Air-independent propulsion

Air-independent propulsion (AIP), or air-independent power, is any marine

propulsion technology that allows a non-nuclear submarine to operate without access
to atmospheric oxygen (by surfacing or using a snorkel). AIP can augment or replace the diesel-
electric propulsion system of non-nuclear vessels.
Modern non-nuclear submarines are potentially stealthier than nuclear submarines; a nuclear
ship's reactor must constantly pump coolant[citation needed], generating some amount of detectable
noise. Non-nuclear submarines running on battery power or AIP, on the other hand, can be
virtually silent. While nuclear-powered designs still dominate in submergence times and deep-
ocean performance, small, high-tech non-nuclear attack submarines are highly effective in
coastal operations and pose a significant threat to less-stealthy and less-maneuverable nuclear
submarines.[1]
AIP is usually implemented as an auxiliary source, with the traditional diesel engine handling
surface propulsion. Most such systems generate electricity, which in turn drives an electric motor
for propulsion or recharges the boat's batteries. The submarine's electrical system is also used for
providing "hotel services"—ventilation, lighting, heating etc.—although this consumes a small
amount of power compared to that required for propulsion.
AIP can be retrofitted into existing submarine hulls by inserting an additional hull section. AIP
does not normally provide the endurance or power to replace atmospheric dependent propulsion,
but allows longer submergence than a conventionally propelled submarine. A typical
conventional power plant provides 3 megawatts maximum, and an AIP source around 10% of
that. A nuclear submarine's propulsion plant is usually much greater than 20 megawatts.
The United States Navy uses the hull classification symbol "SSP" to designate boats powered by
AIP, while retaining "SSK" for classic diesel-electric attack submarines.[a]

History

A replica of Ictineo II, Monturiol's pioneering submarine, in Barcelona.

In the development of the submarine, the problem of finding satisfactory forms of propulsion
underwater has been persistent. The earliest submarines were man-powered with hand-cranked
propellers, which quickly used up the air inside; these vessels had to move for much of the time
on the surface with hatches open, or use some form of breathing tube, both inherently dangerous
and resulting in a number of early accidents. Later, mechanically driven vessels used compressed
air or steam, or electricity, which had to be re-charged from shore or from an on-board aerobic
engine.

The earliest attempt at a fuel that would burn anaerobically was in 1867, when Narciso
Monturiol successfully developed a chemically powered anaerobic or air independent steam
engine.[2][3]
In 1908 the Imperial Russian Navy launched the submarine  Pochtovy, which used a gasoline
engine fed with compressed air and exhausted under water.
These two approaches, the use of a fuel that provides energy to an open-cycle system, and the
provision of oxygen to an aerobic engine in a closed cycle, characterize AIP today.

Types
Open-cycle systemsEdit

X-1 midget submarine on display at the Submarine Force Library and Museum in the United States

During World War II the German firm Walter experimented with submarines that used high-test

