EVIDENCE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING PRE-HISTORIC

TIMES

o Early humans attempted to understand the unknown world, they were curious about their
nature. They observed and started to record patterns, cycles, and repetitions of what was
happening in their environment and started to look for answers. With their experience they
were able to analyze and organize information and learned which led to understanding of
science.
o Man’s achievements in science can be categorized as: (a) discovery (recognition and
observation of new objects); (b) invention (mental process wherein man’s various discoveries,
observation and experience are put together to produce new ways (operation) and means
(tools) of obtaining things (useful).

Stone Age

 This period was marked by which stone was widely used to make tools and implements. Dated
roughly 3.4 billion years ago, and in about 8000 BC this era was derived into three separate
periods – Paleolithic Period (Early), Mesolithic Period (Middle), and Neolithic (New) – based on
the degree of sophistication in the fashioning and use of tools. It is believed that tool making
began very early in the olden times. The era of Australophitecus and Paranthropus were
contemporaneous with the evolution of the genus Homo. Man was a food gatherer, depended
for his subsistence on hunting wild animals and birds, fishing, and collecting of wild fruits, nuts,
and berries.
 Tools developed gradually from single to all-purpose tools to a collection of varied and highly
specialized types of tools, each designed to serve in connection with a specific function. This
trend from a stage of non-specialization to stages of relatively high degrees of specialization. In
the manufacture of stone implements, four fundamental traditions were developed by the
Paleolithic ancestors: (1) pebble tool traditions, (2) bifacial-tool tradition or hand-axe traditions,
(3) flake-tool traditions, and (4) blade-tool traditions.
 Stone tools were made from variety of stones: flint and chert were shaped or chipped for use as
cutting tools, flakes, blades, and weapons; Flaking was able to produce a wide range of special
tools that was used for cutting, chopping, scraping, and sawing. Basalt sandstone were use for
ground stone tools. Wood, bone, shell, antler, and other materials were widely used, as well.
 The Early Stone Age includes most basic stone toolkits made by early humans. The oldest stone
tools, known as the Oldowan toolkit, consist of hammer stones that show battering on their
surfaces; stone cores that show series of flake scars along one or more edges; and sharp stone
flakes that were struck from the cores and offer useful cutting edges. Hand axes are cutting tools
as well as other kinds of ‘large cutting tools’ are characteristics of an Acheulean toolkit.
 During the Middle Paleolithic time, the pace of innovation in stone technology began to
accelerate. Hand axes were made with exquisite craftmanship, and eventually gave way to
smaller, more diverse toolkits, with an emphasis on flake tools rather than large core tools. One
 of the main innovations was the application of ‘prepared core techniques’, in which a core was
carefully flaked on one side so that a flake of predetermined size and shape could be produced
in a single blow. This technique probably raised the level of standardization and predictability in
stone technology.
 Middle Stone Age toolkits included points, which could be hafted on the shafts to make spears.
When smaller points were eventually made, they were attached to smaller, sleeker shafts to
make darts, arrows, and other projectile weapons. Stone awls have been used to perforate
hides and scrapers. Many important inventions appeared such as needle s and thread, skin
clothing, the harpoon, the spear thrower, and special fishing equipment.
 Sample of Stone Age Tools
  The Neolithic Stone Age was characterized primarily by herding societies, as well as bronze
smelting, adoption of agriculture, the shift from food gathering to food producing, development
of pottery using sediments and clay. Agriculture was developed and certain animals were raised
as well. Moreover, recent evidence indicates that humans processed and consumed wild cereal
grains.

Bronze Age

 The Bronze Age is the second principal period of three-age Stone-Bronze-Iron system and
generally followed the Neolithic period. This period is marked with the beginning of mining and
metallurgy. Bronze denotes the first period in which metal was used, man began smelting
copper and alloying with tin or arsenic to make bronze tools and weapons. Copper-tin ores are,
as reflected in fact that there were no tin bronzes in Western Asia before trading in bronze that
 began in the third millennium BC. Bronze itself is harder and more durable than other metals
available at the time, allowing Bronze Age civilizations to gain technological advantage.
 Manmade tin bronze technology required set production techniques. Tin must be mined and
smelted separately, then added to molten copper to make bronze alloy. The Bronze Age was a
time of extensive use of materials and developing trade and networks.
 Sample of Bronze tools

Iron Age

 The period in prehistory when the dominant tool making material was iron. Preceded by the
Stone Age and Bronze Age, the transition from Bronze Age occurred at different times in
different places on Earth. As the name suggests, Iron Age Technology is characterized by the
production of tools and weaponry using ferrous metallurgy or iron work more specifically from
carbon steel. Meteoric iron has been used by humans since 3200 BC, but ancient iron
production did not become widespread until the ability to smelt iron ore, remove impurities and
regulate the amount of carbon in the alloy were developed.
 The distinctive dark metal brought with it significant changes to daily life in ancient society, from
the way people grew crops to the way they fought wars. Iron made life a lot easier in those days,
much of Europe had settled into small village of life, toiling the soil with Iron farming tools, such
as sickles and plough tips, made the process more efficient and allowed farmers to exploit
tougher soils, try new crops and have more time for other activities.
 Sample of Iron Tools
ENCOUNTERED PROBLEMS DURING ANCIENT TIMES

o Science and technology indeed play major roles in everyday life. They make difficult and
complicated tasks easier and allow people to do more with so little effort and time. The
development in this field are not just products of people’s imagination or a one-time thought
process; they are also brought about by gradual improvements to earlier works from different
time periods. The driving force behind this continuous progress is the desire to raise the quality
of life of the people.
o In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation,
communication and record-keeping, mass production, security and protection, as well as health,
aesthetics, and architecture.

Transportation

 Is significant during the time because people were trying to go places and discover new
horizons. They travelled to search for food and find better place for locations for their
settlements. They also travelled for their surplus of goods in exchange for things that they
lacked.

Navigation

 Assisted them in their journeys to unfamiliar and strange areas in the world. It allowed them, to
return home after they discovered new places or completed an important trade with another
group of people.

Communication

 Was also essential endeavors to discover and occupy new places. They needed a way to
communicate with the natives of the areas they visited to facilitate trade and prevent possible
conflicts.

Security and Protection

 Weapons and Armors were important as well in the discovery of new places or the
establishment of new alliances with other tribes. At the time, there was always a risk of conflict
when people met others with different cultures and orientation. Conflicts were common
especially if different groups struggle to control vital resource. As such, the development of
weapons are armors for security and protection was considered a major achievement.
Health – Conservation of Life

 The early people might have been successful in harnessing the rich resources in the world could
provide, but their survival posed a great problem. Different illnesses and diseases, both natural
and man-made, hampered the full potential of a human being. Given the predicament, science
and technology played a major role in the discovery of cures to, if not the prevention of
illnesses.

