energies

Article
The Impact of Pulse Charging Parameters on the Life
Cycle of Lithium-Ion Polymer Batteries
J. M. Amanor-Boadu 1, *, A. Guiseppi-Elie 2 ID
and E. Sánchez-Sinencio 1
1 Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas 77840, USA; sanchez@ece.tamu.edu
2 EnMed Working Group and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station,
Texas 77840, USA; guiseppi@tamu.edu
* Correspondence: judyboadu@tamu.edu; Tel.: +01-979-845-9583




Received: 2 August 2018; Accepted: 15 August 2018; Published: 18 August 2018


Abstract: The pulse charging algorithm is seen as a promising battery charging technique to satisfy the
needs of electronic device consumers to have fast charging and increased battery charge and energy
efficiencies. However, to get the benefits of pulse charging, the pulse charge current parameters
have to be chosen carefully to ensure optimal battery performance and also extend the life cycle of
the battery. The impact of pulse charge current factors on the life cycle and battery characteristics
are seldom investigated. This paper seeks to evaluate the impact of pulse charge current factors,
such as frequency and duty cycle, on the life cycle and impedance parameters of lithium-ion polymer
batteries (LiPo) while using a design of experiments approach, Taguchi orthogonal arrays. The results
are compared with the benchmark constant current-constant voltage (CC-CV) charging algorithm
and it is observed that by using a pulse charger at optimal parameters, the cycle life of a LiPo battery
can be increased by as much as 100 cycles. It is also determined that the duty cycle of the pulse charge
current has the most impact on the cycle life of the battery. The battery impedance characteristics were
also examined by using non-destructive techniques, such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy,
and it was determined that the ambient temperature at which the battery was charged had the most
effect on the battery impedance parameters.

Keywords: Li-ion polymer battery; pulse charging; constant current constant voltage; electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy; battery impedance; life cycle; Taguchi orthogonal arrays; design
of experiments

1. Introduction
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries have continued to increase their market share in the rechargeable
battery market over the past few years [1,2]. They are projected to overtake the lead-acid battery
market share by 2024 [3]. This is primarily driven by their superior qualities of high energy density, low
self-discharge, and lack of memory effect [4]. They can be found in numerous devices and applications,
ranging from electric vehicles to the Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Lithium-ion polymer (LiPo)
batteries are analogous to their Li-ion counterparts, except for the use of a gel-like, polymer electrolyte,
which serves to improve ion mobility [5]. They are commonly packaged in a pouch format that
allows for the LiPo battery to be molded into many conformable form factors. LiPo batteries have
the consumer-held, market-driven advantages of being lightweight and having good mechanical
strength [4].
Fast charging, increased battery runtime, and increased battery charge and energy efficiencies are
important characteristics that consumers of portable electronic applications desire. Though battery
runtime can be improved by using various hardware and software techniques [6–8], these desirable

Energies 2018, 11, 2162; doi:10.3390/en11082162 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

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Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 15

characteristics are impacted by the type of charging algorithm used, and as such, many2 of
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
charging
15
algorithms have been proposed to achieve desirable and optimal
desirable characteristics are impacted by the type of charging algorithm used, and as such, many output performance metrics. Of these
desirable
charging
charging characteristics
algorithms,
algorithms pulse
haveare impacted
charging
been by the
is the
proposed totype
most of charging
propitious
achieve algorithm
[9–13].
desirable andPulse used,
optimal and asisperformance
charging
output such, many
the application
charging
of carefully algorithms
metrics. controlled
Of these charging have algorithms,
charge been proposed
current pulsetocharging
pulses achieve
into desirable
theisbattery.
the mostFigureand optimal
propitious output
1 schematically
[9–13]. Pulseperformance
illustrates
charging is the
metrics.
theLiPo
typical Of theseof
application
battery charging
carefully
undergoing algorithms,
controlled
a charging pulse
charge charging
current
process and ispulses
the most
shows into propitious
the the battery.
movement [9–13].
Figure Pulse
of the charging
1 lithium
schematicallyionsis (Li+ ),
the application of carefully
LiPo controlled charge current pulsesprocess
into theand battery.
illustrates
as they move the typical
from the positive battery undergoing
electrode, cathode, a charging
through the separator showstoFigure
intercalate1 schematically
the movement in the ofnegative
the
illustrates
lithium the typical
ions (Li +), asLiPo
they battery
move undergoing
from
+ the a charging
positive processcathode,
electrode, and shows the movement
through the separatorof the to
electrode, anode. During charging, Li arriving at the anode desolvate and diffuse within to become
lithium
intercalateionsin(Li the),negative
+ as theyelectrode,
move from the During
anode. positivecharging,
electrode, Li+cathode,
arriving through
at the anode the desolvate
separatorand to
intercalated
intercalate
into the anode electrode,
in thetonegative
material. anode.IssuesDuringthat are relatedLito
charging,
desolvation
+ arriving atare
dynamics, space-charge
therelated
anode desolvate and
diffuse within become intercalated into the anode material. Issues that to desolvation
layers, and
diffuse diffusion
within within
to become layers, the anode
intercalated material
into the anode may produce inefficiencies in thetointercalation
desolvation and
dynamics, space-charge and diffusion withinmaterial.
the anode Issues
materialthat may
are related
produce inefficiencies
resultinintheaccumulation
dynamics, space-charge
intercalation of Li
and at the
layers,
result and
in anode-electrolyte
diffusion within
accumulation of Lithe atinterface.
anode
the If thismay
material
anode-electrolyte is not abated,
produce
interface. If deposits
this is notgrow
inefficiencies
into in
dendrite
abated, like structures
the intercalation
deposits growandinto [14]
result inwith
dendrite thestructures
accumulation
like potential
of Li[14]to penetrate
at the the separator,
withanode-electrolyte
the potential leading
interface.
to penetrate If this
the toisanot
separator,thermal
abated,
runaway deposits
[15]. To grow
prevent into dendrite
this problem,like structures
the [14]
constant with the potential
current-constant
leading to a thermal runaway [15]. To prevent this problem, the constant current-constant voltage to penetrate
voltage the
(CC-CV)separator,
charging
leading
algorithm,
(CC-CV) tocharging
whicha thermal runaway as
is considered
algorithm, [15].
theTois
which prevent
benchmark
considered thischarging
problem,
as the constant
algorithm,
the benchmark iscurrent-constant
charging used in manyisLiPo
algorithm, voltage
used battery
in
(CC-CV)
manydevices
powered charging
LiPo battery algorithm,
[16].powered
The CC-CV which
devices is considered
[16]. The algorithm
charging as the
CC-CV charging benchmark
is shownalgorithm charging
is shown
in Figure algorithm,
in Figure
2. There is used
are2. two
Thereinmajor
many
are two LiPo battery
major powered
charging devices [16]. The
phases: CC-CV charging algorithm andis the
shown in Figure 2. There
charging phases: constant currentconstant
(CC) charge current (CC)
phase charge
and the phase
constant constant
voltage (CV)voltage
charge(CV) phase.
are two
charge major
phase. charging
In the CC phases:
charge constant
phase, a current
constant (CC)
charge charge
currentphase( and the
) is constant
used to voltage
initially (CV)
charge
In the CC charge phase, a constant charge current (ICH ARGE ) is used to initially charge the battery.
charge phase.The
the battery. In the CC charge
battery voltagephase,
quickly a constant
rises in charge
this region,currentas (the Li+ can
+ can freely
) is used
freelytointercalate
initially charge
in the
The battery
the voltage
battery. The quickly
battery rises inquickly
voltage this region,rises as this
in the Li region, intercalate inintercalate
the anode.inWhen the
), the CC charge phase transitions to thethe
as the Li + can freely
anode. When the voltage is approaching full charge ( CV
voltage
anode.is approaching full charge (V ), the CC charge phase transitions to the CV charge phase,
chargeWhen phase,the voltage
where theisresult
approaching f ull full charge (
is a decreasing charge current ), the CC thatcharge phasedamage
prevents transitionsto the to the CV
battery,
where the
charge result
phase, is a
where decreasing
the result charge
is a current
decreasing that
charge prevents
current damage
that
ensures safety of the user, and allows time for the Li to properly intercalate. However, this CV region
+ to
prevents the battery,
damage to ensures
the safety of
battery,
the user, and allows time for the Li + to properly intercalate. However, this CV region prolongs charge
ensures safety of the user, and allows time for the Li + to properly
prolongs charge time due to the decreasing charge current used. Pulse charging does not have this intercalate. However, this CV region
prolongs
time due charge time due to the decreasing charge current
to the decreasing charge current used. Pulse charging does not have this drawback.
drawback. used. Pulse charging does not have this
drawback.