(concentrated) hydrogen peroxide as their source of oxygen under water. These used steam
turbines, employing steam heated by burning diesel fuel in the steam/oxygen atmosphere created
by the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide by a potassium permanganate catalyst.
Several experimental boats were produced, though the work did not mature into any viable
combat vessels. One drawback was the instability and scarcity of the fuel involved. Another was
that while the system produced high underwater speeds, it was extravagant with fuel; the first
boat, V-80, required 28 tons of fuel to travel 50 nautical miles (93 kilometres), and the final
designs were little better.
After the war one Type XVII boat, U-1407, which had been scuttled at the end of World War II,
was salvaged and recommissioned into the Royal Navy as HMS  Meteorite. The British built two
improved models in the late 1950s, HMS  Explorer, and HMS  Excalibur. Meteorite was not
popular with its crews, who regarded it as dangerous and volatile; she was officially described as
75% safe.[citation needed] The reputations of Excalibur and Explorer were little better; the boats
were nicknamed Excruciater and Exploder.[4]
The Soviet Union also experimented with the technology and one experimental boat was
built which utilized hydrogen peroxide in a Walter engine.
The United States also received a Type XVII boat, U-1406, and went on to use hydrogen
peroxide in an experimental midget submarine, X-1. It was originally powered by a hydrogen
peroxide/diesel engine and battery system until an explosion of her hydrogen peroxide supply on
20 May 1957. X-1 was later converted to a diesel-electric.[5]
The USSR, UK, and US, the only countries known to be experimenting with the technology at
that time, abandoned it when the latter developed a nuclear reactor small enough for submarine
propulsion. Other nations, including Germany and Sweden, would later recommence AIP
development.
It was retained for propelling torpedoes by the British and the Soviet Union, although hastily
abandoned by the former following the HMS  Sidon tragedy. Both this and the loss of the Russian
submarine  Kursk were due to accidents involving hydrogen peroxide propelled torpedoes.
Closed-cycle diesel enginesEdit
This technology uses a submarine diesel engine which can be operated conventionally on the
surface, but which can also be provided with oxidant, usually stored as liquid oxygen, when
submerged. Since the metal of an engine would burn in pure oxygen, the oxygen is usually
diluted with recycled exhaust gas. Argon replaces exhaust gas when the engine is started.
In the late 1930s the Soviet Union experimented with closed-cycle engines, and a number of
small M-class vessels were built using the REDO system, but none were completed before the
German invasion in 1941.
During World War II the German Kriegsmarine experimented with such a system as an
alternative to the Walter peroxide system, designing variants of their Type XVII U-boat and
their Type XXVIIB  Seehund midget submarine, the Type XVIIK and Type XXVIIK respectively,
though neither was completed before the war's end.
After the war the USSR developed the small 650-ton Quebec-class submarine, of which thirty
were built between 1953 and 1956. These had three diesel engines—two were conventional and
one was closed cycle using liquid oxygen.
In the Soviet system, called a "single propulsion system", oxygen was added after the exhaust
gases had been filtered through a lime-based chemical absorbent. The submarine could also run
its diesel using a snorkel. The Quebec had three drive shafts: a 32D 900 bhp (670 kW) diesel on
the centre shaft and two M-50P 700 bhp (520 kW) diesels on the outer shafts. In addition a
100 hp (75 kW) "creep" motor was coupled to the centre shaft. The boat could be run at slow
speed using the centreline diesel only.[6]
Because liquid oxygen cannot be stored indefinitely, these boats could not operate far from a
base. It was dangerous; at least seven submarines suffered explosions, and one of these, M-256,
sank following an explosion and fire. They were sometimes nicknamed cigarette lighters.[7] The
last submarine using this technology was scrapped in the early 1970s.
The German Navy's former Type 205 submarine U-1 (launched 1967) was fitted with an
experimental 3,000 hp (2,200 kW) unit.
Closed-cycle steam turbinesEdit
The French MESMA (Module d'Energie Sous-Marin Autonome) system is offered by French
shipyard DCNS. MESMA is available for the Agosta 90B and Scorpène-class submarines. It is
essentially a modified version of their nuclear propulsion system with heat generated
by ethanol and oxygen. Specifically, a conventional steam turbine power plant is powered by
steam generated from the combustion of ethanol and stored oxygen at a pressure of
60 atmospheres. This pressure-firing allows exhaust carbon dioxide to be expelled overboard at
any depth without an exhaust compressor.
Each MESMA system costs around $50–60 million. As installed on the Scorpènes, it requires
adding an 8.3-metre (27 ft), 305-tonne hull section to the submarine, and results in a submarine
able to operate for greater than 21 days underwater, depending on variables such as speed.[8][9]
An article in Undersea Warfare Magazine notes that: "although MESMA can provide higher
output power than the other alternatives, its inherent efficiency is the lowest of the four AIP
candidates, and its rate of oxygen consumption is correspondingly higher."[9]
Stirling cycle enginesEdit

HSwMS Gotland in San Diego

The Swedish shipbuilder Kockums constructed three Gotland-class submarines for the Swedish

Navy that are fitted with an auxiliary Stirling engine that burns liquid oxygen and diesel fuel to
drive 75 kW electrical generators for either propulsion or charging batteries. The endurance of
the 1,500-tonne boats is around 14 days at 5 kn (5.8 mph; 9.3 km/h).
Kockums has also refurbished/upgraded the Swedish Västergötland-class submarines with a
Stirling AIP plugin section. Two (Södermanland and Östergötland) are in service in Sweden as
the Södermanland class, and two others are in service in Singapore as
the Archer class (Archer and Swordsman).
Kockums also delivered Stirling engines to Japan. Ten Japanese submarines were equipped with
Stirling engines. The first submarine in the class, Sōryū, was launched on 5 December 2007 and
delivered to the navy in March 2009. The eleventh of the class is the first one that is equipped
with lithium-ion batteries without a Stirling engine.[10]
The new Swedish Blekinge-class submarine has the Stirling AIP system as its main energy
source. The submerged endurance will be more than 18 days at 5 knots using AIP.
Fuel cellsEdit

Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion of the German Navy in dock

Siemens has developed a 30–50 kilowatt fuel cell unit, a device that converts the chemical