Architecture

 The development in engineering also ushered in the introduction of architecture. Others might
see architecture as mere style, but during the ancient times, elaborate architectural designs
were signs of technological advancement of a particular civilization. In the generation to come,
nations of how advanced their technology is. It may also establish the identity of nation.
 Moreover, in order to integrate their needs – for better transportation, establishment of
structures for protection from human attacks and natural disasters, and construction of bigger
and stronger infrastructures – people venture into what is now known as engineering. The
development in this field allowed humans to build structures that would address their specific
needs and wants. Some of the structures built during the ancient times still exist today and
continually awe people.

Mass Production

 The increased in size and number of nations connoted increased demand for food and other
basic necessities. This condition also implied that people must be able to produce food at given
time and space. Since resources were getting unusual as more people struggled to share
necessities. The people need a form of technology that would enable them to increase food
supplies and other survival need without them travelling more or working harder.

Record-Keeping

 Was also important since they needed to remember the places they had been to and document
the trades they made with each other. It was also vital to keep records of their history and
culture so they could establish their identities as they tried to relate with other cultures and
civilizations.
EVIDENCES OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DURING ANCIENT TIMES

o First civilizations emerged independent of one another along fertile river valleys in
Mesopotamia (Tigris-Euphrates), Egypt (Nile), China (Huang Ho valley), and India (Indus). People
of each civilization developed a unique way of life, religion, form of government, language and
system of writing, arts and crafts, advances of science and technology: astronomy, agriculture,
medicine, mathematics, engineering, and architecture. They grew plants and domesticated
animals and settled down in places.

I. Sumerian Civilization (Sumer, Mesopotamia (Iraq))

Location

 Sumer was the southernmost region of ancient Mesopotamia between the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers (modern day Iraq and Kuwait). It is cradle of the world’s earliest known civilization and
was the first established in the region around 3600 BC. It is also known as the ‘first cities’ in the
world. It transformed families into tribes that occupied territories which soon became cities and
later were called states.

Science and Technology Development

a. Cuneiform
 the first writing system, it is a system that utilizes word pictures and triangular symbols
which are carved on clay using wedge instruments and then left to dry. Cuneiform
allowed the Sumerians to keep records of things with great historical value or their
everyday life. It is also one way of passing their traditions, cultures, and their legacy.
b. Sumerian Clay Tablet
 Contains the Sumerian historical information and culture. It began as record keeping for
trade and evolved into the use of symbols for writing down laws and stories.

c. Potter’s Wheel
 The concept of wheel grew out of a mechanical device that the Sumerian had invented
shortly after 3500 BC – the potter’s wheel. This was a heavy flat disk made of hardened
clay. It was spun horizontally on an axis to allow the potter to form evenly. The
Sumerians simple turn this clay-splattered wheel on its end and hook it to a wagon to
make a wheel as means of practical method for moving heavy objects from one place to
another.

d. Sailboat
 Also first invented by Ancient Mesopotamia. Five thousand years ago, Mesopotamians
started using sailing boats. Since Mesopotamia was situated between two famous rivers
namely Tigris and Euphrates, they needed water transportation for travel and trade.
e. Ziggurat of Ur
 The great ziggurat of Ur Another engineering and architectural feat of the Sumerians is
the Great Ziggurat of Ur. The Ziggurat, also called the mountain of God, was built in the
same manner that they constructed the City of Uruk. Without much building materials,
the structure was constructed using sunbaked bricks. The Ziggurat served as the sacred
place of their chief god, where only priest could enter.

f. Plow
 Another farm technology invented by the Mesopotamians is the plow. The plow was
invented to dig the earth in a faster pace. As the plow beaks the ground, the farmer
would just drop the seeds and farm work would already be done.

g. Irrigation and dikes

 As population increase, so did the demand for food. The Sumerians were challenged to
mass produce items but the elements in the environment seemed uncooperative. It was
difficult to get water from the rivers, thus they could not maintain farmlands. Some
groups had scarce water supply, while others had problems with flooding caused by the
 river. As a solution to this dilemma, the Sumerians created dikes and irrigation canals to
bring water to farmlands and at the same time control the flooding of the rivers. This
method was considered as one of the world’s most beneficial engineering works.

h. Roads
 To facilitate faster and easier travel, the Sumerians developed the first roads. With this
work, the flow of traffic became faster and more organized. They made the roads with
the same technology they used in making sunbaked bricks that they laid down on the
ground. The Sumerians does not have any degree in engineering or architecture, but
they were able to build buildings, road, infrastructure, and many more that are still solid
at stable until now.

i. First Astronomers
 The Sumerians were among the first astronomers, mapping the movement of stars,
planets, and moon into sets of constellations, many of which survived in the zodiac and
were also recognized by the ancient Greeks.

j. Sexagesimal system of counting

 In units of 60, which served as the basis of 360-degree circle and 60-minute hour.
II. Babylonian Civilization

Location

 Babylonia was the ancient region boarding the Tigris and Euphrates River (Iraq). Babylon is the
capital and served as commercial and religious center in the Tigris-Euphrates valley.

Science and Technology Development:

a. Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.)

 The first leader of the old Babylonian Empire, promulgated the famous law code, (An
eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth) that served as the rule and standards which
helped maintain a period of stability in this region, as well as the establishment of
science and technology.

b. Nebuchadnezzar II
 Was the Neo Babylonian Emperor who ordered the construction of the famous “hanging
Gardens of Babylons” (one of the seven wonders of the ancient world) and the Isthar
Gate. According to the legends, the great Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II built the
gardens for his wife Queen Amytis.

c. Contributed to the development of science and technology such as: irrigation system of canals
flanked by earthen dikes; system of bookkeeping, double entry accounting, multiplication and
division tables and calculations using geometry.
 d. Adopted the Sumerian sexagesimal system counting in units of 60; made accurate predictions of
solar and lunar eclipses and other astronomical phenomena.

III. Egyptian Civilization

Location

 Situated in the northeastern part of African continent, Egypt is located along the Nile River
which provided a fertile delta.

