GEOLOGICAL FIELD

REPORT
On
Jaintapur-Tamabil Area, Sylhet, Northeastern
Bangladesh.

Submitted by
Name: Tanvir Ahmed
Roll: 16GLM 004
Session: 2015-16

Page 0
 ABSTRACT
This field report, which covers the physiography, geologic structure, geomorphology,
sedimentology, and stratigraphy of Jaintiapur-Tamabil, Sylhet, as well as economic issues, is based
on all scientific facts and data discovered during the field survey conducted by 3rd year students.
Moreover it deals with the facies examination and elucidation of paleo-environment and depositional
history of Jaintiapur-Tamabil, Sylhet zone. It is our prime objective to create a topographical outline
of Jaintiapur-Tamabil, Sylhet range.

The area under consideration is a hilly terrain with irregular topography. The examined area's
greatest elevation is 301 feet above MSL, with a dendritic drainage pattern. The area is structurally
an outer reflection of a homocline with a nearly E-W trending homocline, anticlinal structure,
superimposed F2 type folds, joints, faults, and unconformities. . These F2 type anticlinal folds are
more or less oval shaped. These folds were produced due to “Neo-tectonics”. The investigated area
comprises some geomorphic features such as pothole, point bar, stream, meandering river, point bar,
and floodplain.

The studied area's component rocks are of sedimentary origin and range in age from the Middle
Miocene to the Pleistocene, indicating a marine and fluvial depositional environment. The region
reveals a deep sequence of limestone, sandstone, shale, siltstone, and claystone that is both
fossiliferous and non-fossiliferous. Lithostratigraphically, the sedimentary sequence of the area is
divided from bottom to top as Sylhet Limestone Formation, Kopili Shale Formation, Barail Group,
Surma Group, Tipam Sandstone Formation, Girujan clay Formation (?), Dupi Tila Formation,
Dihing Formation and Alluvium that are reflecting marine, deltaic and fluvial depositional
environment.

The area possesses an important role in economic geology as the limestone exposed in the
investigated area and the gravels carried by the rivers are economically valuable which is used in
industrial and constructional purposes. Because the invested region lacks a solid structural trap, it has
little hydrocarbon potential.

Page 1
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It bounces me gigantic delight to thank the Almighty who gave me a golden opportunity to visit and
to come closer with the natural view like Jaintiapur, Sylhet, arranged by the Department of Geology
and Mining, University of Barisal.

I pass on my appreciation and gratitude to honorable Chairman Sukhen Goswami, Sir for his
perceptive guidance, vigorous assistance and thoughtful contribution during the field work. His
theoretical knowledge helped me much to clarify my concept and complete this report.

I would like to express my deep gratitude and thanks to the honorable and respectable teacher Abu
Jafor Mia, Sir, Assistant Professor,University Of Barishal, for spending his valuable time with
us . His precise description about the field area, supervision and guidance during the field work
helped us to understand the geology of the field area very easily.

I'd like to thank Muhammad Risalat rafiq, Sir, Assistant Professor,University Of Barishal, for
his continual guidance and heartfelt collaboration throughout field work, as well as his inspiration,
counsel, and assistance in understanding various technical issues.

My thanks are also for the authority of Jaintiapur Upazila Parishad for the accommodation of our
teachers and students in their rest house.

I extend my deepest thanks to the committee of food, transport and first aid for their great service
during the field work and my classmates for their supportiveness and friendly cooperation during the
fieldwork.

My special thanks goes to my group mates for their helpfulness during the field work.

Page 2
 Table of contents

CHAPTERS CONTENTS PAGE NO:

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Purpose and Scope

1.2 Location, Extent and accessibility
1.3 Previous Work
CHAPTER- 2 PHYSICAL FEATURES
2.1 Topography and Relief
2.2 Drainage and Water Supply
2.3 Climate
2.4 Vegetation
2.5 Population and Culture
CHAPTER-3 METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
3.1 Field Survey
3.2 List of Instruments
3.3 Preparation of Base Map
CHAPTER-4 REGIONAL GEOLOGY

4.1 Tectonic setup

4.2 Regional Structure
4.3 Stratigraphic Setup

CHAPTER-5 DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL

SECTIONS
CHAPTER-6 STRUCTURES
6.1 Fold
6.2 Fault
6.3 Joint
6.4 Unconformity
CHAPTER-7 STRATIGRAPHY

7.1 General Stratigraphic Succession

7.2 Lithological description

7.3 Stratigraphic Correlation

CHAPTER-8 SEDIMENTOLOGY

Page 3
8.1 Sedimentary Structures and Features
8.1.1 Depositional Structure
8.1.2 Post depositional deformed structures

8.1.3 Post depositional chemically formed structure

CHAPTER-9 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
CHAPTER-10 CONCLUSION
REFERENCES

List of Figures
Sl No: Figure No: Figure name page No:
1 Figure2.1 Shari river and Lalakhal Sylhet.
2 Figure2.2 Average monthly climate and weather
conditions in Sylhet region .
3 Figure2.3 Vegetation in hilly areas at Jaintiapur,
Sylhet
4 Figure 4.1 Breakup of Pangea through passing time
and collision of India and Eurasian plate.
5 Figure4.2 Sylhet Trough and its Surroundings
6 Figure 6.1 Homocline at Studied area
7 Figure 6.2 Anticlinal fold
8 Figure 6.3 Drag Fold
9 Figure 6.4 Reverse Fault near Tamabil check post.

10 Figure 6.5 Three types of

11 Figure 6.6 Large scale inclined joints with low dip
found in surma group,( Tetulghat,
Afifanagar)
12 Figure 6.7 Disconformity between Barail Formation
and Bhutan formation exposed in Nayaganj
section.
13 Figure 6.8 Angular unconformity at Ujaninagar
section.
14 Figure 6.9 Unconformity between Dihing and Barial.

15 Figure 7.1 Sylhet limestone

16 Figure 7.2 Highly jointed Kopili Shale formation near
Rangapani
17 Figure 7.3 Barail sandstone
18 Figure 7.4 Laterite bed between Surma and Barail
group
19 Figure 7.5 Fissile Shale of Surma Group near

Page 4
 Afifanagar
20 Figure 7.6 Tipam Sandstone
21 Figure 7.7 Dupi Tila sandstone
22 Figure 7.8 Dihing formation at Nayagang
23 Figure 8.1 Hillocks(Tipam)

24 Figure8.2 Pothole at Nayagang river section

25 Figure 8.3 Meandering Nayaganj River

26 Figure 8.4 Braided Rangapani River
27 Figure 8.5 Stream

28 Figure8.6 Flood Plain

29 Figure 9.1 Lamination
30 Figure 9.2 Cross Strata.
31 Figure9.3 Lenticular Bedding in Sari River Section.
32 Figure 9.4 Mud cracks.
33 Figure 9.5 Convolute structure
34 Figure 9.6 Iron Concretion.
35 Figure 9.7 Sand Vein at Sharighat Primary School.
36 Figure 1O.1 Sylhet sand in Jaflong, Sylhet.
37 Figure 10.2 Gravels and Boulders in Jaflong, Sylhet.

38 Figure 10.3 Sylhet limestone in Jaflong, Sylhet.

39 Figure 10.4 Laterite band at Nazimnagar Wilderness
Resort, Lalakhal.
40 Figure 10.5 Quarry area at Rangapani River Section.
41 Figure 10.6 Boulder crushing in Jaflong, Sylhet.
42
`

Page 5
 List of Maps
Map Map name Page no
No:
Map 1 Location of Studied Area
Map 2 Location Map of Jaintiapur Upazilla.
Map 3 Drainage pattern of investigated area Jaintiapur
Map 4 base maps preparation
Map 5 Location of Bengal basin
Map 6 Tectonic framework of Bangladesh
Map 7 Dauki Fault.

List of Tables
Table Name Page No:
No:
Table 1 Shari River Section
Table 2 Lalakhal Section
Table 3 Nayagan-Mahishmati Section
Table 4 Tamabil-Jaflong Section
Table 5 Stratigraphic succession of the studied area
Table 6 stratigraphic correlation

Page 6
Page 7
 CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Fundamental to all geological knowledge is
geologic surveying. It is usually carried out for
the systematic examination of any region
together with available geologic information.
Geology deals with the earth’s history not
only by theoretical and laboratory work. So to
fulfill the knowledge about this subject
comprehensive practical experience is
essential for geology students. For this, a
geological fieldwork was carried out by the
Geology& Mining Dept., University of
Barisal in Jaintiapur-Tamabil, Sylhet, North-
eastern Bangladesh by the students of 3rd
year 2nd semester B.S (Honor’s) [Session-
2015-16].
1.1 Purpose and Scope
The principal tasks of the field geology are
studying systematic sampling and geological
mapping covering aspects of petrology,
sedimentology, stratigraphy and structural
geology in order to develop independent
working ability.
The field work is done where the rocks and
their necessary structural and stratigraphic
features are easily observed and studied in
their natural environmental condition by some
methods to examine and interpret structures
and materials at the outcrops.
For the following work Fieldwork was done:
1. Production of Geological map.
2. Identification of lithology.
3. Identification of Sedimentary
structures.
4. Construction of a Stratigraphic
Column.
5. Sample Collection.
6. Grain size analysis.
7. Study of major structures and other
structural features.
1.2 Location, Extent and
Accessibility
The study area was Jaintiapur, Tamabil and
Page 8
Jaflong which is situated in Sylhet Division
in the north-eastern part of Bangladesh. Sylhet
is located in between 24°36′and 25°11′North
latitudes and 92°30′and 91°38′East longitudes
.Our specific study area (Jaintiapur– Tamabil–
Jaflong section) lies between 25°04′and
25°11′North Latitudes and in between
92°00′and 92°12′East longitudes. This area
lies on the southern foothills of Khassia-
Jaintiapur Ranges of Meghalaya and is
mapped between latitude 25°0′North and
25°12′30′′North and longitude 92°0′East and
92°27′30′′East.
Jaintiapur upazila (Figure-2) covers an area of
258.69sq km. It is surrounded by Meghalaya
Stateof India on the North, Kanaighat and
Gopalganj Upazillas on the South, Kanaighat
Upazilla on the East, Gowainghat and Sylhet
Sadar Upazila on the West. The Jaflong Hill
Range is located in the Northeast of Upazila.
It is situated 43 km to the north of sylhet
town, on the Sylhet
Shillong road. The road distance of Jaintiapur
from Barisal is 438 Km. The investigated
area comprises Dupigoan area, Shari river
section, Afifanagar tea state area, Nayagan
area, Jaintiapur– Tamabil road section, Dauki
river section. The total studied area covers
about 140 sq km.
Map 1: Location of Studied Area
(Google Earth)
5