energy from a fuel and oxidiser into electricity. Fuel cells differ from batteries in that they
require a continuous source of fuel (such as hydrogen) and oxygen, which are carried in the
vessel in pressurized tanks, to sustain the chemical reaction. Nine of these units are incorporated
into Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft AG's 1,830 t submarine U-31, lead ship for the Type
212A of the German Navy. The other boats of this class and HDW's AIP equipped export
submarines (  Dolphin class, Type 209 mod and Type 214) use two 120 kW (160 hp) modules,
also from Siemens.[11]
After the success of Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft AG in its export activities, several builders
developed fuel-cell auxiliary units for submarines, but as of 2008 no other shipyard has a
contract for a submarine so equipped.
The AIP implemented on the S-80 class of the Spanish Navy is based on a bioethanol-processor
(provided by Hynergreen from Abengoa, SA) consisting of a reaction chamber and several
intermediate Coprox reactors, that transform the BioEtOH into high purity hydrogen. The output
feeds a series of fuel cells from Collins Aerospace (which also supplied fuel cells for the Space
Shuttle).
The reformer is fed with bioethanol as fuel, and oxygen (stored as a liquid in a high pressure
cryogenic tank), generating hydrogen as a sub-product. The produced hydrogen and more
oxygen is fed to the fuel cells.[12]
The Naval Materials Research Laboratory of Indian Defence Research and Development
Organisation in collaboration with Larsen & Toubro and Thermax has developed a 270
kilowatt Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) to power the Kalvari-class submarines, which are
based on the Scorpène design. All six Kalvari class submarines will be retrofitted with AIP
during their first upgrade. It produces electricity by reacting with hydrogen generated from
sodium borohydride and stored oxygen with phosphoric acid acting as an electrolyte.[13][14][15]

DRDO AIP (Air Independent Propulsion) model for Kalvari-class submarine

The Portuguese Navy Tridente-class submarines are also equipped with fuel cells.

Nuclear powerEdit
Main articles:  Nuclear submarine and  Nuclear marine propulsion

Air-independent propulsion is a term normally used in the context of improving the performance
of conventionally propelled submarines. However, as an auxiliary power supply, nuclear power
falls into the technical definition of AIP. For example, a proposal to use a small 200 kilowatt
reactor for auxiliary power—styled by AECL as a "nuclear battery"—could improve the under-
ice capability of Canadian submarines.[16][17]
Nuclear reactors have been used since the 1950s to power submarines. The first such submarine
was USS  Nautilus commissioned in 1954. Today, China, France, India, Russia, the United
Kingdom and the United States are the only countries to have successfully built and operated
nuclear-powered submarines.
Non-nuclear AIP submarinesEdit

As of 2017, some 10 nations are building AIP submarines with almost 20 nations operating AIP
based submarines:

AIP Submarin Numbers

Count Builder
typ es with Operators with AIP, and
ry s
e AIP notes
  G Fu Sieme 5 active / 1
erman el ns- Dolphin c under
 Israel
y cell Thysse lass construction[
nKrup 18][19]
p
1 confirmed
retrofit with
 South
AIP,[20] up to
Korea
Type 9
209- additional Ch
1400mod  Greec ang
e Bogo class po
 Egypt ssibly retrofit.
[21][22][23][24]

10 active / 8
more
planned[25]
 Germ [26]
any
 Italy
Type 212 Norway
 Norwa
plans to
y (planned
procure four
)
submarines
based on the
Type 212 by
2025.[27]
13 active / 2
under
construction
 South / 8 more
Korea planned[28]
[29]
 Greec
e
Type 214
 Portu 3 Turkish
gal orders are
 Turke being built
y at Gölcük
Naval
Shipyard. 3
more are
planned.
Type 218  Singa 2 under
pore construction
 / 2 more
planned, with
first delivery
expected in
2020.[30][31]
[32]

Gotland c  Swed
3 active[33]
lass en

2 active
Archer cl  Singa (retrofit of
ass pore the Västergöt
Stir land class)[34]
  Swe lin Kocku
2 active
den g ms Söderma
 Swed (retrofit of
AIP nland cla
en the Västergöt
ss
land class)

Blekinge-
class  Swed
2 planned
submarin en
e

1
Harushio 
 Japan retrofit: Asas
class
hio.[35]
Stir Kawas 10 active (of
  Japa lin aki- 11
n g Kocku completed) /
AIP ms Sōryū cla
 Japan 3 under
ss
construction
/ 3 more
planned[36]

Agosta 90  Pakist
3 in service
B an

ME 6 active (of 7
  Fran Naval completed) /
SM
ce Group  Chile
A 4 under
Scorpène  Brazil 
construction
(planned)
/ 3 more
planned
 Fu 4 under
  Spai Navant S-80
el  Spain construction
n ia class
cell / 4 planned

Defenc All
e six Kalvari cl
Resear ass will be
Fu
ch and Kalvari cl retrofitted
  India el  India
Develo ass with AIP
cell
pment during their
Organi first
sation upgrade[37]

Rumoured
status: no
confirmation
Project that systems
Rubin 677 Лада   Russi
are
Fu Design (Lada) a
  Russ operational
el Bureau on any
ia
cell NIISET Russian
Krylov submarines

Project
1650 Аму None
р (Amur)

 Peopl
Type 041 15 completed
711 e's
(Yuan and 5 under
  Peop Resear Republic
Stir class) construction
le's ch of China
lin
Repub Institut
g
lic of e-  Peopl
AIP CSHG Type 032 e's
China
(Qing Experiment
C Republic
class)
of China