Science and Technology Development

 Ancient Egypt depended on the waters of the River Nile, which flows through harsh and arid
desert. The Nile River gave life to the civilization of Egypt. The early settlers were animal
hunters, they were nomadic. Later changed their lifestyle to be farmland settlers. Agriculture
was supported mainly by extensive irrigation system.
 Ancient Egyptians learned to heat metal ore (copper, bronze, and gold) and made weapons and
utensils. They may have been the first people to learn how to make glass (glass-blowing). They
learned how to heat sand in very hot furnace and then blow the molten sand into glass. They
made glass jars and glass beads.
 Egyptian writing wrote with ink and brushes on paper made of papyrus reeds; their writing was
in the form of pictorial symbols known as hieroglyphics. Their knowledge of human anatomy,
physiology, surgery, and medical plants enabled them to master the art and science of
embalming their dead.
 Created the calendar based on the phases of the moon, consisting of 29 and ½ days. The 365-
day calendar was devised by Imhotep, early in the Old Kingdom. They were the first to divide
the day into 24 hours, calculated the time by means of water clock. Their interest in Astronomy
was focused on stars and early calendar was based on the appearance and disappearance of star
Sirius, the brightest star in their horizon which coincide with the annual rise and fall of the Nile
River, help them forecast the seasons and predict the annual flooding on the Nile River.
 They were engaged in Pottery of various shapes and sizes artistically done such as pots, jars,
cups, and bowls, they built houses made of sun-dried mud bricks. Pyramids still stand today as
the monumental evidence of the scientific expertise and technical skills of ancient Egyptians in
geometry, engineering, architecture, and labor management. Iconic monuments such as the
Giza Necropolis and its Great Sphinx as well as the Ruins of Memphis, and the Valley of the
Kings, reflect this legacy and remain a significant focus of archeological study. The Giza
Necropolis is the oldest of the ancient wonders and the only one still in existence.
 Giza Necropolis and Great Sphinx

 The Egyptians also engaged in ship building; Construction of canals, dikes, and ditches without
outlet system; Planted wheat, barley. Food was broiled, baked, stewed, fried, grilled, or roasted.
They bred ducks, geese, pigs, goats, cattle, and sheep. Manufactured soaps, creams, oils,
perfumes, and eye make-up.

Cosmetics and Wig

 Cosmetics nowadays are essentials in building your self-confidence, but did you know that the
cosmetics that we are using right now is invented by the Egyptians? Although cosmetics in the
modern times are used to improve and highlight the facial features of a person, their function in
ancient Egypt was for both health and aesthetic.
 For example, Egyptians wore kohl around the eyes to prevent and even cure eye diseases. Kohl
was created by mixing soon or malachite with mineral galena.
 Although cosmetics in modern times are used to improve and highlight the facial features of a
person, their function in Ancient Egypt was for both health and aesthetic reasons.
 Egyptians also believed that a person wearing make-up was protected from evil and that beauty
was a sign of holiness.
 Another cosmetic invention of ancient Egyptian is the wig. Nowadays, wigs are used to enhance
the appearance of people who are balding or those who want to try new hair trends.
 Meanwhile, during the ancient Egyptian times, they were used for health and wellness rather
than for aesthetic purposes. They used it to cover their head from the harmful rays of the sun.

Water Clock/Clepsydra

 Another important ancient Egyptian contribution is the water clock. This device utilizes gravity
that affects the flow of water from on vessel to another. This invention also leads to our
modern-day clock through series of improvement done by the succeeding civilization.

IV. Cretan (Minoan) Civilization

Location

 Arose on the Island of Crete and other Aegean islands such as Santorini and flourished from
approximately 2600 to 1400 BC. It was rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century
through the work of British archeologist Arthur Evans. Will Durant referred to it as “the first link
in the European chain.” Minoan civilization was an Aegean Bronze Age civilization, ruled by King
Minos. Knossos was the capital of Crete the grandest site of Bronze age palaces, built between
2100 and 1575 B.C. Crete is a mountainous island with natural harbors located midway between
Turkey, Egypt, and Greece.

Science and Technology Development

 The Minoans were primarily mercantile people engaged in overseas trade. Their culture, from
1700 BC onward, shows a high degree of organization. Many historians and archeologists
believe that the Minoans were involve in the Bronze Age’s important tin trade: tin, alloy with
copper apparently from Cyprus. Crete became the central exporter of wine, oil, jewelry, and
 highly crafted works; in turn, they became importers of raw materials and food. In the process
they built the first navy ship in the world. Its primary purpose, however, was trade not war or
conquest.
 Minoans made sophisticated craved statues, ceramics, frescoes, jewels, and inscriptions on
these showed their knowledge of mathematics, engineering, and architecture which were
applied scientifically and artistically. They constructed well drainage system, public halls,
courtyards, and religious shrines. They were skilled in ship building.
 The Minoans raise cattle, sheep, and goats and grew wheat, barley, lettuce, celery, asparagus,
carrots, peas, grapes, figs, olives, and poppies for poppy seed and perhaps opium. The Minoans
also domesticated bees.
 They developed Mediterranean polyculture, the practices of growing more than one crop at a
time. Their move varied and healthy diet resulted in growth of population. Theoretically this
method of farming would maintain the fertility of the soil, as well as offer protection against low
yields in any single crop.
 Around 1600 BC., Akrotiri was shaken by a violent earthquake. Sometime later, an eruption
occurred. The Theran eruption was one of the largest in human history – blasting more than 10
million tons of ash, gas, and rock 25 miles into the atmosphere. Incredibly, despite Crete’s close
to proximity to the volcano, the debris from Thera largely missed the major Minoans towns. 50
years later the civilization was wiped out. Earthquakes and fires destroyed Knossos and the
other palaces, and the towns were deserted.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF GREEK, ROMANS, CHINESE AND INDUS-HINDU
IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

I. Greek Civilization

Location

 Greece is a country in Southern Europe located at the crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Its
mainland is located at the southernmost tip of the Balkan Peninsula.
 Greece is an archipelago in the southeastern part of Europe. This makes their country difficult to
conquer since it is an archipelago, they can hide or ambush the enemy from various island.
Europe is known as the birthplace of western philosophy, some of the major achievements of
the Greeks include in-depth works on philosophy and mathematics. Greek civilization has
contributed much to the world especially in the fields of science and technology.

The Classical Greek Philosophers (400 B.C – 400 A.D.)

Here are some of the Great Greek Philosophers that helped in the development of Science and
Technology during Ancient Times.

a. Thales of Miletus (638-548 B.C)

 Developed the theory of matter based upon water.

b. Socrates (470-339 B.C)

 Emphasized the study of human nature in relation to society; established the theory of
skepticism.

c. Empedocles (493-433 B.C.)

 Assumed that there were more than one kind of matter and postulated four roots of
elements: earth, air, water, and fire.

d. Hippocrates about 400 B.C.

 Started the science of medicine and is known as the greatest physician of antiquity and
regarded as the father of medicine. He stated that the diseases have natural causes, and
the body has the power to repair itself. His name is always associated with Hippocratic
Oath, an oath traditionally taken by newly graduate physicians to observe ethical
standards of their profession.
e. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
 Regarded as the father of Biology, undertook a large-scale classification of plants and
animals. He introduced a method of scientific thinking that still plays a role today.

f. Archimedes (287-212 B.C.)