Figure
Figure 1. Schematic
1. Schematic illustrationofofthe
illustration thecharging
charging process
processinina alithium-ion polymer
lithium-ion (LiPo)
polymer battery.
(LiPo) battery.
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of the charging process in a lithium-ion polymer (LiPo) battery.

Figure 2. Constant Current-Constant Voltage charging algorithm.

Figure 2. Constant Current-Constant Voltage charging algorithm.
Figure 2. Constant Current-Constant Voltage charging algorithm.
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15
Energies 2018, 11, 2162 3 of 15

The use of pulse charging has been shown to increase battery charge and energy efficiencies and
to also
Thereduce
use of charge time [9,17,18].
pulse charging has beenIt also
shown hastothe added battery
increase benefit charge
of improved safety,
and energy since the
efficiencies
relaxation times in between charge current pulses allows time for the Li + to successfully intercalate
and to also reduce charge time [9,17,18]. It also has the added benefit of improved safety, since the
and helps to
relaxation prevent
times dendrite
in between formation
charge current[14].
pulses allows time for the Li+ to successfully intercalate
and helps to prevent dendrite formation [14]. deployment of pulse charging algorithms is robustly
The challenge in the development and
finding
Theand defininginthe
challenge theconditions
developmentthat produce the most efficient
and deployment of pulsebatterychargingperformance.
algorithmsPulse charge
is robustly
currentsand
finding have the different
defining attributes,
the conditions which
that can be
produce theatmost
different levels
efficient and depending
battery performance. on Pulse
the selection
charge
of these attributes and their levels, the battery output performance metrics, such
currents have the different attributes, which can be at different levels and depending on the selection as the battery charge
and energy efficiencies, life cycle, and charge time, will differ. Pulse charging has
of these attributes and their levels, the battery output performance metrics, such as the battery charge been shown to have
superior
and energy performances but cycle,
efficiencies, life the impact of these
and charge factors
time, will and their
differ. Pulselevels on thehas
charging cycle lifeshown
been of the tobattery
have
and its impedance parameters are seldom investigated. This paper seeks to address
superior performances but the impact of these factors and their levels on the cycle life of the battery this shortcoming
by using
and a designparameters
its impedance of experiments (DoE)
are seldom approach, This
investigated. Taguchi
paperorthogonal array this
seeks to address (OA), and non-
shortcoming
destructive techniques, such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy,
by using a design of experiments (DoE) approach, Taguchi orthogonal array (OA), and non-destructive in order to determine the
impact of pulse charge current factors and levels on battery cycle life and
techniques, such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, in order to determine the impact of pulse impedance parameters.
This work
charge also addresses
current factors and the question
levels of whatcycle
on battery factorslifehave
andthe most significant
impedance impact
parameters. on the
This workbattery
also
cycle life.
addresses the question of what factors have the most significant impact on the battery cycle life.
This paper
This paper isis organized
organized as as follows:
follows: Section
Section 22 provides
provides aa brief
brief background
background on on pulse
pulse charging
charging and
and
TaguchiOA.
Taguchi OA.Section
Section33 reviews
reviews different
differenttechniques
techniques for for evaluating
evaluating the the impact
impact of of charging
charging parameters
parameters
on battery characteristics. The design procedure is detailed in Section 4 and
on battery characteristics. The design procedure is detailed in Section 4 and the experimental resultsthe experimental results
are presented
are presented in in Section
Section 5.5. Conclusions
Conclusions are are drawn
drawn in in Section
Section6. 6.

2. Background
2. Background on
on Pulse
Pulse Charging
Charging and
and Taguchi
TaguchiOrthogonal
OrthogonalArray
Array(OA)
(OA)

2.1. Pulse Charging

2.1.
Pulse charging
Pulse charging involves
involvesusing
usingcarefully
carefullyselected
selectedand
andcontrolled
controlledcharge
chargecurrent
currentpulses
pulsestoto charge
charge a
a battery.
battery. Figure
Figure 3a shows
3a shows a macromodel
a macromodel of a pulse
of a pulse charger
charger wherewhere by controlling
by controlling the switch,
the switch, Sw,
Sw , charge
charge current,
current, Ic, is pulsed
Ic , is pulsed into theinto the battery.
battery. Everycharge
Every pulse pulse current
charge current that is applied
that is applied to the has
to the battery battery
the
has the following
following factors orfactors or attributes:
attributes: peak
peak current current amplitude,
amplitude, , aD
I pk , a duty cycle, duty cycle,
= ton /Tp , and ⁄ , andf,
= frequency,
frequency,
as shown inf,Figure
as shown3b. in Figure 3b.

(a) (b)
Figure 3. (a) Pulse charging micromodel; and, (b) pulse waveform.
Figure 3. (a) Pulse charging micromodel; and (b) pulse waveform.

