Reporting Errors and Experimental Results

Best Estimate +/- Uncertainty

When scientists make a measurement or calculate some quantity from their data, they generally
assume that some exact or “true value” exists based on how they define what is being
measured (or calculated).

Scientists reporting their results usually specify a range of values that they expect this “true
value” to fall within. The most common way to show the range of values is:
Measurement = best estimate +/- uncertainty

Example: a measurement of 5.07 g +/- 0.02 g means that the experimenter is confident that the
actual value for the quantity being measured lies between 5.05 g and 5.09 g. The uncertainty is
the experimenter’s best estimate of how far an experimental quantity might be from the “true
value”. (The art of estimating this uncertainty is what error analysis is all about.)

How many digits should be kept?

Experimental uncertainties should be rounded to one significant digit. Experimental
uncertainties are, by nature, inexact. Uncertainties are almost always quoted to one significant
digit (example: +/-

0.05 s). Some scientists quote the uncertainty to two significant digits if the uncertainty starts
with a one (example: +/- 0.0012 kg)
Wrong: 52.3 cm +/- 4.1 cm
Correct: 52.3 cm +/- 0.1 cm
Or
52 cm +/- 4 cm

Always round the experimental result or measurement to the same decimal place as the
uncertainty. It would be confusing (and perhaps dishonest) to suggest that you knew the digit in
the hundreths (or thousandths) place when you admit that you are unsure of the tenth place.
Wrong: 1.237 +/- 0.1s Correct: 1.2 +/- 0.1 s

Estimating uncertainty from a single measurement

In many circumstances, a single measurement of a quantity is often sufficient for the purposes
of the measurement being taken. But if you only take one measurement, how can you estimate
the uncertainty in that measurement?

Estimating the uncertainty in a single measurement requires judgement on the part of the
experimenter. The uncertainty of a single measurement is limited by the precision and accuracy
of the measuring instrument, along with any other factors that might affect the ability of the
experimenter to make the measurement and it is up to the experimenter (or it is sometimes
included on the measuring device) to estimate the uncertainty.
 Often a “rule of thumb” used is to use half of the smallest unit on the device as the uncertainty.
In general, the uncertainty in a single measurement from a single instrument is half the least
count of the instrument.
Example: an analog thermometer’s smallest unit is 1 degree celsius. The measurement taken
could read 22.3°C +/- 0.5 °C.

Estimating the Uncertainty in Measurements

Before you combine or do anything with your uncertainty, you have to determine the uncertainty
in your original measurement. This often involves some subjective judgment. For example, if
you’re measuring the diameter of a ball with a ruler, you need to think about how precisely you
can really read the measurement. Are you confident you’re measuring from the edge of the ball?
How precisely can you read the ruler? These are the types of questions you have to ask when
estimating uncertainties.

In some cases you can easily estimate the uncertainty. For example, if you weigh something
on a scale that measures down to the nearest 0.1 g, then you can confidently estimate that
there is a ±0.05 g uncertainty in the measurement. This is because a 1.0 g measurement could
really be anything from 0.95 g (rounded up) to just under 1.05 g (rounded down). In other cases,
you’ll have to estimate it as well as possible on the basis of several factors.
01:0001:36

Absolute vs. Relative Uncertainties

Quoting your uncertainty in the units of the original measurement – for example, 1.2 ± 0.1 g or
3.4 ± 0.2 cm – gives the “absolute” uncertainty. In other words, it

explicitly tells you the amount by which the original measurement could be incorrect. The
relative uncertainty gives the uncertainty as a percentage of the original value. Work this out
with:
Relative (or Percentage) uncertainty = (absolute uncertainty ÷ best estimate) × 100%
So in the example above:
Relative uncertainty = (0.2 cm ÷ 3.4 cm) × 100% = 5.9%
The value can therefore be quoted as 3.4 cm ± 5.9%.

Adding and Subtracting Uncertainties

Work out the total uncertainty when you add or subtract two quantities with their own
uncertainties by adding the absolute uncertainties. For example:
(3.4 ± 0.2 cm) + (2.1 ± 0.1 cm) = (3.4 + 2.1) ± (0.2 + 0.1) cm
= 5.5 ± 0.3 cm
(3.4 ± 0.2 cm) − (2.1 ± 0.1 cm) = (3.4 − 2.1) ± (0.2 + 0.1) cm

= 1.3 ± 0.3 cm

Multiplying or Dividing Uncertainties

When multiplying or dividing quantities with uncertainties, you add the relative uncertainties
together. For example:
(3.4 cm ± 5.9%) × (1.5 cm ± 4.1%)
= (3.4 × 1.5) cm2 5.1 cm2 ± 10%
± (5.9 + 4.1)% =

(3.4 cm ± 5.9%) ÷(1.7 cm ± 4.1 %) = (3.4 ÷ 1.7) ± (5.9 + 4.1)% = 2.0 ± 10%

Multiplying by a Constant
If you’re multiplying a number with an uncertainty by a constant factor, the rule varies depending
on the type of uncertainty. If you’re using a relative uncertainty, this stays the same:
(3.4 cm ± 5.9%) × 2 = 6.8 cm ± 5.9%
If you’re using absolute uncertainties, you multiply the uncertainty by the same factor:

(3.4 ± 0.2 cm) × 2 = (3.4 × 2) ± (0.2 × 2) cm = 6.8 ± 0.4 cm

A Power of an Uncertainty
If you’re taking a power of a value with an uncertainty, you multiply the relative uncertainty by
the number in the power. For example:
(5 cm ± 5%)2 cm2 ± 10%
Or
(10 m ± 3%)3
You follow the same rule for fractional powers.
= 1,000 m3 1,000 m3 ± 9%
± (3 × 3%) =
= (52
± [2 × 5%]) cm2
= 25