 Performs experiments which led him to discover the laws of the lever and the pulley
that resulted in the invention of the machines with could easily move loads. He
calculated the value of pi, which was a geometrical calculation that helped determine
the width, or circumference of a circle. He excelled in geometry, calculus, theoretical
mathematics, hydrostatics, and displacement.

g. Ptolemy, about 100 A.D.

 One of the greatest astronomers who founded the Geocentric theory (Earth-centered0
and wrote the Almagest.

h. Democritus
 Developed atomic theory; elaborated idea that matter consisted of atoms.

i. Pythagoras (497-581 B.C.)

 Mathematician, held that numbers were basic to matter; the Pythagorean Theorem

j. Plato
 Dealt with the nature of the universe; ascribed geometric forms composed of bounding
planes to the elements of earth, fire, air, and water based upon their physical
properties.

k. Aristarchus
 Both a mathematician and astronomer, Aristarchus discovered new theories about the
way planets move in their orbits. Aristarchus thought that even though earth revolved
around the sun, it also spun on its own axis, or spin-point, as it followed its orbit around
the sun.

l. Hipparchus
 Discovered the length of the month which is only one second off from the length that
we used today.

m. Eratosthenes
 Determined that the circumference of (the distance around) the earth was 28,000 miles,
which is only three thousand miles more than what we know today.

n. Theophrastus
 Regarded as the father of plant science, wrote “History of Plants” in which he described
the forms, behavior morphology, and properties of some 500 food and medicinal plants.
 Most outstanding botanist of the early botany. He wrote “Causes of Plants” in which he
described grafting methods, seeds, effect of temperature upon plants, the relations of
weather to soil and the taste and perfumes of plants. The manuscript also deals with the
medicinal uses of plant

Science and Technology Development

a. Alarm Clock
 One of the most utilized gadgets today was invented by ancient Greeks is the alarm
clock. Although the alarm clock during that time does not resemble the present-day
clocks, the purpose was just the same- to tell an individual when to stop or when to
start. The ancient Greek’s alarm clocks used large, complicated mechanisms time to
alarm. They made use of water (or sometimes small stones or sand) that dropped into
drums which sounded the alarm. Plato was believed to have utilized an alarm clock to
signal the start of his lecture. His version used four water vessels lined up vertically. The
upper vessel supplied the water which dropped to the vessel below it, which was set to
be filled in each time. After it was full, water was siphoned off at a faster rate into the
third vessel which caused the expulsion of contained air, creating a whistling noise.
Afterwards, this vessel would empty towards the bottom vessel for storage and reuse.
This invention according to the scientist resembles that of the Egyptians but this is more
complex but more accurate.

b. Water Mill
 Watermills were also considered as one of the most important contributions of the
Greek civilization to the world. They were commonly used in agricultural processes like
milling of grains which is necessary form of food processing during that time. Because
milling was made possible using watermills, the mass production of rice, cereals, flours,
and the like became common with the help of watermills. Modern-day watermills also
 help for converting mechanical energy into electricity which also leads to invention of
windmill and turbine.

II. Roman Civilization

Location

 Rome is the capital city of Italy. Roman civilization is characterized by a government headed by
emperors and large territorial holdings around the Mediterranean Sea in Europe, Africa, and
Asia. Today it is known as “the eternal city”. Latin is the language spoken by Romans.
 The Roman Empire was perceived to be the strongest political and social entity in the west.
Political because of its huge population and territory and social because of religion. It was
considered to be the cradle of politics and governance during the period. Because the Roman
Empire was so large, other civilizations looked up to it as their model in terms of legislation and
codified law. That is why many other civilizations were conquered by the Roman Empire
because of its existing laws which make it more complex and more stable compared to the other
civilizations or empire.

Science and Technology Development

a. Newspaper
 One of the major contributions of the Roman is the newspaper. The first newspapers,
known as gazettes, contained announcement of the Roman Empire to the people. Made
before the invention of paper, these gazettes were engraved in metal or stone tablets
and the publicly displayed. These documents were edited and published on the same
day that they were recorded. This way, the Romans enjoyed easy access to government
information the same way we benefit from present-day newspapers.
b. Bound Books or Codex
 With the invention of paper, it became easier for civilizations to write down everything
that happened in their time. Record-keeping was much easier since paper did not easily
break, was lightweight, and did not occupy much space. As a result, civilizations became
fond of record-keeping, especially documenting historical events and newly legislated
laws.
 The earlier covers were made of wax but were later replaced by animal skin which
proved to be stronger and longer lasting. The ancient Roman Empire was able to
produce the first books or codex.

c. Roman Architecture
 One of the most visual contributions of the ancient Roman Empire to the world. Roman
Architecture was considered a continuation of Greek architecture, hence, the
resemblance. However, Roman architecture was still regarded as pioneering since the
Romans were able to adapt new building and engineering technology on architectural
designs established in the past. This development in the field of engineering and
architecture was fully supported and funded by the Roman government so they were
able to implement major projects such as large churches (cathedrals and basilicas)
aqueducts, coliseum, amphitheaters, and even residential houses. These structures are
proofs of ancient Roman technology.
d. Roman Numerals
 Since the Roman Empire was expanding, it had to deal with many nations to maintain its
power. For this reason, the Romans devised their own number system specifically to
address the need for a standard counting method that would meet their increasing
communication and trade concerns. Although Roman numeral is not long widely used
today due to its inherent limitations, quite several enthusiasts would still use it over
other more popular number systems, like the Hindu-Arabic system, due to its aesthetic
and historical value.

e. Some of the Notable Roman Scientists

Galen (129-199 A.D.)

 Great physician and surgeon; Galen influenced the development of various
scientific disciplines, including anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology,
and neurology, as well as philosophy and logic.

Vitruvius
 Another writer whose work has provided us with important knowledge about
Ancient Rome. He was also an architect and am engineer sometimes referred to
as first architect.

Pliny
 Described almost thousand species of plants, most of which were highly valued
for their medicinal uses.
III. Chinese Civilization

Location

 Ancient China was built along two main rivers – first the Yellow River (Huang He) in the North,
and later the Yangtze in the South. China is one of the oldest civilizations and the world’s
populous country (Asia), with a population over 1.35 billion.
 The Chinese civilization is the oldest civilization in Asia, if not the world. Also known as the
middle kingdom, China. It was famous among ancient civilizations because of its silk trade.
Despite its less popular status among early civilizations, one cannot discredit the significant
contributions of Chinese civilization in the world.