The selection of pulse attributes and their different levels also impacts the charge time, battery
The selection of pulse attributes and their different levels also impacts the charge time, battery life
life cycle, and battery impedance parameters. The LiPo battery, which can be ideally modelled as a
cycle, and battery impedance parameters. The LiPo battery, which can be ideally modelled as a series
series resistance, Rs, which represents the resistance of the electrolyte and other contact resistances,
resistance, Rs , which represents the resistance of the electrolyte and other contact resistances, in series
in series with a parallel combination of the charge transfer resistance, Rct, which represents the
with a parallel combination of the charge transfer resistance, Rct , which represents the resistance
resistance of the kinetics of the Faradaic processes in the battery, and Cdl, which represents the
of the kinetics of the Faradaic processes in the battery, and Cdl , which represents the charged areas
charged areas between the electrode and electrolyte [19], is shown in Figure 4a. By using
between the electrode and electrolyte [19], is shown in Figure 4a. By using electrochemical impedance
electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), the battery impedance parameters can be extracted
spectroscopy (EIS), the battery impedance parameters can be extracted from +the Nyquist plot that
from the Nyquist plot that is shown in Figure 4b. During pulse charging, the Li are able to intercalate
is shown in Figure 4b. During pulse charging, the Li+ are able to intercalate properly in the anode,
properly in the anode, thereby reducing polarization voltage [20]. This, in turn, reduces energy losses
thereby reducing polarization voltage [20]. This, in turn, reduces energy losses in the battery, increasing
in the battery, increasing the power transfer rate and improving charge and energy efficiencies. For
the power transfer rate and improving charge and energy efficiencies. For a fixed pulse charge current
a fixed pulse charge current amplitude, lower duty cycles result in longer charge times, and higher
Energies 2018, 11, 2162 4 of 15

amplitude, lower
Energies 2018, 11, x duty cycles
FOR PEER result in longer charge times, and higher duty cycles result4in
REVIEW shorter
of 15
charge times, but the battery is more susceptible to overcharging and overvoltage, two conditions that
duty
can be cycles resulttointhe
detrimental shorter charge
life cycle oftimes, but the For
the battery. battery is more
a fixed dutysusceptible to overcharging
cycle, higher and
current amplitudes,
overvoltage, two conditions that can be detrimental to the life cycle of the battery.
resulting in higher average charge currents, will result in faster charge times, but the tendency ofFor a fixed duty
cycle, higher current amplitudes, resulting in higher average charge currents, will result in faster
the battery to overcharge is high. The mathematical relation between I pk , D, and the average charge
charge times, but the tendency of the battery to overcharge is high. The mathematical relation
current Iavg can be expressed as:
between , , and the average charge current can be expressed as:
Iavg = I pk · D (1)
= ∙ (1)

(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) LiPo battery equivalent circuit; and (b) Nyquist plot.
Figure 4. (a) LiPo battery equivalent circuit; and (b) Nyquist plot.
In terms frequency, [17] and [18] determined that pulsing at the frequency at which the battery
impedance is minimumReferences
In terms frequency, resulted in faster
[17,18] charge times.
determined thatThese
pulsingprevious
at theworks determined
frequency the the
at which
optimal pulse charge current factors that will result in a reduced charge time
battery impedance is minimum f zmin resulted in faster charge times. These previous works determinedand increased battery
charge and
the optimal energy
pulse efficiencies.
charge Short term
current factors thatimprovements
will result in in efficiencies
a reduced and charge
charge time andtimes have been
increased battery
recorded for pulse chargers [10,17,18,21], but it is important to determine how the pulse charge
charge and energy efficiencies. Short term improvements in efficiencies and charge times have been
current attributes or factors affect the battery in the long term. This will impact the overall cost of a
recorded for pulse chargers [10,17,18,21], but it is important to determine how the pulse charge current
system, as if the proposed pulse charging algorithms reduces the life cycle of batteries or increases
attributes
batteryor factors affect
impedance the battery
parameter values, in the long
frequent term. Thiswill
replacements will beimpact
needed the andoverall
that willcost of athe
impact system,
as iflong-term
the proposed
cost ofpulse charging
the battery algorithms
powered reduces
application. Otherthe life cycle
works, [12] and of [13],
batteries or increasesthe
have investigated battery
impedance
impact of parameter values,
pulse charging onfrequent replacements
the life cycle will beand
of Li-ion batteries needed
found and
thatthat will
pulse impactextended
charging the long-term
cost the
of the
lifebattery powered
of Li-ion application.
batteries when compared Other with
works,dc References [12,13] have
charging protocols. These investigated the impact
previous works,
of pulse charging on the life cycle of Li-ion batteries and found that pulse charging extendedmost
however, do not provide details regarding which factors of the pulse charge current have the the life of
significant
Li-ion batteriesimpact
whenon the batterywith
compared cycledclife. By usingprotocols.
charging a design ofThese
experiments
previous approach,
works,the impact ofdo not
however,
pulsedetails
provide chargeregarding
current factors
whichonfactors
batteryof cycle
the life
pulseandcharge
impedance
currentparameters
have thecan mostbe significant
determinedimpact
and on
evaluated.
the battery cycle life. By using a design of experiments approach, the impact of pulse charge current
factors
2.2.on battery
Taguchi cycle life
Orthogonal and impedance parameters can be determined and evaluated.
Arrays
A typical
2.2. Taguchi systemArrays
Orthogonal undergoing an experiment is shown in Figure 5. Every experiment will have
input factors, output responses, control factors, and uncontrollable factors. Input factors are variables
A typical
that can besystem undergoing
controlled to impact antheexperiment is shownofina Figure
output performance system. 5.It Every experiment
is sometimes needed will
to have
input factors, output responses, control factors, and uncontrollable factors.
determine how the output responses are impacted by the input, control factor levels, and Input factors are variables
that uncontrollable
can be controlled to Designs
factors. impact the output performance
of experiments are therefore of methods
a system.that It are
is sometimes needed to
used to acquire
predictive
determine howinformation
the outputabout systems.
responses areThey can beby
impacted used
thetoinput,
optimize the output
control factor responses ofuncontrollable
levels, and a system
by determining
factors. Designs of which input factors
experiments and theirmethods
are therefore control factors impact
that are usedthe
to output
acquireresponses theinformation
predictive most.
Taguchi OA are one of such methods that seeks to reduce the number of experiments
about systems. They can be used to optimize the output responses of a system by determining which without
affecting the outcome of the system. Its design consists of balanced experimental sets where different
input factors and their control factors impact the output responses the most. Taguchi OA are one of
input factors are at different levels. It can be used to evaluate the dependence of a certain output
such methods that seeks to reduce the number of experiments without affecting the outcome of the
response on the input factor and input factor levels. It can also be designed to include uncontrollable
system. Its design
factors, such as consists
disturbancesof balanced experimental
or tolerances. sets where
A typical Taguchi OA different
is shown in input
Tablefactors areF1attodifferent
1, where Fn
levels. It can be used to evaluate the dependence of a certain output response on the input
are the input factor at different levels and O are the output responses. This table can also be expressed factor and
input factor levels. It can also be designed to include uncontrollable factors, such as disturbances or
Energies 2018, 11, 2162 5 of 15

tolerances. A typical Taguchi OA is shown in Table 1, where F1 to Fn are the input factor at different
levelsEnergies
and O 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
are the output responses. This table can also be expressed as Ly A x , where y is the 5 of 15
number
of experiments,
as , whereA is the
y is thelevels
number of each factor, x isAthe
of experiments, number
is the of each
levels of factors, andx L
factor, is is
thefor Latin of
number square.
The designed array is always orthogonal, indicating that the number of factor levels
factors, and L is for Latin square. The designed array is always orthogonal, indicating that the number in each column
occurs the same
of factor levelsnumber of times,
in each column andthe
occurs therefore it is balanced.
same number of times, andTaguchi
thereforeOAs have been
it is balanced. applied in
Taguchi
the field
OAs of haveindustrial applications
been applied [22–25],
in the field communication
of industrial applications [26], agriculture
[22–25], [27], and
communication [26],battery charging
agriculture
[27],[18,28–30].
systems and battery Different
charging systems
OA sizes[18], [28–30].
have beenDifferent
described OAin sizes have been described in [31].
[31].

