GUPCO Geological examination

1-Write the stratigraphic column of GOS, WD, Nile

delta

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2-Define
* prosity –permeability sedimentary rock -formation-
structure-index fossil-unconformity-sequence-mud
log unit-time lag-mud circulation-attic oil-clysmic
fault-muting-CDP-NMO-migration-stacking-pull up-
ghost multiple

a) Porosity:
It is the percentage of pore volume or void space to the
total volume of rock.
• Primary porosity: The porosity preserved from deposition
through lithification.
• Secondary porosity: created through alteration of rock,
commonly by processes such as dolomitization, dissolution
and fracturing.
• Total porosity: is the total void space and as such includes
isolated pores and the connected pores
• Effective porosity: The interconnected pore volume or void
space in a rock that contributes to fluid flow or permeability in
a reservoir.

b) Permeability:
It is the ability of the rock to transmit fluids, to be
permeable; a formation must have interconnected porosity
(Unit is Darcie)
• Absolute permeability: ability to flow or transmit fluids
through a rock, conducted when a single fluid, or phase, is
present in the rock.
• Effective permeability: The ability to preferentially flow or
transmit a particular fluid when other immiscible fluids are
present in the reservoir. If a single fluid is present in a rock, its
relative permeability is 1.0
• Relative permeability: is the ratio of effective permeability
of a particular fluid at a particular saturation to absolute
permeability of that fluid at total saturation.

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c) Sedimentary rock:
Is a type of rock that is formed by sedimentation of
material at the Earth’s surface and within bodies of water. the
most important for the oil industry as it contains most of the
source rocks and cap rocks and virtually all reservoirs.
Sedimentary rocks come from the debris of older rocks ; and
are split into two categories:
• Clastic rocks: Formed from the materials of older rocks by
the actions of erosion, transportation and deposition.
(Mechanical process). Such as conglomerate, sandstone, shale.
• Non clastic rocks: are formed by chemical precipitation
(settling out from a solution). Such as Limestone, calcite and
halite.

d) Formation:
It is basic unit for the naming of rocks in stratigraphy: a
set of rocks that are or once were horizontally continuous, that
share some distinctive feature of lithology, and are large
enough to be mapped.
Is the fundamental unit of lithostratigraphy. A formation
consists of a certain number of rock strata that have a
comparable lithology, facies or other similar properties. A
formation can be divided into member and are themselves
grouped together in groups.

e) Sequence:
A group of relatively conformable strata that represents a
cycle of deposition and is bounded by unconformities or
correlative conformities. Sequences are the fundamental unit of
interpretation in sequence stratigraphy. Sequences comprise
systems tracts.

f) Index fossil:
Are fossils used to define and identify geologic periods
(or faunal stages). They work on the premise that, although
different sediments may look different depending on the

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conditions under which they were laid down, If the species
concerned were short-lived (in geological terms, lasting a few
hundred thousand years), then it is certain that the sediments in
question were deposited within that narrow time period. The
shorter the lifespan of a species, the more precisely different
sediments can be correlated, and so rapidly evolving types of
fossils are particularly valuable.
The best index fossils are common, easy-to-identify at
species level, and have a broad distribution—otherwise the
likelihood of finding and recognizing one in the two sediments
is minor.

g) Unconformity:
Is a buried erosion surface separating two rock masses
or strata of different ages. There are many type from
unconformity
surface:

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• Angular unconformity: is an unconformity where
horizontally parallel strata of sedimentary rock are deposited
on tilted and eroded layers, producing an angular discordance
with the overlying horizontal layers.
• Disconformity: unconformity between parallel layers of
sedimentary rocks which represents a period of erosion or non-
deposition.
• Paraconformity: is a type of unconformity in which strata
are parallel; there is little apparent erosion and the
unconformity surface resembles a simple bedding
plane.different in fossil cotent
• Nonconformity: exists between sedimentary rocks and
metamorphic or igneous rocks when the sedimentary rock lies
above and was deposited on the pre- existing and eroded
metamorphic or igneous rock.