Map 2: Location Map of Jaintiapur Upazilla.
The communications of Jaintiapur with
Barisal is dependent on roads, Launch’s and
aerial transportation considering Sylhets’
Osmani International Airport. Jaintiapur
Upazilla is connected with the Sylhet town by
the metalloid road. Nayagan section is well
communicated very near from the base camp
and easily accessible by footpath.
1.3 Previous Work
A large number of exploration works and
drilling has been carried out since 1933 in
Sylhet. Burma Oil Company had been the
pioneer.
Page 9
A geological study of the eastern and
northeastern part of the Surma Basin has been
carried out by M. A. Maroof Khan (1964-66)
of the Geological Survey of Bangladesh
during 1964-66. J.F Holtrop and J Keizer
published a correlation of Surma Basin wells
in 1960. K.M. Wallid and Dr.Reimann carried
out Palynostratigsaphic analysis of Oligocene
outcrop samples. M. Hoque studied the
development of the Surma Basin and its
relation of Hydrocarbon accumulation.
Khan published a geologic map of one-inch
equals to two miles scale, which embraced
the whole Tertiary succession of the area.
Haque (1982) developed a scheme of
palynological zones of a Cenozoic succession
in the Surma Basin. He also reviewed the
exposed and subsurface stratigraphy of the
Surma Basin. D. K. Guha also investigated
the area. Students and teachers of geology
study the area every year.
 CHAPTER- 2

PHYSICAL FEATURES

2.1Topography and Relief

It is bordered to the northeast by the Khasi-
Jaintia slope. In this zone, the terrain is
virtually uneven. In this location, there are a
variety of tiny to tolerably elevated hillocks.
The area's average elevation ranges from 60 to
340 feet. The Lalakhal area has the highest
elevation, while the northern portion has the
lowest.The hilly area does not comprise
continuous heap of rocks but also furrowed by
numerous vallies giving the landscape of a
Map 3: Drainage pattern of investigated area
rugged mined region from west to east, and an
Jaintiapur
abrupt scarp of the 4000 to 6000 feet high
Shillong plateau look. The area embraces two
major types of landforms. The investigated
area exhibits moderately hilly topography that
has shown in geologic map and contour map.
The hills in the examined area are almost East-
West oriented and have a low to moderate
elevation. These are referred to as "Tila" in the
area. Dupitila is located in the southwestern
section of the study area, and it is worth
mentioning because it is the hillock called
after which the Dupitila formation was named.
The elevation of this hilltop is approximately
301 feet. The rest of the terrain is alluvial
flatland.
Figure 2.1: Shari river and Lalakhal Sylhet.

dry season, but during the rainy season they

2.2Drainage and Water Supply
In general, the studied region lacks any
notable Bangladeshi stream, but it is drained
by a network of locally significant streams, the
majority of which are both structurally
lithologically regulated and dendritic in form
.The relatively major streams are fewer in
number and are of perennial type, that is they
flow even in the
flow with their full strength and become able
to carry large boulders to distant places
whereas the minor streams are large in number
and of intermittent type, that is they are
seasonal in their flow, and water ceases to
flow during the dry spell.
The river Shari, which serves as the primary
supply of water for the eastern section of the
region, rises in the Khasi-Jaintia Hills near
Jawi, India, and runs south-westerly for a
short distance before abruptly turning west
and eventually falling into the Surma River at
Kalaruka.Among the mentioned four rivers,

Page 10
the Dauki is the most prominent. The Dauki,
which is a fault controlled river originating in
the southern part of the Shillong plateau, flows
by the western side of the hillocks and enters
into Bangladesh at the foot of the Indian
Dauki Town in the N-S direction. Inside
Bangladesh it is replenished by a number of
seasonal small streams which are locally
termed as 'Chara'. 'Piyan' is the main tributary
of the river Dauki.
2.3 Climate and Weather
The average weather condition in a certain
location over a lengthy period of time is
referred to as climate. It extends across a vast
region. Because our research area is in Sylhet,
the meteorological conditions in Sylhet are
primarily followed. The climate in this area is
humid subtropical, with a hot and humid
summer and a chilly winter.It is situated in a
monsoon climatic zone. The area is very
susceptible to heavy monsoonal rainfall.
Nearly 80% of the annual average rainfall of
3,334 mm occurs between May and
September. (Source: wikipedia.org)
Figure2.2: Average monthly climate and
weather conditions in Sylhet region .
In a year, the climate of the region is split into
three different seasons. Summer begins in
March and lasts through May, with hot
temperatures and mild precipitation.The
monsoon begins in June and lasts till October
and is characterized by gusty wind and
occasionally Because of geographical location,
Page 11
the investigated area generally falls under the
tropical to subtropical climate.
But as the influence of the humid north-
eastern monsoon wind over the general
climate of the area is noticeable, the overall
climate of the area is termed as ' Humid
Tropical to subtropical cyclonic storm. The
winter begins from November and lasts up to
February with pleasant, Calm, cool and dry
weather.
2.4 Soil and Agricultural
Condition
Grey silty clay loams and clay loams on
higher ground that dry up periodically, and
grey clays in the wet basins, are the soils of
the region. The soils feature a considerable
amount of organic matter and a mostly acidic
response.Fertility level is medium to high.
(S.M. Imamul Huq, Jalal Uddin Md. Shoaib;
The Soils of Bangladesh). The pH of the soil
of
Jaitapur has a pH of less than 7 (low),
indicating that the soil is acidic. Crop output is
hampered. The nitrogen and boron
concentration is minimal. The denitrification
process most likely results in nitrogen loss in
the basin soil.Rice is the main crop of this area
as the floodplain lands are useful for the
cultivation of paddy.
Boro farming takes place in low-lying regions.
From Jaflong to Afifanagar, tea is a highly
significant cash crop in the area, and a
succession of tea gardens can be seen in
hillocks and valleys .Jantiapur and its
surrounding places have three agricultural
seasons. During monsoon they cultivate "Aush
'' rice as the lands get flooded with water and it
is proved to be a favourable condition for
cultivating rice crops. In winter they grow
various types of seasonal vegetables, fruits
such as pineapple, water melons, oranges,
bananas, papaw, jackfruit etc. Several fields
near the river bank are under water melon
cultivation as observed during our
investigation. But in summer the lands remain
barren because the scarcity of water becomes
severe (Figure 2.3). Under this condition
cultivation becomes quite impossible for the
inhabitants.
Figure2.3 : Vegetation in hilly areas at
Jaintiapur, Sylhet
When we investigated this area, we saw a lot
of tea gardens. A series of tea gardens are
situated in hillocks and valleys from Jaflong to
Afifanagar. A lot of fruits such as jackfruit,
papaw, and banana are also grown here. Other
seasonal crops like tobacco, oilseeds and
vegetables such as pumpkins, beams are also
grown in this area.
2.5 Population and Culture
The Jaintiapur Upazila has an area of 99.98
square miles and has a population of around
98,370 people (source: United Nations Office
in Jaintiapur). These people's way of life is not
simple; they live at the foot of the hills and on
plain ground. These individuals are
underdeveloped socially and economically.
They lack the necessary infrastructure to live
in a civilized society. Their educational
attainment percentage is 21%.Most of the
people depend on agriculture. Others depend
on gardening, fishing, teaching, weaving etc,
some of them are engaged in gravel and
sandstone quarrying, trade and commerce.
A little percentage of the population is
employed in government services. Most of the
people are Muslims, some are Hindus,
Christian and Buddhists. The migratory
Khashia and Shaotal are the tribal people. In
the tea garden there are some Oriyas, Nunayas
and other people from Chota Nagpur plateau,
India who brought before 1947 and settled
here. The Khashias have their own language
Page 12
and are mainly Christian. They live in a group
of 10-30 families. They work hard and the
women work with men. The people of the
investigated area have the culture almost
similar to the other parts of Bangladesh,
except the tribal people, they have their own
culture. The people in this area have their
culture according to their respective religion.
Hindus influenced the culture of the area
during the region of Jaintia raja. So this area
has a long historical background. Once upon a
time Jaintiapur was a part of Oohomia
Promilla-Empire of Assam.
2.6 History of Jaintapur
The megalithic ruins of Jaintapur are well-
known. At the foot of the Jaintia Hills, it lies
40 kilometers north of Sylhet divisional town.
The territory remained autonomous for a long
time due to its geophysical conditions, and it
was known as the Jaintapur Kingdom. Epic,
Puranic, and Tantric literature all reference it
as such. However, according to local
mythology, folk stories, and inscriptions,
Jaintapur was ruled by the Kamarupa
Kingdom in the 7th/8th century AD, and
afterwards by the Chandra and Varman kings.
After the Varmans were defeated, the Deva
dynasty ruled for a while at Jaintapur.
Jayanta Ray, the last ruler of the Deva
dynasty, had a daughter named Jayanti, who
got married to a son of a Khasi chief, named
Landowar. Due to this matrimonial alliance,
Jaintapur kingdom went under the control of
the Khasis in c 1500 AD. Subsequently, Khasi
kings ruled over the kingdom independently
till the British occupied it in 1835.
The palace, which was built by the Jainta King
Laxmi Sinha (1670-1701) in 1602 Shaka/1680
AD, is now completely ruined. The
superstructure of the Jaintesvari temple is also
badly damaged. Though the enclosure wall of
the temple complex is in a better state of
preservation, it has been crudely ornamented
with plastered relief, representing horses, lions
and winged semi-divine beings
 CHAPTER-3
METHODS OF INVESTIGATION
3.1 Field Survey
The research was conducted in the field using
the common "traverse approach," which
entails going through road-cut and stream-cut
portions on foot. The steps for conducting a
field inquiry are as follows:
• Taking location and bearing
• Lithology investigation
• Structural investigation
• Stratigraphical investigation
• Collecting samples
• Construction of geologic maps
• Taking photographs.
3.1.1 Taking Location and Bearing
Our present positions were drawn on the map
using the clinometer and a significant point on
the map, and the base map was used to
determine the location of relevant portions and
varying spot heights in the region. A
clinometer was used to measure the bearings
of the pieces.
3.1.2 The Lithologic Investigation
The lithological information of the rocks was
investigated using good exposures, which
were segmented by noticing varied color,
composition, and identifiable contacts of
different rock layers. The general grain size,
sorting, and mineralogy of the rocks (all of
which may be assessed in the field) were
estimated using the necked eyes or a hand
lens.
3.1.3 Structural Investigation
The clinometer was used to measure the bed
angles, and a hammer was used to shatter the
rock and get new bedding planes for the
rough, disturbed, and overgrown beds.
Page 13
3.1.4 Stratigraphic Investigation
Taking pacing and using the map, the
thickness of the exposed rock layers was
measured.
The beds' stratigraphic succession was
determined by noting their locations and
studying their lithology and thickness in order
to apply the "Law of Superposition." The
presence of erosional surfaces, soil, and a
deformed bed of lateritic conglomerates
between two distinct rock groups was used to
determine unconformity.
3.1.5 Collecting Samples
Samples of different rock strata of different
sections were taken in sample bags for further
study.
3.1.6 Tacking Photographs
The important photographs of physical
features, sedimentary structures, important
rock units and structural features (fault, fold,
joint, unconformity, hazardous place etc.) of
the area were taken by the camera.
3.2Field investigation equipments
By adopting the usual “Traverse Method”, the
investigation was carried out on the field that
is walking on foot through the road cut section
and stream cut section with the common
instruments used by a geologist in the field.
The common instruments we used are -
1. Clinometers- For measuring the
attitude of the beds.
 4. HCl acid- Identifying the nature of
rocks.