Science and Technology Development

Various forms of sciences such as Astronomy, physics, chemistry, meteorology, seismology, have
originated from China.

a. Paper and Chinese Calligraphy

 Paper and Chinese calligraphy began writing about 1500 BC. The earliest writing that we
know of from China was on animal bones, which are called “oracle bones” because they
were used to tell the future.

b. Place Value Number System

 Decimal or base ten system was first developed by the Chinese. The earliest invention
was the abacus, a calculator that used sliding beads to help compute math problems
quickly.
c. Magnetic compass
 The compass was a wooden circle with markings on it, and a magnetic spoon on top,
used for religious purposes.

d. Silk
 One of the things that connected Far East China to world is silk. Although silk is naturally
produced by silkworms. The Chinese were the ones who developed technology to
harvest the silk and process it to produce paper and clothing. Silk production resulted in
the creation of a product for trade. The silk trade opened China to outside world,
making way for cultural, economic, and scientific exchanges.
e. Tea Production
 Tea is a beverage produced by pouring hot or boiling water over crushed or shredded
dried tea leaves. It was believed that the first tea was drunk by a Chinese emperor. Tea
production was developed when an unknown Chinese inventor created a machine that
was able to shred tea leaves into strips. This machine was done using a wheel-based
mechanism with a sharp edge attached to a wooden or ceramic pot. Tea production
developed by the ancient Chinese may have resulted in making tea as one of the most
popular beverages in the world today.

f. Great Wall of China

 Once considered the only man-made structure that could be seen from the outer space,
the Great Wall of China is said to be the largest and most expensive infrastructure that
the nation built. It was constructed to keep out foreign invaders and control the
boarders of China. The wall’s construction put the nation among the powerful
civilizations during the ancient times. It was the pride of their land and their crowning
glory. Today, with some sections already in ruins, the Great Wall continues to be a world
attraction due to its historical significance and architectural grandeur.
 g. Gun Powder
 The gunpowder is one of the most interesting inventions in China. Originally, it was
developed by Chinese alchemists who aimed to achieve immortality. They mixed
charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate, but instead of creating elixir of life, they
accidentally invented a black powder that could generate large amounts of heat and gas
in an instant. Ironically, instead of prolonging life, gunpowder is widely used to propel
bullets from guns and cannons which cause countless deaths. On the other hand,
gunpowder is also used in fireworks during important celebrations in China.

IV. Indus-Hindu Civilization

Location

 Early civilization of India emerged in river valleys, the valleys of the Indus River supported a
flourishing civilization that extended hundreds of miles from the Himalayas to the coast of the
Arabian Sea.
Science and Technology Development

 Two major cities were: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. At its height, Harappa had 35,000
inhabitants and Mohenjo-Daro had perhaps 35,000 to 40,000 inhabitants. Both cities were
planned carefully, most buildings were constructed of mud bricks baked in oven and were share
shaped, forming a grid pattern.

 Evidence showed that Indus valley civilization have public wells provided regular supply of water
for all the inhabitants and sanitation. All houses had their own private toilet which was
connected to a covered sewer network constructed brickwork held together with a gypsum-
based mortar emptied into the surrounding or into a cesspit. Also evident was the presence of
public and private baths, sewage, and sophisticated water management system.
 Aryabhata 500 AD
 Presented astronomical and mathematical system that took the earth to spin on its axis
and considered the motions of planets with respect to the sun (heliocentric) are
elliptical. He also made an accurate approximation of Earth’s circumference and
diameter, and also discovered how the lunar and solar eclipse happen for the first time.
He also propounded the Heliocentric Theory of gravitation, thus predating Copernicus
by almost one thousand years.
  Brahmagupta (598-668)
 Was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain; estimated in the 7th century
that the circumference of the earth was 500 yojanas or the estimate of 36,000 km which
comes quite close to the actual circumference known today. He had said about gravity
that “Bodies fall towards the Earth as it is in the nature of earth to attract bodies, just as
it is in the nature of water to flow.” He also made calculations of eclipses of the Sun and
the Moon.
 Rakesh Sharma 1984
 Became the first Indian to go to outer space.
 Jantar Mantar in Jaipur
 One of the six major observatories built by the Maharajah. The one in Jaipur not only
follows the movements of the sun and the moon to help determine auspicious dates of
events, it also helps map out the position of the stars in the sky.

MIDDLE AGES TO MODERN AGES INVENTORS AND INVENTIONS

The start of the Middle Ages was marred by massive invasions and migrations. Wars were prevalent
during this time. As such, great technology was needed in the field of weaponry, navigation, mass food
and farm production, and health. Most innovative minds came from this period to control the increase
of trade and commerce among nations.

1. MIDDLE AGES

 PRINTING PRESS

Johann Gutenberg was able to invent the printing press, a more reliable way of printing using a cast
type. This general invention soon evolved to be the mechanical printing press which was eventually used
all over the world. The printing press was invented to address the need for publishing books that would
spread information to many people at a faster rate. This invention also made works accessible to
individuals who could not even write.

 MICROSCOPE

Growing population is caused massive migration and urbanization during the period. More and more
people are transferred to polluted and populated urban areas which resulted in more people getting sick
and needing medical attention. To develop the proper medicines for the illness, experts must
understand the sickness through investigation that is why the invented this device to magnify the small
things that are invisible to the naked eye.

ZACHARIAS JANSSEN – was able to develop the first compound microscope. With this device, people
were able to observe organisms that were normally unseen by the naked eye.

 TELESCOPE

Since the Middle Ages was also known as the age of exploration, the need for nautical inventions was
high. Considering the vast and empty oceans that separated lands, ship captains needed to see far and
wide for them to navigate or avoid dangers at sea. Together with the telescope, the invention of the
compass, oars and rudders made sea travelling easier and safer.

The first person to apply for a patent for a telescope was Dutch eyeglass maker  Hans Lippershey. In
1608, Lippershey laid claim to a device that could magnify objects three times. His telescope had a
concave eyepiece aligned with a convex objective lens. One story goes that he got the idea for his design
after observing two children in his shop holding up two lenses that made a distant weathervane appear
close. Others claimed at the time that he stole the design from another eyeglass maker, Zacharias
Jansen.

 WAR WEAPONS

Since wars were widespread during the Middle Ages, great development in the weaponry technology
also occurred. One of the keys to gain victory during this time are well crafted bows, spears, even
armors which are used in close range hand-to-hand combat and for open-area battles. Additionally, in
close-range hand-to-hand combat, soldiers should wear something to protect themselves, a need
addressed by the creation of iron body armors. However, body armors were heavy and limited their
movements. The problem was eventually solved by the invention of the chainmail.

The booming world population during the nineteenth century onwards demanded that more goods be
produced at a faster rate. People needed efficient means of transportation to trade more goods and
cover a larger distance. Machines that required animals to operate must thus be upgrade. Faster and
easier means to communicate and compute should be developed to establish connections between and
among nations. Because of these, the birth of various industries takes place. However, due to massive
industrialization, the modern times again faced more complicated problems.