h) Structure:
A geological feature produced by deformation of the
Earth's crust, such as a fold or a fault; a feature within a rock,
such as a fracture or bedding surface; or, more generally, the
spatial arrangement of rocks.

j)Mud log unit:

The system integrates powerful computer network
technique, highly accurate and reliable sensor technique,
analysis and evaluation technique of rock samples such as
geochemical, nuclear magnetic resonance and quantitative
fluorescence, and it is the center of quick and comprehensive
interpretation and evaluation of oil and gas on well-site. The
system can discover and evaluate oil and gas reservoirs
quickly, monitor drilling engineering parameters and toxic
gases such as H2S and CO2, thus to ensure drilling safety,

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enhance drilling efficiency and reduce operation cost. The mud
logging unit has served in domestic oilfields.

k) Lag time:
It is the time between a chip being cut by the bit and the
time it reaches to the surface where it is then examined by the
wellsite geologist or mudlogger.
The time taken for cuttings sample to reach the surface.
The term is also used in place of cycle time.

l) Migration:
• In Geology: The movement of hydrocarbons from
their source into reservoir rocks. The movement of newly
generated hydrocarbons out of their source rock is primary
migration, also called expulsion. The further movement of the
hydrocarbons into reservoir rock in a hydrocarbon trap or other
area of accumulation is secondary migration. Migration
typically occurs from a structurally low area to a higher area
because of the relative buoyancy of hydrocarbons in
comparison to the surrounding rock. Migration can be local or
can occur along distances of hundreds of kilometers in large
sedimentary basins, and is critical to the formation of a viable
petroleum system.
• In Geophysical: A step in seismic processing in which
reflections in seismic data are moved to their correct locations
in the x-y-time space of seismic data, including two-way
traveltime and position relative to shotpoints. Migration
improves seismic interpretation and mapping because the
locations of geological structures, especially faults, are more
accurate in migrated seismic data. Proper migration collapses
diffractions from secondary sources such as reflector
terminations against faults and corrects bow ties to form
synclines. There are numerous methods of migration, such as
dip moveout (DMO), frequency domain, ray-trace and wave-
equation migration.

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m) Muting:
• To remove the contribution of selected seismic traces in
a stack to minimize air waves,
ground roll and other early-arriving noise. Low-frequency
traces and long-offset traces are typical targets for muting.
• Remove arrivals that are not primary reflections or
make it zero.

n) Stacking:
• The stacking velocity is used to correct the arrival times
of events in the traces for their varying offsets prior to
summing, or stacking, the traces to improve the signal-to-noise
ratio of the data.

o) Common mid-point (CMP):

• Having the same midpoint between source and

detector, the location to which the reflections are migrated (or
gathered) during seismic processing.
• The point on the surface halfway between the source
and receiver that is shared by numerous source-receiver pairs.
The common midpoint is vertically above the common depth
point, or common reflection point. Common midpoint is not
the same as common depth point, but the terms are often
incorrectly used as synonyms.
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p) Common depth point (CDP):

• More correctly CMP where beds do not dip, the

common reflection point at depth on a reflector, or the halfway
point when a wave travels from a source to a reflector to a
receiver. In the case of flat layers, the common depth point is
vertically below the common midpoint. In the case of dipping
beds, there is no common depth point shared by multiple
sources and receivers, so dip moveout processing is necessary
to reduce smearing, or inappropriate mixing, of the data.
• point is the halfway point in the travel of a wave from
a source to a flat-lying reflector to a receiver.

q) Pull up:

A phenomenon of relative seismic velocities of strata

whereby a shallow layer or feature with a high seismic velocity
(e.g., a salt layer or salt dome, or a carbonate reef) surrounded
by rock with a lower seismic velocity causes what appears to

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be a structural high beneath it. After such features are correctly
converted from time to depth, the apparent structural high is
generally reduced in magnitude.

r) Ghost multiple:

A short-path multiple, or a spurious reflection that

occurs when seismic energy initially reverberates upward from
the shallow subsurface and then is reflected downward, such as
at the base of weathering or between sources and receivers and
the sea surface.