Figure5.5.A
Figure Asystem undergoinganan
system undergoing experiment.
experiment.

Table1.1.AAtypical
Table typical Taguchi
Taguchi orthogonal
orthogonalarray (OA).
array (OA).
Factors
Factors O
L
F1 F2 ······ Fn Oa ······ Om
1 1 Oa1 Om1
2 Oa2 ······ Om2
.. 2 .. ..
. An . .
.. .. ..
. . .
y Oay Omy

By applying
By applying statisticalanalysis
statistical analysismethods,
methods, such
suchasasanalysis
analysisof of
means (ANOM)
means (ANOM)and and
analysis of
analysis of
variance (ANOVA), the output responses of the Taguchi OA can be analyzed. Genichi Taguchi,
variance (ANOVA), the output responses of the Taguchi OA can be analyzed. Genichi Taguchi, who is who
is the pioneer of Taguchi OAs [32], recommended the use of signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios to evaluate
the pioneer of Taguchi OAs [32], recommended the use of signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios to evaluate the
the output responses from the experimental design. They are expressed as:
output responses from the experimental design. They are expressed as:
⎧ −10log

−2

− ℎ −
−
−10 log n ∑ Oij 1 larger − the − better
⎪



i

⎪S

  

− 1
= log−10 log n ∑ O ij smaller 2
= N −10
i
− −ℎ the
−− better (2) (2)
⎨

  
2


⎪  −10 log Ov2 Nominal is the best


⎪ −10 log ℎ
⎩ −1
2
− 1 2
where O = n ∑ Oij and v = (n − 1) ∑ Oij − O ; and, i and j refer to the output response in the
where = i ∑ and = ( − 1) i ∑ − ; and, and refer to the output response in
ith row and jthrow
in the column.
and column.
In this work,
In this work, Taguchi
Taguchi OAOAisisused
usedtoto determine
determine thetheeffect
effectofof pulse
pulse charge
charge current
current factors
factors on theon the
cyclecycle
life and thethe
life and impedance
impedance parameters
parameters ofof the battery.
battery.The
Theinput
input is the
is the pulsepulse charge
charge current
current and theand the
control factors
control to be
factors evaluated
to be evaluatedwill
willbe
beduty cycle,frequency,
duty cycle, frequency,andandthethe ambient
ambient temperature,
temperature, T, at which
T, at which
the battery
the battery is charged.
is charged. TheThe outputresponses
output responses were
were battery
batterycycle
cyclelife, Rs,Rand
life, Rct. R
s , and Battery cyclecycle
ct . Battery life inlife in
this work is defined as the number of charge and discharge cycles that the LiPo
this work is defined as the number of charge and discharge cycles that the LiPo battery can undergo battery can undergo
before its capacity reaches 80% of its original capacity. The battery Rs and Rct are also evaluated after
before its capacity reaches 80% of its original capacity. The battery Rs and Rct are also evaluated after
the aging process.
the aging process.
Energies 2018, 11, 2162 6 of 15

Energies 2018, for

3. Techniques 11, x Evaluation
FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
of Impact of Charging Parameters on Battery Characteristics
ToTechniques
3. determine fortheEvaluation
impact of charging
of Impact factors on the
of Charging cycle life on
Parameters andBattery
the impedance parameters of the
Characteristics
battery, itTo
is important to use techniques that give relevant information about the battery characteristics.
determine the impact of charging factors on the cycle life and the impedance parameters of
Thesethetechniques
battery, itcan be classified
is important as destructive
to use techniques and
that non-destructive [33].
give relevant information about the battery
characteristics. These techniques can be classified as destructive and non-destructive [33].
3.1. Destructive Techniques
3.1. Destructive
Destructive Techniquesinvolve disassembling the battery to investigate the current state of its internal
techniques
components, in termstechniques
Destructive of structure, chemical
involve composition,
disassembling and morphology.
the battery These
to investigate techniques
the current statecan be used
of its
internal components,
to determine how differentin terms of structure,
charging methodschemical composition,
have impacted and morphology.
electrode morphologyThese techniques
and structure [34,35],
can be
dendrite used to determine
depositions how different
[36,37], separator [38], charging methods
and electrolyte have impacted
degradation electrode
[39,40]. morphology
Investigation and
of these battery
structure
internal [34,35], can
components dendrite depositionswhile
be performed [36,37], separator
using [38],electron
scanning and electrolyte
microscopydegradation [39,40].
(SEM) [33–35,37,41],
Investigation of these battery internal components can be performed while using scanning electron
atomic force microscopy (AFM) [39,42], X-ray diffraction (XRD) [41,43–45], Raman microscopy [39,43],
microscopy (SEM) [33–35,37,41], atomic force microscopy (AFM) [39,42], X-ray diffraction (XRD)
and electron probe microscopic analysis (EPMA) [46], of which SEM is the most popular.
[41,43–45], Raman microscopy [39,43], and electron probe microscopic analysis (EPMA) [46], of which
SEM is the most popular.
3.2. Non-Destructive Techniques
3.2. Non-Destructivetechniques
Non-destructive Techniques do not involve the disassembling of the battery and have been known
to be the Non-destructive
popular ways for determining
techniques do notthe battery
involve theimpedance andof
disassembling performance across
the battery and haveitsbeen
life cycle.
These techniques
known include
to be the popularcyclic
waysvoltammetry
for determining [44,46,47],
the batteryimpedance
impedance andmeasurements,
performance charge-discharge
across its life
tests,cycle. These techniques
and impedance include cyclic
spectroscopy [48], voltammetry [44,46,47],spectroscopy
of which impedance impedance measurements, charge- [49].
is the most popular
discharge tests, and impedance spectroscopy [48], of which impedance spectroscopy
In this work, a combination of different non-destructive techniques will be used to characterize is the most the
popular [49]. In this work, a combination of different non-destructive
battery aging, in effect its cycle life and the impact on battery impedance parameters. techniques will be used to
characterize the battery aging, in effect its cycle life and the impact on battery impedance parameters.
By using the Taguchi OA design method that is described in Section 2 in combination with
By using the Taguchi OA design method that is described in Section 2 in combination with
regression analysis, the factors and factor levels that have the greatest impact on the cycle life and
regression analysis, the factors and factor levels that have the greatest impact on the cycle life and
impedance
impedanceparameters
parameters ofofthe
thebattery
batterycan
can bebe determined.
determined. All All
of of
thethe results
results are are compared
compared with with
the the
benchmark
benchmarkCC-CV
CC-CV charging
chargingalgorithm.
algorithm.