2. MODERN AGES

 PASTEURIZATION

As people were able to develop better means of production to meet the needs of the population, food
preservation and food safety became an issue. The challenge to keep manufactured from deteriorating
was greater for dairy products, especially milk, since they usually spoiled faster. If this food is not
consumed immediately after the production, it might lead to food poisoning, diphtheria, and typhoid
fever.    

Louise Pasture, a French biologist, microbiologist, and chemist, found a way to solve the problem. He
invented pasteurization, the process of heating dairy products to kill the harmful bacteria that allow the
m so spoil faster. Through this process, milk could be stored and consumed for a longer period.

 PETROLEUM 

The modern times demanded better means of powering homes and transportation. At first, people used
animal oils for generating light to illuminate their homes. However, the production of animal oils could
not keep up with the demand. Faced with this concern, Samuel M. Kier was able to invent kerosene by
refining petroleum. Kerosene was later referred to as the “illuminating oil” because it was used at first
to provide lighting to homes. After some time, it was applied for heating purpose. Nowadays, kerosene
is still present as still used by many people for powering automobiles, factories, and power plants,
among others.
TELEPHONE

What do you think is the first word ever spoken on the

telephone? It is “Mr. Watson, come here. I want to see you”

Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone and it was one

of the most important inventions at that time. But before, the

connection is very limited, the commoners cannot afford to

buy one, and it is not that reliable in terms of stability and

consistency. Nowadays, telephones are one of the necessities

in this fast-changing world. Millennials can no longer live

without it according to time magazine.

The more people got connected by trade and exploration, the more they need a way to easily maintain
these connections and communicate with each other in real time. Governments likewise needed
communication system which would allow them to administer their states well. Thus, the development
of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell was one of the most important inventions at the time.

What do you think is the first word ever spoken on the telephone? It is “Mr. Watson, come here. I want
to see you” Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone, and it was one of the most important
inventions at that time. But before, the connection is extremely limited, the commoners cannot afford
to buy one, and it is not that reliable in terms of stability and consistency. Nowadays, telephones are
one of the necessities in this fast-changing world.

 CALCULATOR

Although an earlier version of the calculator had already been developed, circumstances in the modern
times required a faster way to compute mire complicated equations. The creation of modern-day
calculator did not only pave the way for easier arithmetic calculations, but also resulted in the
development of more complex processing machines like computer. 

Pascaline, also called Arithmetic Machine, the first calculator or adding machine to be produced in any
quantity and actually used. The Pascaline was designed and built by the French mathematician-
philosopher, Blaise Pascal between 1642 and 1644. It could only do addition and subtraction, with
numbers being entered by manipulating its dials. Pascal invented the machine for his father, a tax
collector, so it was the first business machine too (if one does not count the abacus). He built 50 of them
over the next 10 years.

FILIPINO INVENTORS AND THEIR INVENTIONS

These inventions are being recognized and being used all over the world. According to the Filipino
Inventors Society Secretary Fortunato de la Pena, “we may lack of resources, but our minds are filled
with knowledge” which is true. As a Filipino, we know how to be patient and how to curl when the
blanket is short meaning, we find ways in every problem that we face.   The items discussed in this
chapter are only some of the great inventions and developments during the different time periods.
There are still more innovations and discoveries that were made in the course of history that changed
the world.

Despite being considered a developing country, the Philippines also contributes to the global
advancement of science and technology. We have a group of inventors called the Filipino Inventors
Society which aims to remedy the needs of the consumers by inventing useful machines that could help
us in our everyday living. These inventors are supported by the DOST or the Department of Science and
Technology.   Some of the world renounce Filipino inventions are the following:

1. FILIPINO INVENTORS AND THEIR INVENTIONS

 SALT LAMP

One of the major needs in the Philippines, as a developing nation is electricitification. In many rural
areas in the country, activities would cease when it gets dark.

Fortunately, a young Filipina inventor named Aisa Mijeno was able to invent a lighting system that
utilizes a material abundant in the Philipppines—saltwater. She invented the Sustainable Alternative
Lighting (SALt) Lamp, an environment-friendly light source that runs on saltwater. The salt lamp is safer
as it  poses no risk of fire and emits no toxic gas. Aside from people who live in coastal areas, it may also
benefit those from far-flung barrios because they can make their own saltwater by mixing two
tablespoons of salt and a glass of tap water.

 SALMANDER AMPHIBIOUS TRICYCLE

It has become ordinary for Filipinos to convert transportation vehicles into something more useful. An
example is the conversion of American military jeeps used in World War II into jeepneys. Another
Filipino innovation is the addition of sidecar to motorcycle, transforming it into a tricycle to
accommodate more passengers. During the rainy season, flooding is a common occurrence in many
areas in the country. Tricycles find it difficult to traverse the streets. To remedy the issue, H2O
Technologies headed by Dominic N. Chung and Lamberto Armada, together with Chief Designer Victor
“Atoy” Llave, was able to invent the salamander, an amphibious tricycle that can cross not only flooded
streets but also rivers and lakes.

 Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System

Dengue, a mosquito-borne viral illness is endemic in tropical and sub-tropical areas, including the
Philippines. This virus is usually transmitted by Aedes aegypti  mosquito, rampant during rainy season. In
2010, the Department of Science and Technology-Industrial Technology Development Institute (DOST-
ITDI) was able to introduce the Mosquito Ovicidal/Larvicidal Trap System, also known as OL trap. This
trap system is made of natural ingredients that are lethal to mosquitos but safe for humans and
environment.

 MEDICAL INCUBATOR
A common problem in the Philippines is high mortality rate of newborns babies. One reason for this
problem in the 20th century was the lack of available incubators especially in the far-flung rural areas due
to lack resources and electricity. 

Dr. Fe del Mundo, a Filipino pediatrician and the first Asian woman admitted into Harvard Medical
School, devised a medical incubator made from indigenous and cheap materials which did not run
electricity. Dr. del Mundo’s incubator was made by placing a native laundry basket inside a bigger one.
Hot water bottles were inserted between the baskets to provide warmth and a makeshift hood to allow
oxygen circulation. Other breakthroughs in Philippine medicine attributed to Dr. del Mundo include her
works on the immunization and treatment of jaundice and the BRAT diet for curing diarrhea.

 E-JEEPNEY

A major innovation that changed the transportation industry in the Philippines was the development of
the jeepney. This iconic public utility vehicle was built using the military jeeps left by the Americans after
World War II. However, the diesel-powered jeepney produces large quantities of black smoke and is
usually a major contributor of noise pollution due to its primitive exhaust system. To counter these
disadvantages, the electric jeepney (e-jeep) was developed. This modern type of transportation utilizes
electricity instead more expensive diesel. It is environment-friendly since it does not emit any smoke ad
noise.