2. Hammer- For breaking the rocks and

digging for bedding planes.

5. Sample bag- For collecting the rocks

of the investigated area.

3. Pocket lens-to examine the grains.

Page 14
 6. Field notebook- To note the collected
data.
8. Camera: We used both a mobile
camera and professional camera for
taking photos.

3.3Construction of Geological Map

The measured attitudes and lithology of
different beds were plotted on the base map
7. Measuring tape of 100 feet. with proper reference points to prepare a
geological map of the area.

Map 4: base maps preparation

CHAPTER-4
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
4.1 Tectonic Evolution of Bengal of West Bengal and Tripura. The Bengal
Basin is bordered to the west by the
Basin Precambrian Indian Shield, to the north by
The Bengal basin, a complex foreland basin Shillong Plateau and to the east by the frontal
south of the eastern Himalayas, has significant fold belt of Indo Burman Range. It is open to
variation in Neogene sediment thickness, the south by the Bay of Bengal.
indicating a complex depositional and tectonic
history (Ashraf Uddin, Neil Lundberg). The
Bengal Basin is located between the Indian
Shield and the Indo-Burman Ranges in the
northeastern region of the Indian
subcontinent.The Bengal Basin includes, in
addition to Bangladesh, part of the Indian state
Page 15
 well-established faults were initiated
following the breakup of Gondwanaland and
during down warping in the Cretaceous.

Map 5: Location of Bengal basin

The Gondwana Supercontinent began to break

up some 110 million years ago, during the
Cretaceous period, and India began to move
Figure 4.1: Breakup of Pangea through passing
northward. The Bengal basin was formed at
time and collision of India and Eurasian plate.
this epoch, but it was not until the northward
moving Indian Plate clashed with the Eurasian 4.2 Tectonic Setup of Sylhet
Plate that the basin became the focal point for
the deposition of thick clastic deposits.The
Trough and Surroundings
collision between Indian plate and Asian Plate A deep fill (12 to 16 km) of late Mesozoic and
took place in stages beginning in Eocene (55 Cenozoic strata records the tectonic
million years ago) when an initial uplift of the development of the Sylhet trough, a sub-basin
Himalayan of the Bengal Basin in northeastern
Bangladesh. The history of this trough is
Occurred. By late Eocene (40 million years
reconstructed using stratigraphic,
ago) the last remnant of the intervening Tethys
sedimentologic, and petrographic data
sea between Indian Plate and Asian plate
obtained from outcrops, cores, well logs, and
probably disappeared as a result of collision.
seismic lines.
During this time the direction of Indian Plate
Convergence changed from north to northeast The stable shelf became carbonate by the
with increasing collision with Asia. Eocene as a result of a large marine
transgression, whilst the deep basinal region
With the breakup of Gondwanaland in the
was dominated by deep-water sedimentation.
Jurassic and Cretaceous, and northward
The collision of India with the Burma and
movement of the Indian Plate, the basin
Tibetan Blocks caused a dramatic shift in
started downwarping in the Early Cretaceous
sedimentation patterns across the Bengal
and sedimentation started on the stable shelf
Basin from the Middle Eocene to the Early
and deep basin; and since then sedimentation
Miocene.The influx of elastic sediment into
has been continuous for most of the basin.
the basin from the Himalayas to the north and
Subsidence of the basin can be attributed to
the Indo-Burman Ranges to the east rapidly
differential adjustments of the crust, collision
increased at this time; and this was followed
with the various elements of south Asia, and
by an increase in the rate of subsidence of the
uplift of the eastern Himalayas and the Indo-
basin. At this stage, deep marine
Burman Ranges. Movements along several
Page 16
sedimentation dominated in the deep basinal ▪ Mobile belt, and
part, while deep to shallow marine conditions ▪ Sub-Himalayan Fore deep.
prevailed in the eastern part of the basin.
4.2.1 Shelf zone
With ongoing plate collisions and uplift in the
In the western part of Bangladesh, the shelf
Himalayas and Indo-Burman Ranges, a
zone is a key tectonic feature. Rangpur
massive flood of elastic sediments from the
platform connects the Indian shield and
northeast and east entered the basin by the
Shillong massif. The platform has a 100-
Middle Miocene. The depositional settings
kilometer width. According to seismic data,
continued to change throughout the Miocene,
the slope is rather smooth here. This region's
ranging from deep marine in the basin to
sedimentary deposits create homoclinal strata
shallow and coastal marine at the basin's
with 1–2° dips. The basement plunges 3–4
margins. Large quantities of silt have been
degrees towards the platform's northern end, at
flooding the Bengal Basin from the west and
a depth of over 2000 meters. The southern
northwest since the Pliocene, and major delta
slope of the Rangpur platform continues to the
building activities have continued to shape the
Calcutta-Mymensingh hinge zone and is
present-day delta morphology.Since the
gently sloping southeast. In the southeast, the
Cretaceous, architecture of the Bengal Basin
thickness of sedimentary strata is growing.The
has been changing due to the collision pattern
thickness of the sediments over the shelf is
and movements of the major plates in the
about 8000 m and they are marked by several
region. However, three notable changes in
unconformities. The basement complex near
basin configuration can be recognized that
the western margin of the shelf is marked by a
occurred during Early Eocene, Middle
series of buried ridges and normal gravity
Miocene and PlioPleistocene times, when both
faults. The east-west trending Dauki fault
the paleogeographic settings and source areas
separates the stable shelf and the Shillong
changed. The present basin configuration with
massif. The shelf experienced the first marine
the Ganges - Brahmaputra delta system on the
transgression during the Late Cretaceous. The
north and the Bengal Deep Sea Fan on the
second major one was in the Miocene
south was established during the later part of
generated by the uplift of the Himalayan and
Pliocene and Pleistocene; and delta
Burman ranges.
progradation since then has been strongly
affected by orogeny in the eastern Himalayas. 4.2.2 Hinge zone
Hinge zone is a narrow zone of 25 km in
width. Here, the homoclinal dip is 5– 6°. The
bed dips over 20° along the hinge-line (Guha
Himalayan
Himalayan
Shill Plat
Shillong 1978). The hinge zone in the northeast seems
to be connected with the Dauki fault by a
N Mikhir
MikHil series of east-west trending faults. It is also
Sylhet marked by deep basement faults probably
Indian
Indi
started with the breakup of Gondowanaland.
Parallel to the hinge zone is the Bengal
foredeep, which consists of several smaller
troughs and structural highs. the Indo -
Burman ranges mark the eastern boundary of
Chittagong
Chittagong Burmese
Burmese
Ran the Bengal foredeep
Figure4.2: Sylhet Trough and its Surroundings
4.2.3 Mobile belt:
The major structures described below are:
The eastern side of the Bengal Basin is
▪ Shelf zone, bordered by a mobile belt known as Tripura -
▪ hinge zone, Chittagong fold belt, which extends north
▪ Bengal foredeep,
Page 17
south as part of the Indo - Burmese mobile
belt. In Bangladesh, this belt is represented
mainly by the hills of the Chittagong Hill
tracts, Chittagong and Sylhet, which appear to
be analogous to the Sub-Himalayan or Siwalik
ranges.
4.2.4 The Sub Himalayan Foredeep:
The Sub Himalayan foredeep is a continuous
east-west Indo-Gangetic geosynclinal band
that runs along the Himalayan foothills. In the
northwest corner, it cuts into Bangladesh. The
sediments of this level comprise coarse to fine
clastics that are basically fluvial molasses in
character and are generated directly from the
Himalayan uplift.The north margin of this fore
deep is strongly folded and faulted (Alam
1989).
Map 6:Tectonic framework of bangladesh
Page 18
4.3 General Stratigraphic setup
of Sylhet Trough
Stratigraphy is the scientific discipline
concerned with the description of the rock
successions and their interpretation in terms of
a general time scale.It provides a basis for
historical geology, and its principle and
methods have found application in such fields
as petrology and archeology .Stratigraphic
studies deal primarily with sedimentary rocks
but may also encompass layered igneous rocks
(e.g. those resulting from successive lava
flows) or metamorphic rocks formed either
from such extrusive igneous material or from
sedimentary rocks. A common goal of
stratigraphic studies into mappable units,
determining the time relationships that are
involved and correlating units of the sequence
or the entire sequence with rock strata
elsewhere. A regional topographic satellite
image showed the stratigraphy of Sylhet
trough.
The stratigraphy of the area has been
differentiated into a number of formations.
Sylhet limestone formation is found as the
oldest in the normal sequence.The normal
sequence of the studied formation is given
below according to the law of superposition.
1. Dihing formation
2. Dupitila formation
3. Giruja clay
4. Tipam sandstone
5. Surma group
6. Barail sandstone
7. Kopili shale
8. Sylhet limestone
 CHAPTER 5
DESCRIPTION OF INDIVIDUAL SECTIONS

