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Layssa - Biochem Chapter 12
Layssa - Biochem Chapter 12
- Class includes
Cytoskeleton
plants, 3-dimensional matrix made of
animals, fungi, protein fibers
protozoans,
Functions
yeasts and
to give
some algaes.
cells
- Large cells (10-100 mm in diameter). shape,
10X bigger than prokaryotes. allows
cells to
- Surrounded by a membrane called move, guides internal organelle
plasma membrane movement.
- Composed of lipids and proteins Nucleus
- Serves as chemical barrier to the • Site of most DNA and RNA
outside environment synthesis
• Storage of genetic
- Contain INTERNAL membranes and information
compartments. (Unique feature) • Bound by a double
membrane
- Compartments = organelles • Largest organelle in
- Organelles contain organized eukaryotic cells
complexes of macromolecules that • DNA-protein complex -
perform a certain biological function. Chromatin, RNA processing for
ribosome synthesis occurs in
- Most enzymes are Nucleolus
compartmentalized
Endoplasmic Reticulum
- Compartmentalization results in • Network of interconnected, closed,
separation of biological function!! membrane-bounded vesicles
- No cell wall in animal cells. • Attached to cell and
nuclear membrane
- Plants, fungi, algae generally have a • Used for
cell wall. manufacturing,
modification and
transport of cellular
Function of Subcellular Organelles in
Eukaryote Cells materials
• A cell can have
Two types: over 1000
Smooth ER = site of lipid mitochondria!
synthesis Depends on need
Rough ER = site of for energy---
protein synthesis via muscle cells have
ribosomes a lot of
• Ribosomes are made up of mitochondria.
RNA and proteins not bound by a • Enzymes needed
membrane for oxidation reactions, as well as
DNA (mtDNA) that differs from that
Lysosomes found in the nucleus, are found in
• Internal sacs the internal mitochondrial matrix
bound by a • Metabolic reactions for oxidation of
single membrane pyruvate by glycolysis, fatty acids,
• Responsible for AA are located in mitosol
degrading cell
components that Peroxisomes Have an Important Role in
have become Lipid Metabolism
obsolete for the cell or organism.
• Internal pH ~5 (very acidic) • contain enzymes involved in the
• Compartmentalization ESSENTIAL! metabolism of hydrogen peroxide
Sequesters this biological activity hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) which is
from the rest of the cell. toxic to the cell
• Enzymes in lysosomes degrade • Catalase converts H2O2 to water
polymers into their individual building
blocks.
Golgi Apparatus
• Flattened
vesicles of
lipid/protein/sugar
• Usually found near smooth ER and
nucleus
• Involved in protein and fat
processing and trafficking to other
organelles (e.g. lysosomes, plasma and oxygen and oxidation of various
membranes) compounds by H2O2
• Distribution and shipping department
for cell materials.
Mitochondria
• Have double
membrane (inner
and outer)
• Place where most
oxidative energy
production occurs
= “powerhouse” of
the cell
• Form ATP –
Convert oxygen and nutrients to
energy
• Small, typically the size of a
bacterium
• Contain a circular DNA molecule like
that of bacteria (own genome)
• Because of the double membrane,
size and presence of own genome,
mitochondria are believed to be
descendants of a bacteria that was
engulfed by a larger cell billions of
years ago = endosymbiotic
hypothesis.
CHAPTER 1: Water Temporary dipoles from rapid
movement of e- from neutral atoms
Biomedical Importance/Clinical Correlations
• Predominant Multiple Forces Stabilize Biomolecules
chemical component DNA double helix structure
of living organisms WATER FORMS H-BOND
• Unique physical
properties; could
solvate
organic/inorganic molecules due to
dipolar structure & forming hydrogen
bonds
• Interaction with biomolecules
influence both biomolecule & water
structure
• Excellent nucleophile,
product/reactant for metabolic
reactions EXAMPLE OF BIOLOGICALLY
IMPORTANT H-BOND
Water is an ideal biological solvent
Water Molecules Form Dipoles, it is a polar
molecule
• Water molecule
is an irregular,
slightly skewed
tetrahedron with
oxygen at its
center
• Strongly electronegative oxygen
atom in a water molecule attracts
electrons away from the hydrogen
nuclei Water is an Excellent Nucleophile
• Molecule with electrical charge • Metabolic reactions - attack by lone
distributed asymmetrically about its pairs of e-
structure is referred to as a dipole. residing on e-
rich molecules
termed
nucleophiles
upon e-poor
atoms called
electrophiles
• Nucleophilic attack by water often
result to Hydrolysis of (e.g. amide or
ester bond). Conversely, water is
produced when joining monomers
• Enzymes accelerate hydrolysis;
Proteases for proteins Amino acids
while Nucleases for phosphoester
bonds in DNA/RNA
Interactions with Water Influences Structure
of Biomolecules Water Molecules Exhibit a Slight but
Covalent and Noncovalent Bonds Stabilize Important Tendency to Dissociate
Biologic Molecules • act both as an acid and as a base
covalent bond is the strongest force (ionization/proton transfer)
that holds molecules together • H2O + H2O ⇄ H3O + OH-
Biomolecules Fold to Position Polar & • At one instant it is an ion; an instant
Charged Groups on Their Surfaces later it is part of a water molecule
amphipathic; possess charged • 1 (mol) of water weighs 18 g, 1 liter
groups & hydrophobic regions (L) (1000 g) = 55.56 mol
Hydrophobic Interactions • Probability that H+ in pure water will
nonpolar compounds self-associate exist as H+ = 1.8 × 10-9
in an aqueous environment • Kw - ion product for water; At
Electrostatic Interactions
25°C Kw = 10-14 (mol/L)2
Between oppositely charged groups
- Salt bridges
van der Waals Forces
Biomedical Importance/Clinical
Correlations
Abnormal Medical Conditions as Reflected
in the pH of Blood
• Blood pH reflects changes in pH of
tissues => pathological condition
• Acidosis - if blood pH falls below
7.35 and above 7.45, as an Alkalosis
• Metabolic acidosis - excess
production of lactic acid or ketone
bodies occur in diabetes and
hypoxemia
loss of HCO3- , changes pH
balance happens in diarrhea,
and chronic renal diseases
• Respiratory acidosis - restricted CO2
exhalation such as asthma, obesity
or breathing problems due to trauma
• Metabolic alkalosis - ingesting
bases, retention of HCO3-
• Respiratory alkalosis -
hyperventilation, fever
BUFFERS
A buffer solution is a solution of:
1. A weak acid or a weak base and;
2. The salt of the weak acid or weak
base
*Both must be present!
• A buffer solution has the ability to
resist changes in pH upon the
addition of small amounts of either
acid or base.
acid.
i n n e u t r a l
have a tendency to lose protons
(H+)
zwitterion
- molecule that
has a (+)
charge on one
atom & (-)
charge on
another atom,
but which has
no net charge