INTELLECTUAL/SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION

1. DISCUSSION

The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when
developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, and chemistry transformed views of society
and nature.

The Scientific revolution began in Europe towards the end of Renaissance period and continued through
the late 18th century, influencing the intellectual social movement known as the Enlightenment.

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT:

COPERNICAN REVOLUTION

·       Nicolaus Copernicus, a polish mathematician, and astronomer, challenges the Ptolemaic model.

·       Heliocentric Theory

·       In 1543, he published De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Bodies)

·       It was eventually accepted by the people in a period which was called the birth of modern
astronomy.

GEO-HELIOCENTRIC THEORY

·       Tycho Brahe – He is known for his accurate and comprehensive astronomical and planetary
observations. He was assisted by Johannes Kepler where he used the information to develop his own
theories in Astronomy.
·       He proposed the theory (Geo-Heliocentric Theory) – which the Sun and moon orbited the earth
while other planets orbited the Sun.

·       In November 1572, he discovered the ‘Tycho Star’ or the ‘Star of 1572’, a dramatic supernova
believed to appear in Cassiopeia constellation which became the talk of Europe and the great Comet of
1577.

·       The crater Tycho on the moon named after him, as in the crater Tycho on Mars.

GALILEO GALILEI

·       Italian astronomer who demonstrated a projectile follows a parabolic path.

·       In 1608, he invented the telescope (spyglass) which employs a convex objective lens and concave
eyepiece.

·       He discovered mountains on the Moon, four biggest moons circling Jupiter, phases of Venus, which
suggested him that waning and waxing planet must circle the sun; discovered sunspots, Saturn rings.

·       1616, the year of the Infamous Injunction against Galileo, was warned by the Inquisition not to hold
or defend the hypothesis asserted in Copernicus’ on the Revolutions.

JOHANNES KEPLER

German astronomer who discovered three major laws of planetary motion, conventionally designated

as follows: (1) the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus; (2) the time necessary
to traverse any arc of a planetary orbit is proportional to the area of the sector between the central
body and that arc (the “area law”); and (3) there is an exact relationship between the squares of the
planets’ periodic times and the cubes of the radii of their orbits (the “harmonic law”).  Kepler himself did
not call these discoveries “laws,” as would become customary after Isaac Newton derived them from a
new and quite different set of general physical principles. He regarded them as celestial harmonies that
reflected God’s design for the universe. Kepler’s discoveries turned Nicolaus Copernicus’s Sun-centered
system into a dynamic universe, with the Sun actively pushing the planets around in noncircular orbits.
And it was Kepler’s notion of a physical astronomy that fixed a new problematic for other important
17th-century world-system builders, the most famous of whom was Newton.

ISAAC NEWTON

·       If Kepler’s laws define the motion of the planets, Newton’s laws define motion. Thinking on
Kepler’s laws, Newton realized that all motion, whether it was the orbit of the Moon around the Earth or
an apple falling from a tree, followed the same basic principles. Newton outlined his laws
in Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (“Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy,”)
published in 1687.

·       Law I. Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is
compelled to change that state by forces impressed thereon.

·       Law II. The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force impressed; and is made in
the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed.
·       Newton’s second law is most recognizable in its mathematical form, the iconic equation: F=ma. The
strength of the force (F) is defined by how much it changes the motion (acceleration, a) of an object with
some mass (m).

·       Law III. To every action there is always opposed an equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two
bodies upon each other are always equal and directed to contrary parts.

DARWINIAN REVOLUTION

·       Charles Darwin, an English naturalist, biologist, and geologist.

·       In 1859, he published his book, On the Origin of Species. In this book he introduced the  theory of
evolution, which posited that populations pass through a process of natural selection in which only
the fittest  would survive.

·       He stated that organisms can adapt to their environment and would gradually change into
something that would be more competitive to survive.

·       His theory became very controversial as people perceived it to be contradictory to the church’s
teachings that the source of life is a powerful creator.

EVOLUTION - is the biological change of a species over a span of time. The process of evolution keeps a
species alive and thriving and allows organisms to successfully pass down their genes. Keep reading for
examples of how different species evolve to best survive their surroundings.

The four mechanisms of evolution are:

·       mutation - a random or environmentally triggered genetic change

·       genetic drift - occurs when a portion of the population with distinctive genetic traits die out or move
away, forming two genetically distinct groups

·       gene flow - combining genetic pools of two similar species, which creates genetic diversity

·       natural selection - the ability of an organism to best survive its environment and choose an optimal
mate, successfully passing down its genes

FREUDIAN REVOLUTION

·       Psychology was considered more of an art rather than science.

·       In 19th century, Sigmund Freud was able to change people’s perception of psychology with his
revolutionary theory of psychoanalysis.

·       Psychoanalysis – is the study that explains human behavior.

·       Three conflicting elements: Id, Ego, Superego.

ID:

·       The id is the most basic part of the personality.

·       It also represents our most animalistic urges, like the desire for food and sex. The id seeks instant
gratification for our wants and needs. If these needs or wants are not met, a person can become tense,
anxious, or angry.

Example:

·       Sally was thirsty. Rather than waiting for the server to refill her glass of water, she reached across
the table and drank from Mr. Smith's water glass, much to his surprise.

EGO:

·       The ego deals with reality, trying to meet the desires of the id in a way that is socially acceptable in
the world. This may mean delaying gratification and helping to get rid of the tension the id feels if a
desire is not met right away. The ego recognizes that other people have needs and wants too and being
selfish isn't good in the long run.

Example:

·       Sally was thirsty. However, she knew that her server would be back soon to refill her water glass, so
she waited until then to get a drink, even though she just wanted to drink from Mr. Smith's glass.

SUPER EGO:

The superego develops last and is based on morals and judgments about right and wrong.

Even though the superego and the ego may reach the same decision about something,  the superego's
reason for that decision is based more on moral values, while the ego's decision is based more on what
others will think or what the consequences of an action could be on the individual.

Example:

The cashier only charged the couple for one meal even though they had eaten two.  They could have
gotten away with only paying for one, but they pointed out the cashier's mistake and offered to pay for
both meals. They wanted to be honest, and they knew that the restaurant owner and employees
needed to make a living.

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND NATION-BUILDING

1. PRE-COLONIAL

Scientific and technological development in the Philippines began in the pre-colonial period.  Even
before the Spaniards came to the Philippine Islands.