Lithology We studied the north eastern part of

Dupitila formation, Girujan clay formation,
Tipam formation, Bokabil formation, Bhuban
formation, Renji formation, Kopili shale
formation and Sylhet limestone
formation.systems.Jaintapur-Tamabil
generally ranges from recent to Oligocene
period deposits which posses Alluvium,Dihing
Bangladesh. Here the older lithology of
formation, initially joined. The southern part
was later deposited by the large river because
at the time of collision of the Indian plate with
Eurasian plate the northern part of Bangladesh
was found. The southern part is relatively
younger than the northern part

Figure 5.1: Lithological Succession Of second day

Page 19
Shari River Section
Day -1, 21.9.2021
Weather: Cloudy & Drizzling

Stop Lattitude & Lithology SD DD AD Symbol

Longitude
1 25°5’49”N Alternation of sandstone and mud 270° S18° 30°
92°07’04”E stone.Sandstone is light brown to W
deep brown, fine to very fine
grained. Mudstone is light gray to
gray in color , hard and compacted
,composed of dominantly clay.
2 25°5’46.4” Dominantly mudstone interbedded 240° S60° 77°
N with sandstone and intercalation of W
92°07’4.7”E iron. Mudstone is light gray to gray
in color and sandstone is light brown
to brown in in color
3 25°5’44”N Dominantly fine sand with
92°07’26.2” intercalation of mud. Mudstone is
E light gray to gray and weathered to
brown. Quartz pebbles and clay galls
may be present.

4 25°5’42.1” Dominantly fine sand with

N intercalation of mud. Mudstone is
92°07’30.2” light gray to gray and weathered to
E brown. Quartz pebbles and clay galls
may be present.

5 25°5’50.67” Very fine grained yellowish brown 270° 90° 68°

N sandstone with interbedded S
92°08’18.6” mudstone.
E
6 25°5’52”N Dominantly sandstone which is very 288° S18° 70°
92°08’21”E coarse with cross bedding. It is W
cemented by Fe- cement. It contains
about 60% of quartz.
7 25°5’50.6” Contains dominantly coarse sand 288° S18° 47°
N with trough cross bedding. It W
92°08’39”E contains enough clay galls and
quartz pebbles.

8 25°6’15.65” Coarse grained yellowish Tipam 274° S 28°

N Sandstone. It represents the top of 4°W
92°08’53.24 the Tipam.
”E

9 25°6’37.6” Yellowish brown sandstone with 275° S 5° 72°

N laterite bed. Laterite contains W
92°09’6.5”E pebble size particles as a
conglomerate.

Table 1:Shari River Section

Page 20
Lalakhal Section
Day -2,22.9.2021
Starting Time: 9.15 AM
Weather: Sunny

Stop Latitude & Lithology SD DD AD Symbol

Longitude
1 25°6’26.4” Outcrop is covered by vegetation,
N contains matrix supported
92°10’30.2” conglomerates, cross-bedding might
E be present here as this is a fluvial
deposit.
2 25°6’21.2” Yellowish brown in color, fine to
N medium grained, compacted, friable,
92°10’32.3” angular to very angular, poorly
E sorted sandstone.

3 25°6’19.3” Medium to coarse grained, yellowish 274° S 68°

N brown color, moderate to highly 4°W
92°10’32.5” friable, angular to sub angular,
E poorly sorted wavy bedded
sandstone. This exposure shows very
large scale cross bedding.

4 25°6’46.4” Yellowish Tipam sandstone, dip 302° S32° 70°

N joints and strike joints are present. W
92°07’4.3”E
5 25°6’25.4” Yellowish brown Tipam sandstone at 288° S18° 60°
N the right bank of the river. W
92°10’34.7”
E
6 25°6’33.9” Yellowish brown Tipam sandstone 292° S22° 62°
N with liesegang ring and large scale W
92°10’38.6” cross bed.
E
7 25°6’36”N Yellowish brown Tipam sandstone at 78° 70°
92°10’49.1” the left bank of the river.
E
8 25°6’41”N Thinly bedded sandstone, siltstone 290° S20° 38°
92°10’49.5” with interbedded shale. Thick natural W
E vegetation, shale and less thick sand
beds are present. Wavy bedding and
micro-cross lamination is also
present.
9 25°6’45.5” Thinly to thickly laminated, very 102° S78° 52°
N hard and compact , fissile bluish gray W
92°10’52”E shale. It contains conchoidal
fractures.

10 25°6’45.8” Yellowish, Friable, hard and 280° S10° 48°

N compacted, fine to medium grained W
92°10’56”E sandstone.

Page 21
11 25°7’30.2” Composed of Dominantly bluish 110° S70° 35°
N gray Shale W
92°11’14.8”
E
Table 2:Lalakhal Section

Nayagan-Mahishmati Section
Day -3, 23.09.2021
Starting Time: 9:00 AM
Weather: Bright & Sunny

Stop Latitude & Lithology SD DD AD Symbol

Longitude
1 25°7’59.8” Alternation of silt, shale and 280° S10° 42°
N sandstone with gravel beds above W
92°07’51.6” with an unconformity between them.
E Siltstone is yellow in color,
laminated.

2 25°7’58.4” Alternation of silt, shale and 278° S8° 35°

N sandstone with gravel beds above W
92°07’49.2” with an unconformity between them.
E Siltstone is yellow in color,
laminated.

3 25°7’56.2” Highly weathered fine grained 274° S4° 40°

N sandstone. Also some igneous and W
92°07’47”E metamorphic rocks like weathered
granite, Quartzite are present at the
roadside.
4 25°8’8.6”N Sandstone with tilted gravel bed with 252° S 50°
92°07’58.6” an unconformity between them. 72°E
E
5 25°8’15.4” Alteration of yellowish sandstone 247° S 55°
N and bluish gray Shale. 67°E
92°08’5.8”E
6 25°8’18.3” Thin to very thickly laminated black N78° S15° 42°
N shale, highly jointed , fissile, hard E W
92°08’6.9”E and compacted.