4. Design Procedure
4. Design Procedure
Figure 6 shows
Figure 6 shows thethe
flow chart
flow chartofofthe
thedesign proceduretotodetermine
design procedure determine thethe impact
impact of pulse
of pulse charge
charge
current factors on battery cycle life and impedance parameters. Before the Taguchi
current factors on battery cycle life and impedance parameters. Before the Taguchi OA is designed andOA is designed
and experiments
experiments conducted,conducted,
the inputthefactors
input factors and levels,
and their their levels,
outputoutput responses,
responses, andand uncontrollable
uncontrollable factors
factors should be defined. The number of factors and factor levels will indicate
should be defined. The number of factors and factor levels will indicate the size of the the size of the
OA.OA.

Figure 6. Design
Figure procedure
6. Design procedurefor
fordetermining theimpact
determining the impactofofpulse
pulse current
current factors
factors on LiPo
on LiPo battery.
battery.

Input factors and output responses definition: The input factors chosen are the duty cycle and
frequency of the pulse charge current, and the ambient temperature at which the battery is charged at.
 Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 15
Energies 2018, 11, 2162 7 of 15
Input factors and output responses definition: The input factors chosen are the duty cycle and
frequency of the pulse charge current, and the ambient temperature at which the battery is charged
Three levels of duty cycle levels are chosen: 20%, 50%, and 80%. The impedance of the battery changes
at. Three levels of duty cycle levels are chosen: 20%, 50%, and 80%. The impedance of the battery
with changes
frequency,withasfrequency,
shown in as Figure
shown 7.inAtFigure
much7.lower
At muchfrequencies, the impedance
lower frequencies, is muchishigher
the impedance much due
to mass transport
higher due to effects, and at effects,
mass transport high frequencies,
and at high the impedance
frequencies, the is mainly due
impedance to thedue
is mainly inductance
to the of
the battery, which
inductance is as
of the a result
battery, of the
which is aselectrodes [50].
a result of the Six levels
electrodes [50].ofSix
frequency are chosen
levels of frequency areto cover the
chosen
frequency
to coverrange of interest:
the frequency 0.1 of
range kHz, 1 kHz,
interest: 0.16kHz, f zmin ,650
kHz,1 kHz, kHz, and
kHz, , 50100
kHz, and f100
kHz. zmin was
kHz. included
was included to investigate the impact it has on the battery characteristics. The
to investigate the impact it has on the battery characteristics. The ambient temperature chosen were ambient temperature
0 ◦ C, chosen were450 ◦°C,
23 ◦ C and 23 °C
C. The and 45 °C.
amplitude is The amplitude
not chosen as aisfactor
not chosen
so as to as have
a factor so comparison
a fair as to have a with
fair the
CC-CV comparison
chargingwith the CC-CV
algorithm. charging
Table 2 shows algorithm.
the inputTable 2 shows
factors andthe
theirinput factors
levels. Theand their levels. The
uncontrollable factors
uncontrollable factors can be determined as the manufacturing variabilities on the batteries under
can be determined as the manufacturing variabilities on the batteries under test.
test.

Figure 7. Bode magnitude and phase plot for equivalent battery circuit model.
Figure 7. Bode magnitude and phase plot for equivalent battery circuit model.
Table 2. Control factors for Taguchi OA design.
Table 2. Control factors for Taguchi OA design.
Factor levels
Control factors
1 2 3
Factor 4levels5 6
Control factors D 0.2 0.5 0.8 - - -
1 2 3 4 5 6
T (°C) 0 23 45 - - -
D 0.2
f (kHz) 0.5 1
0.1 0.8
6 - 50 100 - -
T (◦ C) 0 23 45 - - -
The outputf responses
(kHz) 0.1 to be battery
are chosen 1 f zminRct. Cdl is50not chosen
cycle6 life, Rs, and 100as an output
response since the magnitude of Rs, and Rct is much larger and will have more impact on the battery
impedance,
The output which can also
responses are impact
chosenthe battery
to be aging.
battery cycle life, Rs , and Rct . Cdl is not chosen as an output
OA size selection: From Table 2, there are three control factors with two factors at three levels,
response since the magnitude of Rs, and Rct is much larger and will have more impact on the battery
and one factor at six levels. Hence, the OA to be designed has to be mixed level. An OA (3 × 6 )
impedance, which can also impact the battery aging.
was chosen. The design of this OA ensured that all input factors and their levels appeared an equal
OA size of
number selection: From
times. This OA Table 2, there
is shown are3. three control factors with two factors at three levels,
in Table
and one factor at six levels. Hence, the OA to be designed has to be mixed level. An OA L36 32 × 61

was chosen. The design of this OA ensured that all input factors and their levels appeared an equal
number of times. This OA is shown in Table 3.
Energies 2018, 11, 2162 8 of 15

Table 3. Taguchi orthogonal array.

Factors Factors
No. T D f No. T D f
1 23 0.2 12k 19 0 0.8 12k
2 45 0.8 100 20 0 0.5 6k
3 45 0.2 50k 21 0 0.2 1k
4 45 0.2 6k 22 0 0.2 100
5 45 0.5 100k 23 23 0.2 100k
6 0 0.8 12k 24 0 0.5 6k
7 0 0.2 100 25 45 0.5 100k
8 45 0.8 1k 26 23 0.2 100k
9 23 0.5 1k 27 23 0.8 50k
10 0 0.2 1k 28 45 0.2 50k
11 0 0.5 50k 29 23 0.8 6k
12 45 0.5 12k 30 23 0.5 100
13 23 0.8 50k 31 0 0.5 50k
14 45 0.5 12k 32 0 0.8 100k
15 45 0.8 1k 33 45 0.2 6k
16 45 0.8 100 34 23 0.5 1k
17 23 0.5 100 35 23 0.8 6k
18 23 0.2 12k 36 0 0.8 100k

Experiments and response analysis: Experiments are conducted according to Table 3 and responses
recorded and procedure is repeated until the battery ages significantly. At the end of the experiments,
the responses are then analyzed while using the Taguchi S/N ratios, ANOM, and ANOVA. From these
results, the factors that impact battery cycle life and impedance parameters can be determined.
By decomposing the variance and computing the sum of squares, the effects of any of the factors can
be determined from the sum of squares, which can be expressed as:
  2 
1
SS Fn = ∑  n Ln ·  ∑ Oi L n j − O   (3)
 
L
n L n i
n Ln

where O j the output response, n Ln is the number of output responses corresponding to level n, and i Ln
denotes the rows corresponding to level n responses only.

5. Experimental Results
Figure 8 shows the experimental test setup for running the experiments, according to Table 3.
New 600 mAh 3.7 V LiPo batteries were first characterized at 0% SoC (state of charge) by using EIS
to determine the battery impedance parameters. Battery impedance characteristics were measured
by performing an EIS using a Versastat Potentiostat [51] and the Nyquist plots analyzed by using the
Simplex method [52] for curve fitting to obtain battery impedance parameters. The f zmin of the batteries
was determined to be 12 kHz. Battery capacity measurements were also performed. The batteries
were then placed in a temperature chamber, TestEquity model 107 [53], and experiments conducted
according to Table 3. The batteries were subjected to a charge rate of 0.5C. After charging, when the
batteries reached a state of charge (SoC) of 100%, the batteries were allowed to rest for one hour before
being discharged at 0.5C until a SoC of 0% was attained. EIS measurements were then performed at
this SoC. Both pulse and CC-CV charging algorithms used the same charge and discharge rate of 0.5C.
Energies 2018, 11, 2162 9 of 15
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 15

Figure 8. Experimental setup for determining impact of charge algorithms on battery.