Science, in pre-Spanish Philippines, is embedded in the way of life of the people. Scientific knowledge is
observed in the way they plant their crops that provide them food, in taking care of animals to help
them in their daily tasks, and for food production. Science is observed in the way they interpret the
movements of heavenly bodies to predict seasons and climates, and in organizing days into months and
years. They use science in preparing the soil for agricultural purposes and like any other ancient
civilizations, they discovered the medicinal uses of plants.
Technology is used by people in building houses, irrigations, and in developing tools that they can use in
everyday life. They developed tools for planting, hunting, cooking, and fishing; for fighting their enemies
during war or tribal conflicts; and for transportation, both on land and on waterways. They also
developed technologies in creating musical instruments.

The different archeological artifacts discovered in different parts of the country also prove that the
Metal Age also had a significant influence on the lives of early Filipinos. The sophisticated designs of gold
and silver, jewelries, ceramics, and metal tools proved that their technological ideas help in the
development of different tools. Also, trading with China, Indonesia, Japan and other nearby countries
have influenced their lives by providing different opportunities for cultural and technological exchange.

2. COLONIAL PERIOD

COLONIAL PERIOD – SPANISH REGIME

• Colonization by the Spaniards provided the Philippines with modern means of construction. 

Walls, roads, bridges, and other large infrastructures were built using some of the engineering skills and
tools brought by the Spaniards.

• The Spanish Government developed health and educational systems that were enjoyed by the
principalia class.

• In 1611, UST was established. It was the oldest university in both in the Philippines and Asia.

• The Galleon trade and the opening of the Suez Canal brought opportunity for Filipinos to study
in Europe and get influenced by the rapid development of scientific ideals brought about by the age of
enlightenment finally on the later part of the 16th century.

• more schools were developed which opened more opportunities for Filipinos to learn science
and to ignite their curiosity towards the world.

COLONIAL PERIOD – AMERICAN REGIME

In contrast the Americans had more influence in the development of science and technology in the
Philippines there were simultaneous government encouragement and support for an extensive public
education system.

 Science research agencies were built to give science-based public services.

The Bureau of Public Works was created and by that time the Americans found out that there were no
competent Filipino engineers.  So, American engineers had to be imported from then on special efforts
were made to attract Filipinos to pursue advanced studies leading to careers as engineers. Upon
achieving their professional qualifications, they were employed as junior engineers.

In 1905, University of the Philippines was established and remains the only publicly supported
institution for higher education under the Bureau of Public Works.
The Bureau of Government Laboratories and the National Research Council of the Philippines were
also established. Even the study of tropical diseases and production of vaccines have been dealt with
and there were researches done to control malaria cholera and tuberculosis and other tropical diseases

However, World War II has destabilized the development of the country in many ways. Institutions and
public facilities were turned into ashes, houses were burned, and many lives were destroyed. The
country had a difficult time to rebuild itself from the ruins of the war. The human spirit to survive and
rebuild the country may be strong but the capacity of the country to bring back what was destroyed
was limited.  The reparation funds focused on building some institutions and public facilities like school,
hospitals, and transportation systems. The reparation money from Japan was also concentrated on
building highways and in providing technological training and human resource development in the
country.

Since the establishment of new republic, the whole nation has been focusing on using its limited
resources in improving science and technological capability. It has explored the use of ODA or Overseas
Development Allocations from different countries to help the country improve its scientific productivity
and technological capability. Human resource development is at the heart of these efforts focusing on
producing more engineers, scientists, technology experts, doctors, and other professionals in the
history.

3. POST- COLONIAL

One of the presidents who ushered in advancements in science and technology was former
president, FERDINAND MARCOS. Under his term, many agencies in science and technology was
established and strengthened.

·       The Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration or (PAG-ASA)

·       The Philippine National Oil Company

·       The International Rice Research Institute

·       The Philippine Coconut Research Institute

·       The Philippine Council for Agriculture and Fisheries

CORAZON AQUINO

National Science and Technology was renamed to DOST (Department of Science and Technology)

FIDEL V. RAMOS

·       R.A. 8439 or the magna carta for Scientist Engineers, Researchers and other Science and Technology
in the government

·       R.A. 74: the inventors and inventions incentive act to promote and encourage the creation and
manufacture Philippine inventions.
·       R.A. 8293 or the intellectual property code of the Philippines to give people and business property
the right to the information and intellectual goods

·       The doctors to the barrio program that made healthcare accessible in far-flung areas in the country.

JOSEPH ESTRADA

·       R.A. 8749 or the Philippine clean air act of 1999 the comprehensive air quality management policy
and program which aims to achieve and maintain healthy air for Filipinos

·       R.A. 87 or the electronic commerce act of 2000 providing for the recognition and use of electronic
commercial and non-commercial transactions

GLORIA MACAPAGAL ARROYO

·       She launched a drive to encourage technological innovation which was coined as FILIPINNOVATION
to refer to the Philippines as an innovation hub in Asia.

·       R.A. 9367 or the biofuels act to utilize indigenous materials as resources or sources of energy.

BENIGNO AQUINO III

While there were not much scientific programs and laws made during his government, he named some
new scientists, and they are:

·       GAVINO TRONO - who made extensive studies on seaweeds with species which helped families in
the coastal populations.

·       ANGEL ALCALA - who made major contributions to marine biology research efforts in the Philippines

·       RAMON BARBA - who studied the induction flowering of mango and micro propagation of
important crop species.

·       EDGARDO GOMEZ - who led the first national scale assessment of damaged coral reefs which led to
a national conservation program such as replanting corals.

RODRIGO ROA DUTERTE

·       the current administration of Rodrigo Duterte through the Philippine space technology program
launched the Diwata 2 in 2018. After the launch of the Diwata 1 in 2016 that displayed the Philippine
flag and space.

·       R.A. 11305 an act institutionalizing the Balik Scientist Program was signed into law by the president
on June 15, 2018. This law aimed to give more incentives to returning Filipino experts scientists
inventors and engineers who would share expertise.

·       Moreover, 271 new weather stations were installed by the department of science and technology
throughout the country.

FAMOUS FILIPINO SCIENTISTS IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

·       Abelardo Aguilar helped in the invention of the antibiotic erythromycin from a strain of bacterium
called streptomyces erythreus.

·       Gregorio Zara invented the videophone or a two-way television but sent it as a photo signal

separator network.

·       Fabian Dairyt contributed for his research on herbal medicine

·       Diosdado Banatao a Cagayano, who is most known for introducing the first single chip graphical
use interface or JUI accelerator that made computers work faster and for helping develop internet
controller chip that made internet possible.

·       Daniel Dingel the inventor of water powered car in 1969 is also included on the list his hydrogen
reactor uses electricity to transform ordinary top water with salt into deuterium oxide or heavy water.

·       Gregory Ligot Tangonan was also credited for his research in the field of communications and
technology.

·       Fe del Mundo invented the incubator. An incubator is an apparatus used to maintain

environmental conditions suitable for newborn babies.

·       Lourdes Cruz was also noted for her research on sea snail venom.