017

Lisa Musculus Research assistant/PhD Student, German Sport University Cologne,

EMOTIONAL CREATIVITY INVENTORY:

Khatuna Martsksvishvili, Nino Abuladze, Natia Sordia

Instrument and Procedures

Table 1. means, standard deviations, and reliability coefficients of the

Table 2. Factor pattern matrix G-ECI items

Authenticity Effectiveness Novelty Preparedness

36 Authenticity Effectiveness Novelty Preparedness

Table 3. G-ECI Inter factor correlations.

Novelty Effectiveness Authenticity Preparedness

,QGH[&RSHUQLFXV,&9DOXH 4.64 (2005), 5.02 (2006), 5.32 (2007), 5.35