Figure 8. Experimental setup for determining impact of charge algorithms on battery.
After about 400 cycles, the final EIS was performed and the battery impedance parameters
After about
extracted. All400
thecycles, the final EISwere
EIS measurements was performed
performedatand0%the battery
SoC. impedance
The battery parameters
cycle life extracted.
was estimated
from the recorded capacity measurements by using regression analysis and the
All the EIS measurements were performed at 0% SoC. The battery cycle life was estimated from cycle number at the
which the battery capacity is 80% of the original capacity recorded. The output responses
recorded capacity measurements by using regression analysis and the cycle number at which the batteryare shown
in Table
capacity 4. of the original capacity recorded. The output responses are shown in Table 4.
is 80%
Table 4. Output responses.
Table 4. Output responses.
Factors Factors
CycleFactors Cycle Factors
No. No.
No. Life
Cycle Life Rs Rct No. LifeCycle Life Rs Rct
1 583 0.8604 0.08091 19 873 0.9420 0.16680
1 583 0.8604 0.08091 19 873 0.9420 0.16680
2 370 0.8680 0.09468 20 308 0.9100 0.15500
2 370 0.8680 0.09468 20 308 0.9100 0.15500
3 239 0.9200 0.09845 21 438 0.9020 0.10390
3 239 0.9200 0.09845 21 438 0.9020 0.10390
4 4421 421 0.9200
0.9200 0.09845
0.09845 2222 360 0.9020 0.10390
360 0.9020 0.10390
5 5763 763 0.8590
0.8590 0.12000
0.12000 2323 295 0.8604 0.08091
295 0.8604 0.08091
6 6446 446 0.9420
0.9420 0.16680
0.16680 2424 214 0.9100 0.15500
214 0.9100 0.15500
7 7213 213 0.9020
0.9020 0.10390
0.10390 2525 755 0.8590 0.12000
755 0.8590 0.12000
8 8258 258 0.8680
0.8680 0.09468
0.09468 2626 250 250 0.8604
0.8604 0.08091 0.08091
9 9545 545 0.8589
0.8589 0.06816
0.06816 2727 486 486 0.9000
0.9000 0.08174 0.08174
10 10303 303 0.9020
0.9020 0.10390
0.10390 2828 408 408 0.9200
0.9200 0.09845 0.09845
11 11512 512 0.9100
0.9100 0.15500
0.15500 2929 377 377 0.9000
0.9000 0.08174 0.08174
12 388 0.8590 0.12000 30 828 0.8589 0.06816
12 388 0.8590 0.12000 30 828 0.8589 0.06816
13 309 0.9000 0.08174 31 871 0.9100 0.15500
13 309 0.9000 0.08174 31 871 0.9100 0.15500
14 311 0.8590 0.12000 32 401 0.9420 0.16680
15 14215 311 0.8680
0.8590 0.09468
0.12000 3233 401 0.9420 0.16680
593 0.9200 0.09845
16 15268 215 0.8680
0.8680 0.09468
0.09468 3334 593 0.9200 0.09845
396 0.8589 0.06816
17 16434 268 0.8589
0.8680 0.06816
0.09468 3435 396 0.8589 0.06816
393 0.9000 0.08174
18 17456 434 0.8604
0.8589 0.08091
0.06816 3536 393 0.9000 0.08174
408 0.9420 0.16680
18 456 0.8604 0.08091 36 408 0.9420 0.16680

Figure 9 shows the main effects plot and the S/N ratio, the larger-the-better, respectively, of the
Figure 9 shows the main effects plot and the S/N ratio, the larger-the-better, respectively, of the
LiPo battery cycle life. It can be seen from Figure 9 that the duty cycle of the pulse charge current
LiPo battery cycle life. It can be seen from Figure 9 that the duty cycle of the pulse charge current has
has a great impact on the battery cycle life and pulsing at 50% resulted in the longest cycle life.
a great impact on the battery cycle life and pulsing at 50% resulted in the longest cycle life. The
The temperature at which the battery is charged also had an impact on the cycle life, and from Figure 9,
temperature at which the battery is charged also had an impact on the cycle life, and from Figure 9,
charging at 45 ◦ C produced the shortest cycle life. Charging at f also impacts
charging at 45 °C produced the shortest cycle life. Charging at zmin
also impacts the the battery,
battery, as it is
as it is
at thisatfrequency
this frequency that the battery impedance is minimum, and hence less heating losses. Charging at at
that the battery impedance is minimum, and hence less heating losses. Charging
20% duty cyclecycle
20% duty produced
producedthethe
shortest
shortestcycle
cyclelife
lifedue
due to the
thehigher
higherpeak
peak current
current used
used at this
at this dutyduty
cyclecycle
to maintain
to maintain the same
the same average
average chargecurrent,
charge current,according
according to
toEquation
Equation(1). Higher
(1). peak
Higher currents
peak can be
currents can be
detrimental to the battery life cycle. The factor levels that resulted in a longer battery cycle life were
f = 12 kHz ( f Zmin ), D = 0.5, and T = 23 ◦ C. By computing the ANOVA from the responses in Table 4,
the ANOVA table can be obtained, as shown in Table 5. From this table, it is seen that duty cycle had
 Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

Energies 2018, 11, 2162 10 of 15

detrimental to the battery life cycle. The factor levels that resulted in a longer battery cycle life
were = 12 ( ), = 0.5, and T = 23 °C. By computing the ANOVA from the responses in
Table 4, the ANOVA table
the largest impact on the cycle canlife,
be obtained, as shown
contributing in Table
57.5%, 5. Fromdetermined
as already this table, it is seenFigure
from that duty
9. The
next largest contribution was attributed to the frequency at which the pulse charge currentFigure
cycle had the largest impact on the cycle life, contributing 57.5%, as already determined from operated,
9. The next largest contribution was attributed to the frequency at which the pulse charge current
which contributed 39.8% to the total sum of squares.
operated, which contributed 39.8% to the total sum of squares.