7 25°8’26.1” Fine grained, laminated to thin 90° Due 60°

N bedded sandstone with laterite band south
92°08’02”E
8 25°8’24.5” Laminated siltstone,shale and 88° S12° 40°
N sandstone W
92°07’31.3”
E
Table 3: Nayagan-Mahishmati Section

Page 22
Tamabil-Jaflong Section
Day -4, 24.09.2021
Starting Time: 9.15 AM
Weather: Cloudy

Stop Latitude & Lithology SD DD AD Symbol

Longitude
1 25°10’54.5” Thin to thickly bedded, well sorted, 308° N28° 28°
N highly jointed, yellowish brown E
92°04’21.8” Barail sandstone
E
2 25°10’4.26” Dominantly composed of thinly 106° N16° 20°
N laminated, superimposed, organic E
92°04’29.9” matter rich dark shale
E
3 25°10’35.5” Yellowish Sandstone with 324° S34° 10°
N interbedded shale W
92°04’21.7”
E
4 25°10’59.3” Yellowish brown, thinly bedded 320° N 50°
N Sandstone with interbedded gray 50°
92°01’56.7” shale E
E
5 25°10’55.3” Yellowish brown, thinly bedded 280° N 38°
N Sandstone with interbedded gray 10°
92°01’58.5” shale E
E
6 25°10’51.4” Thin to thickly bedded sandstone 284° N 4° 50°
N with interbedded shale E
92°01’59.9”
E
7 25°10’45.9” Thin to thickly bedded sandstone 248° S 10°
N with interbedded shale 68°E
92°02’02”E
8 25°10’46”N Composed completely of bluish gray 276° S 6° 12°
92°01’0.3”E shale. W

9 25°10’53.3” Hard and compacted fossiliferous 220° S 40° 32°

N limestone. E
92°01’05.3”
E
Table 4:Tamabil-Jaflong Section

Page 23
 CHAPTER 6
STRUCTURES
The study site and surrounding region are in
the Sylhet trough of the Bengal Foredeep. On
the Shillong Massif's southern flank, the
Sylhet Trough corresponds to the vast Surma
Valley lowlands, which feature extensive
marshes (haors) with absolute heights
considerably below sea level. In Bangladesh's
northeastern area, it is a sub-basin of the
Bengal Foredeep. The Sylhet Trough's
northern boundary is defined by the Shillong
Massif, while its southern boundary is defined
by the Great Indian Ocean.
The Dauki Fault separates the dip from the
Massif. Faulting in the Shillong shelf zone
corresponded with significant subsidence of
the Surma basin throughout the Miocene and
subsequent eras.Two brief phases of erosion
and non-deposition have occurred in the basin.
The first is due to uplift and folding in the east
at the end of the Oligocene, with ongoing
subsidence in the west; the second is related to
the uplift of the Shillong plateau, which was
accompanied by faulting in the late Miocene
and later.
This region is characterized by E-W structure
because of its closeness to the E-W trending
fault zone that runs along the Shillong
Massif's border. Numerous big and tiny
geological structures have been identified in
the study region.Folds, Faults, Unconformity,
and Joints are the major structures in the
studied area.
6.1 Fold
When one or more initially flat and plane
surfaces, such as sedimentary layers, bend or
curve owing to persistent deformation, it is
called a geological fold.Synsedimentary folds
are those caused by slumping of sedimentary
material prior to lithification. Rock folds can
range in size from microscopic crinkles to
mountain-sized folds. They can be found
singly as isolated folds or in extensive fold
trains of varying sizes on a variety of scales.
Page 24
6.1.1 Homoclinal Fold
A Homoclinal fold is the most prominent
feature of Jaintiapur and the surrounding
surroundings. The fold's strike is
approximately E-W and it dips to the
south. The amount of dip rises as you go
closer to the dip direction.A homocline is
a step-like geological fold without a
change in dip direction across the fold
hinge because the layers dip in the same
direction. This is contrasted with
anticlines, in which limbs dip away (curve
downward) from the hinge, and with
synclines, in which the limbs dip toward
the hinge (curve upward). By differential
compaction over an underlying structure,
particularly a large fault at the edge of a
basin due to the greater compatibility of
the basin fill, the amplitude of the fold will
die out gradually upwards.
Figure 6.1: Homocline at Studied area
During a time of inversion, a moderate
reactivation of a previous extensional fault
causes folding in the overlying sequence.
During the upward propagation of an
extensional fault in the basement into an
overlying cover sequence, this is a type of
fault propagation fold.
6.1.2 Anticlinal Fold
A small scale or local anticline exists. present
in the research area The strata were dipping
south, but we saw that the beds were dipping
north towards the Rangapani river area.
However, after a short distance, we began to
drop southward again.This proves that there
was a small-scale anticline present. The
studied area represents an asymmetrical E-W
to NW-SE trending anticlinal major F1 type
fold. The axis runs from Dauki to Sripur and
truncates against the Dauki fault to the east.
There is some superposed F2 type fold on the
major fold. The trend of the superposed fold is
NE-SW. Our work is mainly carried out in the
southern flank as the northern flank is not well
exposed in Bangladesh, which continues in
Meghalaya of India. Only in Sripur and
Tamabil - Jaflong road cut areas, little part of
the northern limb is exposed in Bangladesh.
Amount of dip in the southern flank varies
from 20° to 50° towards south, in Dupitila and
Shari River almost vertical beds are found.
The northern flank dips more steeply
Figure 6.2:Anticlinal fold
Evidence favoring the concept of anticlinal
fold:
● From Sripur-Tamabil to Dauki fault bed
dips in opposite directions. It is not only
in a few faulted blocks as illustrated by
some authors assuming homocline.
● Older rocks are found in the axis of the
fold. If it is not an anticlinal fold,
younger rocks like Tipam and Dupitila
are usually found in Jaintia–Tamabil
road cut section.
● At the Rangapani river section, we
found bed dips in different directions
such as NE, SE and SW following a
distinctive phase. So, we can tell that
they occurred at the later phase of
superposed folds. It makes it easier to
deducing anticlinal folds.
6.1.3 Drag Fold
Page 25
Prominent drag folds are observed in Nayaganj
river section. A minor fold, usually one of a
series, formed in an incompetent bed lying
between more competent beds, produced by the
movement of the competent beds in opposite
directions relative to one another. Drag folds
may also develop beneath a thrust sheet. They
are usually a centimeter or a few meters in size.
Drag folds in the silty shale beds are formed
due to movement of the competent sandstone
bed in the opposite direction with each other.
Figure 6.3:Drag Fold
6.2 Fault
The Dauki fault is the area's primary
regional fault. A few more local faults
were also discovered in various
formations. In reality, the study region
includes a zone that has been heavily
influenced by the Dauki fault system's
movement, which is responsible for the
area's current physiography. Displacement
of various formations revealed the local
faults.
6.2.1 Dauki Fault System
The Dauki fault runs along the southern edge
of the Shillong Plateau and might pose a threat
to the surrounding territories, including
northeastern Bangladesh, if it ruptures. The
fault, which is thought to run through the
Shillong Plateau's southern border, is an East–
West trending reversal fault that is inclined
towards the north.
Dauki Fault is an important structural feature
that is prevalent in NE India, Shillong. The
Dauki Fault lies in the Dauki town of Shillong
Plateau. The great Assam earthquake of 12th
June, 1897 was responsible for the formation
of major tectonic disturbance along Shillong,
Meghalaya.The Dauki Fault according to 6.2.2 Local Fault
Evans (1964) is a tear fault (transcurrent or
The force that activated the Dauki fault also
strike slip fault) that trends transverse to the
activated some other faults through which
strike of the deformed rocks of the Shillong
small blocks of rocks such as the Sylhet
Mikir Hills Plateaus. Mathur et. Al. opines
limestone might be thrown into the surface but
that the Dauki fault comprises a system of
this is merely a speculation as evidence is rare.
east-west trending faults.
We identified a reverse fault at Tambabil (Fig.
4.4). In fact, our studied area comprises a zone
extensively affected by movement of the
Dauki fault system, which is responsible for
the present physiography of the area. The local
faults were evidenced by displacement of
different formations.

Map 7: Dauki Fault.

These faults are similar to upthrusts but

occurrence of seismic activities, and the
presence of two different regimes i.e. thrust
dominated on the north and fold dominated on
the south suggest that the nature of the Dauki
Fault, can be a compartmental fault Figure 6.4 : Reverse Fault near Tamabil check post.
comparable to transform faults in continental
Joint
settings, at least during the Indo-Burma
orogeny, if not earlier. As joints are a typical associated structure of
The Dauki fault is exposed along the southern faults, the joints observed in our investigated
margin of the Shilong plateau. area can be assumed as the result of Dauki
fault movement. Moreover, if we review the
Evidence those support the existence of the
regional setting of the area it can be seen that
fault are as follows:
multidirectional forces with variable
● Sudden topographic changes and high intensities were responsible for the
relief difference was noted within a few development of the investigated area. As a
hundred meters. Lower elevation in consequence, joints having different
Bangladesh and higher elevation in India. orientation and extension are scatteredly
The present height of the Shilong plateau available throughout the investigated area.
is due to repeated uplift along the Dauki Generally, joints are the common features
system of faults over a long span of time. formed in more resistant parts of sandstone,
According to Evans (1964), the amount of siltstone and silty shale of different
structural relief on both sides of the Dauki formations.
faults range up to 13,000 meters.
● Faulting is also evidenced by the presence
of fault breccias and mylonites in the fault
zone in the Sylhet Limestone.
● Irregularities in the attitude of beds and the
straight course of the Dauki River.
● Terraces at the river bank indicate major
faulting.