S) Mud circulation:

Drilling mud is a important part for the drilling work to

maintain the wellbore; Cool, lubricate and support the bit and
drilling assembly mud circulating systemand so on, most
important, remove cuttings from well. Then here it problem, to
reuse the drilling mud. Then it is the time for mud circulating
system to come here.

In some applications, the mud circulating system is

equal to solids control system, but the full mud circulating
system in drilling work, contains more. Except for the four
phase, five equipments as we know, shale shaker, vacuum
degasser, desander and desilter (or mud cleaner), decanter
centrifuge. There also include mud pump, electric generator,
control panel, chemical reagent treatment unit, and so on.

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As you can see in the picture.

T)Attic oil:

An unscientific, but descriptive term for the oil above

the borehole in horizontal wells; oil in the top few feet of
a productive interval which will gravitate or be pressured
into the horizontal drain hole.

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r) Normal moveout (NMO):

• The traces from different source-receiver pairs that

share a midpoint can be corrected during seismic processing to
remove the effects of different source-receiver offsets.

• The effect of the separation between receiver and

source on the arrival time of a reflection that does not dip,
abbreviated NMO. A reflection typically arrives first at the
receiver nearest the source. The offset between the source and
other receivers induces a delay in the arrival time of a
reflection from a horizontal surface at depth. A plot of arrival
times versus offset has a hyperbolic shape.
• A function of time and offset that can be used in
seismic processing to compensate for the effects of normal
moveout, or the delay in reflection arrival times when
geophones and shotpoints are offset from each other.

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3-what is difference between
1- erosion, diagensis
Erosion
The process of denudation of rocks,
including physical, chemical and biological
breakdown and transportation.
The process by which material weathered
from rocks is transported by wind, water,
ice, or abrasive solid particles, or by mass-
wasting, as in rock falls and landslides.
There is no change in chemical composition.
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Digenesis
In Rock: The physical, chemical or
biological alteration of sediments into
sedimentary rock at relatively low
temperatures and pressures that can result in
changes to the rock's original mineralogy
and texture.
After deposition, sediments are compacted
as they are buried beneath successive layers
of sediment and cemented by minerals that
precipitate from solution. Grains of
sediment, rock fragments and fossils can be
replaced by other
minerals during diagenesis.
Porosity usually decreases during
diagenesis, except in rare cases such as
dissolution of minerals and
dolomitization. Diagenesis does not include
weathering processes.
Hydrocarbon generation begins during
diagenesis. There is not a
clear, accepted distinction between
diagenesis and metamorphism,
although metamorphism occurs at pressures
and temperatures
higher than those of the outer crust, where
diagenesis occurs.
In Petroleum: The initial stage of alteration
of sediments and maturation of kerogen that
occurs at temperatures less than 50°C
[122°F]. The type of hydrocarbon generated
depends on the type of organic matter in the
kerogen, the amount of time that passes, and
the ambient temperature and pressure.
During early diagenesis, microbial activity
is a key contributor to the breakdown of
organic matter and generally results in
production of biogenic gas. Longer exposure
to higher temperatures during diagenesis,
catagenesis, and metagenesis generally
results in transformation of the kerogen into
liquid hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon gases.
There is change in chemical composition
2- fault, joint
Fault joint
Found in large scale Found in small scale
There are displacements parallel to the There is no displacement parallel to the
defining plane of rock. defining plane of rock.
A break or planar surface in brittle rock A surface of breakage, cracking or
across which there is observable separation within a rock along which there
displacement. Depending on the relative has been no movement parallel to the
direction of displacement between the rocks, defining plane. The usage by some authors
or fault blocks, on either side of the fault, its can be more specific: When walls of a
movement is described as normal, reverse or fracture have moved only normal to each
strike-slip. According to terminology other, the fracture is called a joint
derived from the mining industry, the fault
block above the fault surface is called the
hanging wall, while the fault block below
the fault is the footwall. Given the
geological complexity of some faulted rocks
and rocks that have undergone more than
one episode of deformation, it can be
difficult to distinguish between the various
types of faults. Also, areas deformed more
than once or that have undergone continual
deformation might have fault surfaces that
are rotated from their original orientations,
so interpretation is not straightforward. In a
normal fault, the hanging wall moves down
relative to the footwall along the dip of the
fault surface, which is steep, from 45o to 90o.
A growth fault is a type of normal fault that
forms during sedimentation and typically
has thicker strata on the downthrown
hanging wall than the footwall. A reverse
fault forms when the hanging wall moves up
relative to the footwall parallel to the dip of
the fault surface. A thrust fault, sometimes
called an overthrust, is a reverse fault in
which the fault plane has a shallow dip,
typically much less than 45o.