(a) (b)
Figure 9. (a) Main effects plot for battery cycle life; (b) Main effects plot of SN ratios for battery cycle
Figure 9. (a) Main effects plot for battery cycle life; (b) Main effects plot of SN ratios for battery
life.
cycle life.
Table 5. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) table for output responses.
Table 5. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) table for output responses.
Cycle Life
Factor Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares
Cycle Life
Mean Square F
Duty CycleDegrees of Freedom
Factor 2 Sum of152562
Squares Mean76281
Square 2.41F
Frequency 5 105460 21092 0.58
Duty Cycle 2 152,562 76,281 2.41
Temperature
Frequency 5 2 7221
105,460 3611
21,092 0.10.58
Temperature
Total 2 7221
265243 3611 0.1
Total 265,243
RS
RS
Factor Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Mean Square F
Factor Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Mean Square F
Duty Cycle 2 0.004654 0.002327 3.02
Duty Cycle 2 0.004654 0.002327 3.02
Frequency
Frequency 5 5 0.007104
0.007104 0.001421
0.001421 1.851.85
Temperature
Temperature 2 2 0.013494
0.013494 0.006747
0.006747 13.41
13.41
Total 0.025252
Total 0.025252
Rct
Rct
Factor Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Mean Square F
Factor Degrees of Freedom Sum of Squares Mean Square F
Duty Cycle 2 0.003193 0.001596 1.59
Duty Cycle
Frequency 5 2 0.003193
0.007084 0.001596
0.001417 1.59
1.45
Frequency
Temperature 2 5 0.007084
0.025525 0.001417
0.012762 1.45
38.84
Total 0.035802
Temperature 2 0.025525 0.012762 38.84
Total 0.035802
Evaluating the impact of pulse charging parameters on the battery impedance parameters, Rs,
and Rct , the main effects
Evaluating plots and
the impact the S/N
of pulse ratio, parameters
charging smaller theonbetter, plots are
the battery shown inparameters,
impedance Figures 10Rand
s, 11.
FromandtheRANOVA
ct, the main effectsthe
table, plots and the S/N
frequency ratio, smaller
at which the better,
the pulse chargerplots are shown
operates in the
had Figures 10 and
second largest
effect11.
onFrom
the Rthe ANOVA table, the frequency at which the pulse charger operates had the second largest
s, and Rct values. The ambient temperature had the greatest impact on the impedance
parameter values,Rcontributing
effect on the s, and Rct values. The ambient temperature had the greatest impact on the impedance
53.4% and 71.3% to the total sum of squares for Rs, and Rct , respectively.
parameter values, contributing 53.4% and 71.3% to the total sum of squares for Rs, and Rct,
This is as expected, as temperature causes the accelerated aging of the battery [54]. The degradation in
respectively. This is as expected, as temperature causes the accelerated aging of the battery [54]. The
Rs and Rct may be due to electrolyte decomposition, increase in surface film growth, reduction in active
degradation in Rs and Rct may be due to electrolyte decomposition, increase in surface film growth,
materials [44,46,49,55],
reduction in active and other[44,46,49,55],
materials effects that and
are produced due
other effects to are
that various side due
produced chemical reactions
to various side that
usually occur at the electrode/electrolyte interface [49]. These result in different degradations at the
anode and cathode. Cathode degradation can arise from structural changes that occur during charge
and discharge cycles while anode degradation can arise from increase in surface film growth (SEI) [54].
As a result of these degradations, Rs and Rct increase as the battery ages, as shown in Figure 12.
 Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15
chemical
Energies 2018,reactions thatREVIEW
11, x FOR PEER usually occur at the electrode/electrolyte interface [49]. These result in
11 of 15
different degradations
chemical reactions thatatusually
the anode
occur and
at cathode. Cathode degradation
the electrode/electrolyte can [49].
interface arise These
from structural
result in
changes that
chemical
different occur that
reactions
degradations during thecharge
atusually
anode and
occur atdischarge
and cycles while
the electrode/electrolyte
cathode. Cathode anode degradation
interface
degradation can [49]. can arise
arise These
from from
result
structuralin
increase
different in surface
degradationsfilm growth
at the (SEI)
anode [54].
and As a result
cathode. of these
Cathode degradations,
degradation R
can
changes that occur during charge and discharge cycles while anode degradation can arise from s and
ariseR from
ct increase as
structuralthe
battery
changes
Energies ages,
that
2018, 11,
increase in2162as shown
occur
surface film in
during Figure
growthcharge12.and
(SEI) [54].discharge
As a resultcycles while
of these anode degradation
degradations, Rs and Rctcan arise as
increase from
the11 of 15
increase in surface film growth
battery ages, as shown in Figure 12. (SEI) [54]. As a result of these degradations, Rs and R ct increase as the
battery ages, as shown in Figure 12.

(a) (b)
Figure(a) (b) for Rs.
10. (a) Main effects plots for Rs; (b) Main effects plots of SN
Figure 10.(a)(a) Main effects plots for Rs ; (b) Main effects plots (b) of SN for Rs .
Figure 10. (a) Main effects plots for Rs; (b) Main effects plots of SN for Rs.
Figure 10. (a) Main effects plots for Rs; (b) Main effects plots of SN for Rs.

(a) (b)
Figure(a) (b)for Rct.
11. (a) Main effects plot for Rct; (b) Main effects plots of SN
(a) (b)
Figure 11. (a) Main effects plot for Rct; (b) Main effects plots of SN for Rct.
Figure (a)(a)
11.11.
Figure Main
Maineffects
effectsplot for R
plot for Rctct;;(b)
(b)Main
Maineffects
effects plots
plots of SN
of SN for
for R ct.
Rct .

(a) (b) (c)

(a) of Rs, and Rct vs charge/discharge
Figure 12. Trend (b) cycles, (a) at 0 oC; (b) at 23(c)
oC; (c) at 45 oC.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 12. Trend of Rs, and Rct vs charge/discharge cycles, (a) at 0 C; (b) at 23 C; (c) at 45 C.
o o o