Page 26
Figure 6.5: Three types of joints ( Strike, Dip &
Oblique) found in the Lalakhal river section.
Figure 6.6: Large scale inclined joints with low dip
found in surma group,( Tetulghat, Afifanagar)
As a consequence, joints having different
orientation and extension are scatteredly
available throughout the investigated area.
Generally, joints are the common features
formed in more resistant parts of sandstone,
siltstone and silty shale of different
formations. The location of some remarkable
joints is mentioned: -
- We found a dip joint, strike joint and oblique
joint together at Lalakhal.
- We found a very large scale joint near the
Lalkhan BGB guard post.
- Large scale vertical to sub-vertical joints are
found in the Sylhet limestone near the Dauki
River.
-Highly jointed Barail sandstone is observed
along the road-cut section in Sripur.
-Some inclined joints with low dip are also
found in the Surma Group in Tetulghat.
-Very closely spaced parallel joints seem to be
Strike joints are found in DupiTila sandstone
near the area Sharighat.
- Numerous sub vertical joints were observed
in shale of Surma Group at Rangapani
section.
6.3 Unconformity
Another recognizable structural feature,
unconformity is a surface of erosion or
nondeposition that separates younger strata
from older strata. In the working area two
types of unconformity have been recognized.
Page 27
6.3.1 Disconformity
A major unconformity exists between the
Barail and Surma group. Near the eastern bank
of Nayaganj stream (in the north of Jaintiapur)
at lat. 250 08/ 25.4// N and long 920 7/ 17.9// E .
It is represented by a thin band of lateritic
conglomerate, as observed in the field.Laterite
also found in Najimgar. The band of laterite is
of red to dark brown color and is composed of
pebbles, cobbles, granules and other ill-sorted
materials. The nature of the unconformity is
non depositional i.e. the laterite might have
formed by the hardening of the weathering
products of the Barail group of rocks
(hematite cemented sandstone) during
prolonged exposure before deposition of the
Bhuban sediments. According to the field
investigation it can be categorized as
disconformity. This is because the laterite
band was continuous along the contact and
parallel to the strike of both of the formations.
Figure 6.7:Disconformity between Barail Formation
and Bhutan formation exposed in Nayaganj section.
6.3.2 Angular Unconformity
Gravel beds overlie most of the hillocks. This
gravel bed makes an unconformity with the
Barail and Surma group of sediments. The
underlying beds are inclined and the recent
gravel beds are laid horizontally over it,
suggesting an angular unconformity. In the
field such kind of unconformity is noticed
near the dry Rangapani river section in Sripur,
where the gravel beds lie over the Barail
sandstone. In the Uzaynagar village near
Jaintiapur, gravel beds are found to make
angular unconformity with the Surma Group.
 Local Unconformity
A local Unconformity is observed at the bank
of Lalakhal between Tipam and Surma group.
Lithology change suggests the unconformity
between these two groups. A significant gap in
sedimentation near Rangapani also suggests a
local unconformity .

Figure 6.8 : Angular unconformity at Ujaninagar

section.

Figure 6.9: Unconformity between Dihing and

Barial.

CHAPTER 7
STRATIGRAPHY

Stratigraphy is the study of rocks to identify the most important resource for learning about
the sequence and timing of events in Earth the development of life, plate tectonics, and
history: it gives us a temporal frame to global climate change.
interpret sedimentary rocks in terms of
dynamically changing environments. The
stratigraphic record of sedimentary rocks is

Page 28
7.1General stratigraphic succession
Stratigraphic succession of the studied area [Paul, 1988 and field investigation]

Age Group Formation Lithology Thickness in

meters

Recent Alluvium Unconsolidated sand, silt and clay.

Sonatila Well rounded, smooth cobble to boulder sized gravel

gravel with high sphericity.
Pleistocene

Pliocene Dupitila Coarse grained, yellowish sandstone with subordinate 300+

Sandstone Claystone containing quartz pebbles.

Girujan Clay Whitish colored, massive sticky Claystone containing 400

ferruginous specks sparsely.
Mio- Tipam

Pliocene
Tipam Yellowish brown, medium to coarse grained cross 1200
sandstone bedded sandstone.

Miocene Surma Jenum Gray colored, moderately hard, fine to very fine 1600
grained sandstone with subordinate bluish gray
laminated shale.

Oligocene Barail Renji Pink colored, fine to very fine grained, very well 1180
sorted Sandstone with subordinate laminated shale.

Kopili Black, fissile, splintery shale with high clay content. 50+
shal
e

Eocene Jaintia Sylhet Light colored, very hard and compact, massive
limestone fossiliferous limestone.
35+

Table 5: Stratigraphic succession of the studied area

Page 29
7.2 Lithologic description The assemblages of dominantly large
Tura Sandstone from the Early Eocene, found microfossils indicate a shallow water,
in Takerghat in Sunamganj district, Sylhet continental shelf zone and a clear water
division, is Bangladesh's oldest rock. environment is also documented by total lack
However, none of these were discovered in the of planktonic remains (Sarwar,1679). A fault
region we studied. The Sylhet Limestone found in our investigated area due to the
Formation, the intermediate member of the Dauki fault. Though much work had not been
Jaintia Group of sediments, is the oldest rock done in the area, the similarity of nummulites
exposed in our study region. The Jaintia assemblage with the Eocene of Garo Hills and
Group, Barail Group, Surma Group, Tipam Assam makes it likely that this unit is of
Group, Dupi Tila, and Dihing (Sonatila Middle Eocene age.
Gravel) sediments are overlain (from older to
younger). 7.2.2 Kopili shale
Evans (1932) named the beds constituting the
top level of the Jaintia group Kopili shale after
7.2.1 SylhetLimestone
the Kopili river of the Garo Hill in India. Only
Khan used the name "Sylhet limestone" to
on the west bank of the Rangapani River does
describe a kind of rock (1963). The structure
it provide a small outcrop (Fig. 6.2). It's a dark
may be seen near the Bangladesh-Meghalaya
gray to black-colored, strongly jointed shale
border on the east side of the Dauki River. The
that's extremely fissile, heavily bedded to
outcrop is bordered by recent deposits and
paper laminated. There is interbedded
Barail group rock, forming an inlier. It is the
sandstone with an argillaceous matrix.It is
examined area's oldest (Eocene) rock . The
conformably overlain on the Sylhet limestone.
block has been subjected to severe forces
Base of the Kopili shale is not seen. The top
which produced the fault breccia. Here two
of the Kopili shale is exposed beside
types of limestone are found. The grey,
Rangapani River in Sripur tea garden. It is
fossiliferous Limestone offers a variety of
also found on the east bank of the Dauki River
fossils from disk shaped Discocyclina to
near the Bangladesh-Meghalaya border. The
elongate lens shaped Nummulites and other
approximate thickness is about 30m. Fossil
type of fossil called Alviolina. The basal part
evidence suggests that the Kopili shale is of
of the limestone is rich in fossils. Which
late Eocene age (Evans 1932).
indicates that the reduction in fossil content
caused the break in limestone formation. The
hard limestone is highly jointed and fractured.
The brecciated limestone occurs due to large
Dauki Fault.

Figure 7.2: Highly jointed Kopili Shale

formation near Rangapani

The Oligocene is represented by the Barail

Figure 7.1: Sylhet limestone group, named by Evans (1932) after the Barail
Range in nearby Assam, India where the unit