Movement of normal and reverse faults can

also be oblique as opposed to purely parallel
to the dip direction of the fault plane. The
motion along a strike-slip fault, also known
as a transcurrent or wrench fault, is parallel
to the strike of the fault surface, and the
fault blocks move sideways past each other.
The fault surfaces of strike-slip faults are
usually nearly vertical. A strike-slip fault in
which the block across the fault moves to
the right is described as a dextral strike-slip
fault. If it moves left, the relative motion is
described as sinistral. A transform fault is a
particular type of strike-slip fault that is a

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boundary of an oceanic tectonic plate. The
actual movement of a transform fault is
opposite to its apparent displacement.

The presence of a fault can be detected by

observing characteristics of rocks such as
changes in lithology from one fault block to
the next, breaks and offsets between strata
or seismic events, and changes in formation
pressure in wells that penetrate both sides of
a fault. Some fault surfaces contain
relatively coarse rubble that can act as a
conduit for migrating oil or gas, whereas the
surfaces of other faults are smeared with
impermeable clays or broken grains that can
act as a fault seal.

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4-when SP can not measure?
SP log cannot be used in nonconductive drilling mud
The SP curve is usually 'flat' opposite shale formations because
there is no ion exchange due to the low permeability, low
porosity properties (tight)thus creating a baseline. Tight rocks
other than shale (e.g. tight sandstones, tight carbonates) will
also result in poor or no response on the SP curve because of
no ion exchange.
 Other Cases of SP:
Rmf/Rw (Salinity effect) Fresh mud: negative SP, Saline
mud: positive SP.
Shale or clay content: Shale reduces SP.
Permeability.
Presence of hydrocarbon.
Bed thickness: SP decreases when bed thickness
decreases.
Invasion: Reduces SP.
Mud filtrate: The magnitude and direction of SP
deflection from the shale baseline depends on relative
resistivities of the mud filtrate and the formation water.

5-mention 5 fields in GOS and mention the

horizon of production?

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6-what is the major type of traps in GOS
Structure traps (Normal Fault, horst and grabben) that
formed fom tension force that formed Gulf of Suez.

7-what are the favorable conditions to form oil?

- Petroleum is formed in all sediments either continental or
marine.
- Petroleum is found in all rock from pre-Cambrian to
Pleistocene.
- Aqueous environment is best for accumulation of organic
matter and their transformation to petroleum.
- Petroleum originates in reducing and anaerobic environment.
- Petroleum is composed of homogenous series of
hydrocarbons but no two petroleum are alike.
- Reservoir tempreture (107◦ C to 141◦ C deep reservoir)
- Reservoir pressure from atmospheric pressure to 10.000 psi.
- Minimum time for petroleum formation is one million year.

8-how can you calculate?

1-interval velocity
The velocity, typically P-wave velocity, of a specific
layer or layers of rock, symbolized by vint and commonly
calculated from acoustic logs or from the change in
stacking velocity between seismic events on a common
midpoint gather.

2-reflection coefficient
The ratio of amplitude of the reflected wave to the
incident wave, or how much energy is reflected. If the wave
has normal incidence, then its reflection coefficient can be
expressed as:

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9-According to stratigraphic sequence what is the
reservoir geometry in the down dip ?
Located down the slope of a dipping plane or surface. In
a dipping (not flat-lying) hydrocarbon reservoir that contains
gas, oil and water, the gas is updip, the gas-oil contact is
downdip from the gas, and the oil-water contact is still farther
downdip.

Downdip. Well 2 is downdip of both Well 1 and the oil-

water contact. Well 1 is updip of the oil-water contact

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