Kudzanayi Chiteka

Lecture 1: Solar Thermal Collectors

Contents
• Thermal collector types
• Stationary collectors
• Sun tracking concentrating collectors
• Optical analysis
• Thermal analysis
• Collector performance
• Thermal collector applications
• Conclusion
Thermal Collector Technologies

• Solar Cooker
• Parabolic Trough
• Parabolic Dish
• Central Receiver System
• Solar Chimney
• Solar Distillers
• Solar Water Heaters
Solar Collectors

• The solar collector is the key element in a solar energy

system.
• The function of a solar collector is simple;
• it intercepts incoming insolation and changes it into a
useable form of energy that can be applied to meet a
specific demand.
• In the following sections, we will develop analytical
understandings of flat-plate and concentrating collectors,
as used to provide heat or electricity.
Flat-plate thermal solar collectors
• The most commonly used type of solar collector.
• Their construction and operation are simple.
• A large plate of blackened material is oriented in such a
manner that the solar energy that falls on the plate is
absorbed and converted to thermal energy thereby
heating the plate.
• Tubes or ducting are provided to remove heat from the
plate, transferring it to a liquid or gas, and carrying it away
to the load.
• One (or more) transparent (glass or plastic) plates are
often placed in front of the absorber plate to reduce heat
loss.
• Operating temperatures up to 125oC are typical.
• Flat plate collectors have the advantage of absorbing both
DNI and DI.
• Flat plate thermal collectors are seldom tracked to follow
the sun's daily path across the sky,
• However their fixed mounting usually provides a tilt
toward the North or South to capture as much Irradiance.
• Tilting flat-plate provides a higher rate of energy at
noontime and more total energy over the entire day.
Analysis
• Performance analysis
• Efficiency
Performance analysis
• An energy balance on the absorber plate yields the
following equation;

𝑞𝑢 = 𝐴𝑝 𝑆 − 𝑞𝑙 (1)

• Where,
• qu = usiful heat gain
• Ap = Area of absorber plate
• S = Incident solar flux absorbed by the absorber plate
• ql = heat loss rate by convection, re−radiation and
conduction
• Irradiance on a tilted collector, IT is obtained from the
Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI) which is derived from
Reflected Irradiance (Ir), Diffuse Irradiance and (Id) Beam
Irradiance (Ib) eqn (2)
• where; rb, rr and rd are tilt factors for beam, reflected and
diffuse irradiance.
• Irradiance incident on a tilted surface is thus given by;

I T  I b rb  I d rd  ( I b  I d )rr (2)
• To determine the flux (S) absorbed by the absorber plate,
eqn (2) is multiplied by a term called the transmissivity-
absorptivity product (τα).
• Thus,
S  I brb ( )b   I d rd  ( I b  I d )rr  ( )d (3)
Instantaneous efficiency
• The instantaneous collector efficiency is given by;

Useful heat gain qu

i   (4)
Radiation Incident on the collector Ac I T

• If fluid flow of the HTF is stopped, there is no useful heat

gain and the efficiency is 0%.
• The absorber plate attains a temperature (stagnation
temperature) such that;

Ap S  ql (5)
Transmissivity of the cover system
• Transmissivity is obtained with adequate accuracy by
considering reflection-refraction and absorption separately
and is given by the product form;

   r a (6)

• τr = transmissivity obtained by considering only reflection

and refraction
• τa= transmissivity obtained by only considering absorption
• Draw diagram
•. sin 1 n1 (7)

sin  2 n2

• n1 , n2 are refractive indices of the respective media

• θ1, θ2 are angle of incidence of beam irradiance and angle
of refraction
Ir
• Reflectivity=   (8)
I bn
1
     
(9)
1 2
2
sin 2 2  1 
1  2 (10)
sin  2  1 

tan 2 2  1 
2 
tan 2  2  1  (11)
• Similarly, transmissivity is given by;
1

 r   r1   r2
2
 (12)
Where;
1  1 1  2
 r1  and  r1  1  
1  1 2
• In a system of M covers, it can be seen that;

1  1 1  2
 r1  (13) and r  (14)
1  (2 M  1) 1 2
1  (2 M  1)  2
Transmissivity based on absorption
• Diagram
• From Bouger’s law; dI   KIdx (15)

• Integrating over the length traversed by the beam, we

have transmittance given by;
 K c
cos 2
a  e (16)

Where 𝜃2 is the angle of refraction.

Exercise
• Plot the variation of τr, τa and τ with the angle of incidence
for the following cover system.
Material Glass
Number of covers 2
Thickness of each cover 4mm
Refractive index of glass relative to air 1.52
Extinction coefficient of glass 15m-1
Concentrating Solar Collectors (CSP)
• When higher temperatures are required, concentrating
solar collectors are used.
• Solar energy falling on a large reflective surface is reflected
onto a smaller area before it is converted into heat.
• This is done so that the surface absorbing the
concentrated energy is smaller than the surface capturing
the energy and therefore can attain higher temperatures.
• Most concentrating collectors can only concentrate the
DNI, and must follow (track) the sun's path across the sky.
Types of CSP
• Four types of solar concentrators are in common use;
• parabolic troughs
• parabolic dishes,
• central receivers, and
• Fresnel lenses.
Parabolic Trough Collectors (PTC)
• A parabolic trough concentrates incoming solar radiation onto
a line running the length of the trough.
• A tube (receiver) carrying heat transfer fluid is placed along this
line, absorbing concentrated solar radiation and heating the
fluid inside.
• The trough must be tracked about one axis.
• Because the surface area of the receiver tube is small
compared to the trough capture area (aperture), temperatures
up to 400oC can be reached without major heat loss.
• Parabolic troughs are used to generate electricity but are
susceptible to seasonal changes
Parabolic Trough
Parabolic Dish
• A parabolic dish or solar furnace is a large reflector that
concentrates thermal energy into a single focal point
• An insulated cavity containing tubes or some other heat
transfer device, is placed at this point absorbing the
concentrated radiation and transferring it to a gas.
• Parabolic dishes must be tracked about two axes.
• The focal point can contain a Stirling Engine to generate
electricity or the energy can be focused and used in
industrial processes
Central Receiver System
• A central receiver system consists of a large field of
independently movable flat mirrors (heliostats) and a
receiver located at the top of a tower.
• Each heliostat moves about two axes, throughout the day,
to keep the sun's rays reflected onto the receiver at the
top of the tower.
• The receiver, typically a vertical bundle of tubes, is heated
by the reflected insolation, thereby heating the heat
transfer fluid passing through the tubes.
Central Receiver System
Analysis
• Concentration ratio
• performance of concentrating collectors
Concentration ratio
• The most common definition of concentration ratio, is area
concentration ratio, the ratio of the area of aperture to
the area of the receiver.

• This ratio has an upper limit that depends on whether the

concentration is a three dimensional (circular)
concentrator such as a paraboloid or a two-dimensional
(linear) concentrator such as a cylindrical parabolic
concentrator.
• the maximum concentration ratio for circular
concentrators is;

• Where R is the distance between the sun and the receiver

and r is the radius of the sun while is the half angle
subtended by the sun.
• and for linear concentrators it is given by;
• The higher the temperature at which energy is to be
delivered, the higher must be the concentration ratio and
the more precise must be the optics of both the
concentrator and the orientation system.
•
Performance of concentrating collectors