Page 30
has its type locality. The Barail Group (Jenum
Formation) is well exposed in Mahishmara,
Sonatila and near Sripur which is about 3.5
miles NW of Jaintiapur (Fig 6.3). Most of the
exposures are covered by Holocene deposits.
The Barail forms higher ridges than the
adjacent Surma Group. Because the older
formations are more stable than the younger
one due to more compaction. The thickness
found in our investigated area is about 1160m.
In the neighboring Assam Barail sediments
are divided into an arenaceous Liaison
Formation, an argillaceous Jenum Formation,
and an arenaceous Renji Formation. In
Bangladesh, most of the Barail is deeply
buried. A series of outcrops in the area
between Jaintiapur in the east and the Dauki in
the west was described by Khan (1978) as
Jenum Formation. Reimann (1983) who
mapped the north-eastern fringe of the Surma
basin.
Figure 7.3: Barail sandstone
The Jenum Formation is represented by the
river Nayagang and exposes along the
Jaintiapur–Tamabil route. Sandstone, siltstone,
and silty shale make up the Jenum Formation.
The sandstone is mostly pink in hue, worn to
light yellow and gray, with extremely fine to
medium grained, cross-bedded Argillaceous
and Ferruginous elements, and thin to thick
bedded Argillaceous and Ferruginous
materials.The block jointed sandstone is found
in many places. On the east bank of the Dauki
River near the Bangladesh-Meghalaya border
the block joined sandstone confused with a
bedding plane. The carbonaceous matter is
Page 31
found in sandstone in the east bank of Dauki
River and in sonatila chara. The siltstone is
light gray to yellow in color. It is thin to thick
bedded, fairly hard and compact and well
joined.
Thin bands of lateritic Conglomerate mark the
unconformity border between the Bhuban and
Barail groups, which are extensively visible in
the Nayaganj river section. On the hilltops and
slopes of the hillocks on the northern side of
the studied area's horticulture garden, little
blocks of Laterite are extensively
distributed.Laterite blocks are normally
formed on the surface of the iron-rich residual
deposits. It is porous, reddish brown color,
has a hard protective ferruginous band on the
exposed surface, which is generally irregular
and rough. The vesicles of Laterite are filled
up with secondary minerals.
Figure 7.4: Laterite bed between Surma and
Barail group
On the basis of lithology this formation is
corrected with that of Renji of Assam instead
of Jenum which appears to be absent in this
area. In Assam, the Renji formation is
considered to be of Oligocene age (Evans,
1932) on the basis of fossils.
7.2.3 Surma Group
The Surma Group has been named after the
Surma series of Assam, India (Evans 1932).
The sediment of the Surma group
unconformably overlies the Barail Group.
Good exposures of this unit were observed in
the east of Jaintiapur and in the Shari River .
The change from the Barail Group to the
Surma Group is rather sharp and is marked by
the decrease of the interbedded sandstone in
shales and siltstones and the general
predominance of argillaceous material. The
Surma Group is made up of bedded, laminated
siltstone, shale, silty shale, claystone and
sandstone, mud clast found in Surma
Sandstone in Afifanagar. Although some
sandy shale is also present. Shale of this unit is
profusely jointed and fractured and even small
faults were observed in Tetulghat. It is also
exposed near Jaintiapur i.e. Afifanagar,
Ujaninagar, Kamarbari, and East
Gaurishankar. Most of the sediments are
covered by recent alluvium. The dip direction
of the beds of this formation is south-west and
the amount of dip ranges from 42° to 50°. The
thickness found in our investigation is about
1600m.It is composed of yellowish gray
sandstone, bluish gray shale, sandy shale, and
siltstone. Sandstone is fine to medium grained,
sub-angular and moderately sorted. The
sandstone is hard and is resistant to
weathering and forms the cliffs. It shows
micro cross lamination, lamination, trough
cross bedding and wavy bedding.
Figure 7.5:Fissile Shale of Surma Group near
Afifanagar
The shale is bluish gray in color and
weathered to gray and yellowish gray. The
shale is well laminated, hard and jointed. The
Surma Group is generally subdivided into two
formations namely the Bhuban and the
Bokabil but in the field it is difficult to
distinguish between the two units and the
subdivision becomes impractical. The contact
of Surma Group with the overlying Tipam
Formation is conformable. The Surma Group
is overlain unconformably by Dihing
Page 32
Formation at latitude 25°07/59.7//, longitude
92°07/51.1//. This is an angular unconformity.
The contact between Surma Group and Tipam
Sandstone found in Afifanagar. (fig:7.5 )
7.2.5 Tipam Group
The Tipam Group took its name from the
Tipam Series (Mallet, F.R., 1876), which was
named after the Dihing River in Assam, India.
The Tipam Group is split into two formations,
the Tipam Sandstone and the Girujan Clay,
which are arranged in order of age.
Tipam Sandstone: The name has been used
after the Tipam hills in Assam, India (Mallet
1876). The formation constitutes the lower
part of Tipam Group and is conformably
overlain by Girujan Clay and the contact
found in the eastern bank of the Shari River is
gradual . The river Shari gives an excellent
exposure.
Figure 7.6: Tipam Sandstone
7.2.4 Girujan clay
At latitude 25°06/15.7//, longitude
92°08/54.4//, the top of the Tipam Sandstone
Formation has a conformable contact with the
Girujan Clay Formation on the Shari River's
bank, where it consists of an alternation of
typically bedded to thick bedded, as well as
laminated, fine sandstone and mudstone.The
formation develops conformably and
gradually from the underlying Tipam
Sandstone Formation. It consists mainly of
gray to bluish gray clay and mottled clay. The
presence of Girujan clay is controversial.
The base of Tipam Sandstone is exposed also
in the Shari river bank conformably overlying
the Surma Group at the Stop- 9 (25°06/36.0//N
latitude, 92°10/48.9//E longitude) where it 7.2.7 Dihing Formation
consists of brown, fine to medium grained, The Dihing formation of Pleistocene age has
massive sandstone. Overall lithology of Tipam unconformable contact with the Surma Group
Sandstone consists of gray-brown to pale- at latitude 25°07’59.7”N, longitude
gray, coarse-grained, cross bedded, and 92°07’51.1”E, Uzaninagar and with Barail
massive sandstone. Intercalations of gray Group at latitude 25°10’42.2”N, longitude
shale, conglomerate horizons, pebbles, laterite 92°00’58.5''E,Sonatila Chara . The formation
bed, mud ball, wood fragments and petrified consists of yellow and gray, medium-grained,
trunks, coal lenses also occur. occasionally pebbly sandstone and clayey
sandstone with interbeds of mottled clay, and
boulders of granitic rock (Fig 6.8). The rocks
7.2.6 Dupi Tila sandstone are in most part poorly consolidated.
The Dupi Tila Formation's type location is
Dupi Gaon. The formation may be found
behind the Sharighat Primary School in
latitude 25°05'38.8”N, longitude
92°07'04.0”E. Sandstone and siltstone
dominate the lithology, with mudstone
interbeds.At latitude 25°05’50.8”N, longitude
92°08’39.0”E, the bedding plane is not well
defined. The lithology is dominantly fine to
coarse grained, brown to yellowish brown,
Figure 7.8: Dihing formation at Nayagang
cross bedded sandstone containing wood
log/coal and quartz pebbles, clay galls etc. The
7.2.8 Alluvium
Dupi Tila Sandstone Formation conformably
Rivers carry unconsolidated, loose material
overlies the Girujan Clay Formation. Except
downstream, which is deposited as alluvial
petrified wood no other fossils are identified
fans or weathered material. Sand, silt, and clay
in Dupi Tila Formation. In Assam, it is
in varying quantities make up alluvium.
considered to be Mio-Pliocene in age
Alluvium from rivers is generally sand and
(Lexique, 1957).
coarse-grained material, whereas weathered
alluvium is mostly clay and silt. They
unconformably cover a variety of rock
formations that are recent in age.
7.3 Stratigraphic Correlation
Stratigraphic correlation of the area of
investigation and its correspondence to
classification of Tertiary Stratigraphic units of
Assam are given below:

Figure 7.7: Dupi Tila sandstone

Page 33
Age North Eastern part of Assam Valley, India Mathur Eastern part of Bangladesh,
Surma Basin, Sylhet And Evans, 1964 Chittagong – Chittagong Hill
Tracts
Group Formation Series Stage Group Formation
Holocene Alluvium Alluvium and Alluvium
high level
terraces
Late DupiTila DupiTila Upper
Miocene to Sandstone Sandstone DupiTila
Mid Lower
Miocene DupiTila
Mid Tipam Girujan Clay Tipam Girujan Clay Tipam Girujan Clay
Miocene Tipam Tipam Tipam
Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone
Early Surma Bokabil Surma Bokabil
Miocene Bhuban Bhuban
Oligocene Barail Renji Barail Jenum
Eocene Jaintia Kopili Shale Jaintia Kopili Shale
Sylhet Sylhet
Limestone Limestone
Tura Theria
Sandstone
(not found in
investigated
area
Table 6:stratigraphic correlation

CHAPTER 8
GEOMORPHIC FEATURES
Geomorphology 8.1 Hillocks
Geomorphology is the study of landforms, Hillocks are mainly small hills. We found
their processes, shapes, and deposits at the huge hillocks. They slope very gently and are
Earth's surface. As rock is worn away by earth
surface processes and transported and
deposited to various areas, landforms are
formed. Geomorphic features include hillocks,
tributaries, and floodplains.
Geomorphic features
Geomorphic features are topographic and On
the surface of the Earth, bathymetric
landforms can be found. Lidar (light detection
and ranging) technology is frequently used to
Figure 8.1:Hillocks(Tipam)
acquire high resolution elevation data in order
made of comparably low resistant rock such as
to simulate them. Lidar data may be used to
Tipam. The cause behind this are, hillocks are
estimate the heights of river banks and the
high gravitational structures.They usually face
depths and positions of roadside and
high weathering due to rain water and high
agricultural ditches, among other things.

Page 34
gravity. If the rock is low-resistant then the
weathering rates are generally high and
hillocks erode. But we also found hills which
were in the Barail formation.
8.2 Pot hole
A pothole is a circular or cylindrical hole in
the riverbed caused by abrasion and the force
of water. When a circular circulation of water
carrying tiny stones and silt begins to eat away
at a rock surface, a pothole forms. Water and
the sediment it transports have a higher power
than the rock's resistance. Once the process
starts, it doesn't stop, and the rock in that area
continues to erode.We found a pothole near
the Nayagang river section.
Figure8.2: Pothole at Nayagang river section
8.3 Meandering River
Rivers that flow over moderately sloping
ground begin to bend across the landscape.
Rivers that meander are known as wandering
rivers.Meandering rivers remove silt from
each meander bend's outer curve and deposits
it on a downstream inner curve. Individual
meanders grow larger and larger as a result of
this. The river Nayagang is a meandering
river.
Figure 8.3: Meandering Nayaganj River
Page 35
8.4 Braided river
A braided river, also known as a braided
channel, is made up of a network of river
channels divided by tiny, frequently
ephemeral islands known as braid bars, or aits
or eyots in British terminology. Braided
streams can be found in rivers with a low
slope and/or a lot of silt. Braided channels are
also typical of environments that dramatically
decrease channel depth, and consequently
channel velocity, such as river deltas, alluvial
fans, and peneplain. Braided rivers, as distinct
from meandering rivers, occur when a
threshold level of sediment load or slope is
reached whilst a steep gradient is also
maintained. Geologically speaking, an
increase in sediment load over time will
increase the slope of the river, so these two
conditions may be considered synonymous;
and, consequently, a variation of slope can
model a variation in sediment load. Rangapani
river is a braided river.
Figure 8.4: Braided Rangapani River
8.5 Stream
A body of running water or any other moving
liquid under the influence of gravity to lower
levels in a narrow, clearly defined natural
channel.
Figure 8.5: Stream
8.6 Floodplain
A floodplain, also known as a floodplain, is an
area of land adjacent to a stream or river that
reaches from the banks of its channel to the
base of the enclosing valley walls and floods
during periods of high discharge. Levees, silts,
and sands deposited by floods generally make
up the soils. The heaviest elements (typically
pebble-size) are deposited first, followed by
silts and sands.
Figure8.6: Flood Plain

CHAPTER 9
SEDIMENTOLOGY

Sedimentary Structures and

Features

Sedimentary structures are large-scale features

of sedimentary rocks that are best studied in
outcrops with naked eyes or hand lens.
Different types of sedimentary structures that
are encountered in the investigated area are
given below:

9.1. Depositional Structure Figure 9.1: Lamination

9.1.1 Lamination
Lamination defines stratification which is
produced by change in pattern of
sedimentation, may be defined as change in
sediment grain size color, composition.
9.1.2 Ripples
Sandstones generate ripples in sand size
deposits. Current ripples are shown by the ripple
markings in the examined region. These have a
length of less than 60cm and a ripple index of
less than 5. (mostly 8-15). These are
asymmetric, with a step lee side and a gently
toss side, due to bidirectional current.