From Figure
Figure 12, batteries
12. Trend of Rs, and thatRct vs were subjected cycles,
charge/discharge to pulse (a) atcharging
0 oC; (b) atwere
23 oC;compared
(c) at 45 oC. with the
of Rs, andalgorithm
Trend charging
Figure 12.CC-CV R vs charge/discharge cycles, at 0 o C; (b) at 23
(a)temperatures. o C; (c) seen o C.
at 45that,
benchmark
From Figure 12, batteries ctthat were across differentto
subjected ambient
pulse charging were Itcompared
can be with the at
room
benchmarktemperature,
From Figure
CC-CV12, the + algorithm
batteries
charging of the
that battery
wereacross pulsed to
subjected
different atambient
50%
pulseduty cycle was
charging
temperatures. were lower across
Itcompared
can be seen the
withcharge
the
that, at
and discharge
benchmark
From
room CC-CV
Figure
temperature,cycles when+compared
12, charging
batteries
the algorithm
that to
were
of the thesubjected
across
battery battery
different
pulsed subjected
ambient
atto pulse
50% totemperatures.
duty the CC-CV
charging
cycle wascharging
It can
were
lower algorithm.
be
compared
across seen
thethat,
chargeat the
with
room
and By using
discharge the
temperature, accelerated
cycles thewhen + aging
comparedof effect
the to [56],
battery
the the cycle
pulsed
battery atlife
50%
subjected
benchmark CC-CV charging algorithm across different ambient temperatures. It can be seen that, of batteries
duty
to thecycle subjected
CC-CV was lower to
charging pulsing
across at
the
algorithm. optimal
charge
values
and Byobtained
discharge from
cycles
using the [18],
thewhen
accelerated i.e., of=the
compared 12.6
tobattery
the (the
battery )subjected
and of =to0.5,
thewasCC-CV compared
charging to algorithm.
the benchmark
at room temperature, R s + Ragingct effect [56], cycle
pulsed life
at 50% batteries
duty subjected
cycle was to pulsing
lower at optimal
across the charge
CC-CV
values charging
By obtained
using algorithm
thefrom
accelerated
[18], and
aging
i.e., plotted
=effect
12.6 in Figure
[56], 13.) Itand
the cycle
( wasofobserved
life =batteries
0.5, was that the pulse
subjected
compared charged
to pulsing
to the at batteries
optimal
benchmark
and discharge cycles when compared to the battery subjected to the CC-CV charging algorithm.
attained
values
CC-CV more than
obtained
charging from 100 extra
[18],
algorithm i.e.,
and = 12.6
cycles whenFigure
plotted (
compared ) It towas
and the = 0.5, was
CC-CV charged the batteries.
compared pulsetocharged
theThis is due to
benchmark
By using the accelerated aging effect in[56], the 13. cycle life observed
of batteries that
subjected to pulsing batteries
at optimal
the restcharging
CC-CV
attained periods
more than in 100
the extra
algorithm pulses
and that allows
plotted
cycles when for the
in Figure
compared 13.effective
Ittowas intercalation
theobserved
CC-CV that the
charged of batteries.
the Licharged
pulse + before batteries
This isthe duenext
to
values obtained
application
attained more
from
of the
than
[18],
pulse,
100
i.e.,
thereby
extra
f =
cycles
12.6 kHz
preventing
when
( f Zmin to
capacity
compared
) and
fading
the
D =
due
CC-CV
0.5,
to
was
the
compared
buildup
charged of
batteries.lithium
to
This
the benchmark
deposits.
is due to
the rest periods in the pulses that allows for the effective intercalation of the Li before the next +
CC-CVthe charging
rest periods
application
algorithm
of theinpulse,
and plotted
the pulses
thereby that in Figure
allows
preventing for the13.
capacity
It
effective was observed
fading intercalation
due to the buildup
thatof the
theofpulse
Lilithium charged
+ before batteries
the next
deposits.
attained more than
application of the100 extra
pulse, cyclespreventing
thereby when compared capacitytofading the CC-CV
due to the chargedbuildupbatteries.
of lithium This is due to the
deposits.
rest periods in the pulses that allows for the effective intercalation of the Li+ before the next application
of the pulse, thereby preventing capacity fading due to the buildup of lithium deposits.
Energies 2018, 11, 2162 12 of 15

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

Figure 13. Cycle life comparison of CC-CV charged battery and pulse charged battery.
Figure 13. Cycle life comparison of CC-CV charged battery and pulse charged battery.
6. Conclusions
6. Conclusions
The influence of pulse charging parameters and ambient temperature at which the battery is
The influence
charged on LiPo of battery
pulse charging
impedance parameters
parametersand andambient temperature
life cycle at which the
has been determined. battery is
Battery
impedance
charged on LiPo parameter values increased
battery impedance as the number
parameters and lifeofcycle
charge and
has discharge
been cycles increased.
determined. This
Battery impedance
is due to
parameter the various
values increasedsideaschemical reactions
the number that occur
of charge andindischarge
the battery as it ages.
cycles The byproducts
increased. This is due ofto the
these reactions impact the battery impedance. Batteries that were subjected to pulse charging at 50%
various side chemical reactions that occur in the battery as it ages. The byproducts of these reactions
duty cycle at room temperature had lower impedance values when compared to batteries subjected
impact the battery impedance. Batteries that were subjected to pulse charging at 50% duty cycle at
to CC-CV at the same temperature. Results from the accelerated aging of the battery indicated that
roompulse
temperature had lower impedance values when compared to batteries subjected to CC-CV at the
charging at the optimal values resulted in an increase of an additional 100 cycles when
samecompared
temperature.
to the Results
benchmark from the accelerated
method agingofofdetermining
CC-CV. In terms the batterywhich
indicated
factorthat
andpulse
factor charging
levels at
the optimal values resulted in an increase of an additional 100 cycles when compared to
of the pulse charge current affected the cycle life of the batteries, the Taguchi OA approach was used. the benchmark
method CC-CV.
It was deduced Inthat
terms of determining
the duty which
cycle of the pulse factor
charge and factor
current played levels
a majorof theinpulse
role batterycharge current
cycle life
extension,
affected followed
the cycle bythe
life of frequency at which
batteries, the battery
the Taguchi OA is charged.
approach Ambient temperature
was used. It was impacted
deducedthe that the
dutybattery impedance
cycle of the pulse parameters greatly. played a major role in battery cycle life extension, followed
charge current
by frequency at which the battery isthe
This work has demonstrated impact of
charged. pulse charge
Ambient current factors
temperature and factor
impacted levels on
the battery the
impedance
cycle life of the battery. Accelerated life cycle tests have also proven that batteries subjected to the
parameters greatly.
pulse charging at the optimal parameters can result in longer cycle life when compared to batteries
This work has demonstrated the impact of pulse charge current factors and factor levels on the
that were subjected to the CC-CV charging algorithm.
cycle life of the battery. Accelerated life cycle tests have also proven that batteries subjected to the
pulseAuthor
charging at the optimal
Contributions: parameters
Conceptualization, can result
J.M.A.-B. in longer
and A.G.-E.; cycle lifeJ.M.A.-B.;
Methodology, when compared to batteries
Software, J.M.A.-B.;
Validation, J.M.A.-B.; Formal Analysis, J.M.A.-B.;
that were subjected to the CC-CV charging algorithm. Investigation, J.M.A.-B.; Resources, A.G.-E. and E.S.-S.;
Writing-Original Draft Preparation, J.M.A.-B.; Writing-Review & Editing, J.M.A.-B., A.G.-E., and E.S.-S.;
Supervision,
Author A.G.-E. Conceptualization,
Contributions: and E.S.-S. J.M.A.-B. and A.G.-E.; Methodology, J.M.A.-B.; Software, J.M.A.-B.;
Validation, J.M.A.-B.; Formal Analysis, J.M.A.-B.;
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Investigation, J.M.A.-B.; Resources, A.G.-E. and E.S.-S.;
Writing-Original Draft Preparation, J.M.A.-B.; Writing-Review & Editing, J.M.A.-B., A.G.-E., and E.S.-S.;
Supervision, A.G.-E. and
Acknowledgments: E.S.-S.
The authors want to acknowledge Ankita Bhat of the Center for Bioelectronics, Biosensors,
and Biochips (C3B®) in the department of Biomedical Engineering at Texas A&M University, College Station,
Funding: This research received no external funding.
TX,USA, for support in performing battery impedance measurements.
Acknowledgments: The authors want to acknowledge Ankita Bhat of the Center for Bioelectronics, Biosensors,
Conflicts(C3B®)
and Biochips of Interest: Thedepartment
in the authors declare no conflict ofEngineering
of Biomedical interest. at Texas A&M University, College Station, TX,
USA, for support in performing battery impedance measurements.
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Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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