Page 36
9.1.3 Cross lamination and cross bedding
With one bed, cross lamination can create a
single set or several sets. When the set height
is less than 6cm and higher than 6cm,
stratification is separated into cross lamination
and cross bedding, respectively.Tabular cross
stratification is straight crested and whereas
trough cross stratification is curved crested.
Figure 9.2: Cross Strata.
9.1.4 Lenticular bedding
Lenticular bedding is where mud dominates and
cross laminated sand occurs in lenses, both are
found in Surma group in Shari river section.
Figure9.3: Lenticular Bedding in Sari River
Section.
9.1.5 Mud cracks
Desiccation and dewatering on exposure
result in shrinking fissures with polygonal
shapes in fine-grained sediments.It was found
Page 37
in the Shari river section .
Figure 9.4: Mud cracks.
9.2 Post Depositional Structure
9.2.1 Load cast
Load cast is formed through differential
sinking of one bed into another. Load casts are
common on soles of sandstone beds overlying
mud cast, occurring as bulbons structure and
may be on the way to become ball and pillow
structure found at Shari river section in Surma
group.
9.2.2 Convolute bedding:
Complex folding and crumpling of beds or
laminations results in convolute bedding. Fine
or silty sands are prone to this sort of
deformation, which is generally limited to a
single rock layer. Flood plain, delta, point-bar,
and intertidal-flat deposits all contain
convolute laminations.They generally range in
size from 3 to 25 cm, but there have been
larger formations recorded as several meters
thick.
Figure 9.5: Convolute structure
 9.3 Post depositional Chemically
formed Structure
9.3.2 Sand Vein
9.3.1 Concretions
During earthquakes, sandstone veins can
Concretions, the most frequent type of develop. Pore pressure increased dramatically
sedimentary structure, are created by mineral as a result of the release of energy, and water
materials precipitating around a nucleus, such and grain fluids became the same kind and
as a shale fragment, with masses ranging from were injected through the weak zone. It
peripheral to pipe-shaped, and are found in provides information on earthquakes.
sandstones and shale. Tipam sandstone,
DupiTila formation, Barail group, and other
parts have been discovered.

Figure 9.7: Sand Vein at Sharighat Primary School.

Figure 9.6 : Iron Concretion.

Page 38
 CHAPTER 10
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

10.1ECONOMIC RESOURCES long and 2 to 4 feet thick. In Dauki rivers its

extent is about one and a half mile long, fifty
In the examined region, there are no feet wide and about 4 feet thick but in
economically viable deposits. In Bangladesh, Rangpani river its extent is small.
economically significant mineral reserves are
extremely rare. There are no economically
significant mineral deposits in the Tertiary
rock of the studied region.
10.1.1 Sylhet Sand
Jenam, Tipam, and Dupi Tila formation
sandstones are extremely weakly cemented.
These sandstones do not meet the minimal
standards for usage as construction materials.
The Dauki River and the Rangapani River
convey a large amount of sand, which is
utilized as a construction material across the Figure 10.2: Gravels and Boulders in Jaflong,
country. This sand, often known as Sylhet Sylhet.
sand, is of exceptional quality.Sylhet sand is
used in tube well construction and 10.1.3 Sylhet Limestone
construction of the building.
In the studied region on the eastern bank of the
Dauki River, a very tiny faulted block of
Eocene Sylhet limestone (Fig-68) is revealed.
The Chhatak cement mill uses Sylhet
Limestone to manufacture cement that is
superior to any other cement in the world. All
Limestone has been quarried out of this
facility.Now its reserve is too small to warrant
further exploration. It provides the local
people with lime making and other domestic
usages.
Figure 1O.1 : Sylhet sand in Jaflong, Sylhet.

10.1.2 Gravels and Boulders

The area's main commercially important
geological constituent is gravel carried by the
Dauki and Rangapani rivers. Pebbles are
gneiss, quartzite, and granite boulders that are
rounded to sub-rounded. Hundreds of tons of
this hard rock are delivered by train every day
across the country for use in road construction,
multistory structures, tail way ballasts, and Figure 10.3: Sylhet limestone in Jaflong, Sylhet .
other applications.The estimate of this hard
sock is about one million cubic feet (khan M,
1978). The gravels are generally 3 to 8 feet

Page 39
10.1.4 Gas and Oil are used for construction.

So far, 29 natural gas fields and one oil well

(well-7 of the Sylhet gas field) have been
identified in Bangladesh. The Surma basin
was home to the majority of the gas and oil
fields. The gas and oil were discovered in the
Bhuban and Boka Bil formation's sandstone
reservoirs. Surma is a Mio-pliocene epoch
with depths ranging from the surface to
hundreds of meters. These gas and oil
reservoirs are found in the folded belt, which
Figure 10.4: Laterite band at Nazimnagar
has a mild anticlinal fold that creates traps
Wilderness Resort, Lalakhal.
(Prof. Badrul Imam, 1984). As a result, there's
a chance of finding hydrocarbons in the
examined region, which is why a
comprehensive geological examination of the 10.2 Local mining methods
Jaflong-Lalakhal area is so important.
10.2.1 Quarry Mining
Bangladesh Atomic energy suggests that a
small amount of Uranium (Ur) might be found A quarry mine is a type of open-pit mine that
in the investigated area. extracts rock or minerals. Building materials
such as dimension stone, construction
10.1.5 Laterite aggregate, sand, and gravel are commonly
extracted from quarries. Because huge
Sea was withdrawn from the investigated area volumes of aggregate are required in concrete
after the deposition of the Barail, evidenced by and asphalt, they are frequently colocated with
such operations. Underground stone
a regional unconformity represented by laterite
quarrying, such as for Bath stone, is included
(Fig-70) band between the top of Barail and in the definition of quarry.Quarries in level
the basal part of Surma. There might have areas with shallow groundwater or which are
prevailed tropical to subtropical and humid located close to surface water often have
climatic conditions under which iron-rich engineering problems with drainage.
laterite formed during prolonged exposure of Generally, the water is removed by pumping
while the quarry is operational, but for high
Barail. During the Miocene Epoch the major
inflows more complex approaches may be
orogenic upliftment of Himalaya took place. required. As a quarry becomes deeper water
The sand, silt and clay particles carried and inflows generally increase and it also becomes
deposited by numerous streams caused the more expensive to lift the water higher during
development of the mega delta. Laterite removal - this can become the limiting factor
generally possesses secondary minerals which in quarry depth. Some water-filled quarries are

Page 40
worked from beneath the water, by dredging.
Figure 10.5 : Quarry area at
Rangapani River Section.
10.2.2 Crushing
At the investigated area it was common to see
stone extraction. Most of the people are
involved with these businesses, because of the
abundance of stones. These stones are very
useful for building construction and road
CHAPTER-11
CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY
The examined region is located in the Surma
basin of the Bengal basin's mobile belt. The
terrain is hilly in this location. The area's
typical elevation is between 100 and 125 feet
above mean sea level. Numerous rivers,
streams, khals, and other waterways drain the
region, most of which run in a meandering
manner and carry massive amounts of silt.The
prominent structures of the area are a faulted
anticline, a major fault named Dauki fault
which runs along the northern margin of the
area and has been considered as the west ward
continuation of the Naga – Disang thrust fault
Page 41
development. Everyday huge amounts of
stones are being extracted and crushed into
small pieces and those are later transported by
tracks.
Figure 10.6 : Boulder crushing in Jaflong,
Sylhet.
system. Besides these few small scale faults,
folds
and local unconformity has been identified in
the area.
The investigated area consists of a thick
sequence of sediments from the Eocene to
Recent. Because of the exposures of these
sedimentary rock units this area is called the
geological museum of Bangladesh. These
sediments are divided into several Groups
which are from bottom to top Jaintia, Barail,
Surma and Tipam, these groups of sediments
are overlained by Dupi Tila , Sonatila Gravel
and alluvium. The principal rock types are
limestone, sandstone, siltstone, shale, and
conglomerate. Fossils are found only in the
Sylhet limestone. The total thickness of these
rock units are about 4110 meters. The
depositional environment of these rocks is
shallow marine, marine, fluvial and lacustrine.
As a new department we have limitations like
not having enough equipment, enough funding
etc. Four (4) days for the investigation is not
enough.
Despite these constraints, our field trip was a
lot of fun and instructive. Our teacher's
encouragement and advice were much
appreciated. Our department's contemporary
tool and equipment facilities should be
expanded, and our base maps should be
updated.

Page 42