MORPHOLOGY OF

PROKARYOTES AND

EUKARYOTES

PRESENTED BY

DHANUSH PRABHAKAR V
 PROKARYOTIC CELL:

 A prokaryotic cell is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that

lacks a nucleus, or any other membrane-bound organelle. Prokaryotic
DNA is found in the central part of the cell: a darkened region called
the nucleoid. Prokaryotes are represented by bacteria, blue-green algae,
mycoplasma and PPLO (Pleuro pneumonia like organisms).

A PROKARYOTIC CELL
  Some prokaryotes have flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for
locomotion, while most pili are used to exchange genetic material during
a type of reproduction called conjugation. Many prokaryotes also have
a cell wall and capsule. The cell wall acts as an extra layer of protection,
helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration. The capsule
enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment.

 Prokaryotes come in various shapes, but many fall into three categories:
(a)cocci (spherical), (b) bacilli (rod-shaped), and (c) spirilli.

CELL ENVELOPE:

 Most prokaryotic cells, particularly the bacterial cells have a chemically

complex cell envelope. It consists of a three-layered structure i.e., the
outermost glycocalyx followed by the cell wall and the plasma
membrane.
 Glycocalyx is the outermost layer with a coating of mucous or
polysaccharide macromolecules which protects the cells and help in
adhesion.

 Some have a loose sheath called slime layer, which protects from loss of
water and nutrients. Others have a thick and tough capsule called
capsule. It allows bacterium to hide from the host’s immune system.

 Cell wall determines the shape of the cell and provides strong structural
support. This layer is rigid due to a macromolecule called
peptidoglycan.

 Gram positive bacteria has a thick peptidoglycan and no outer lipid

membrane whilst Gram negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan and
a lipid membrane.
 The plasma membrane is selectively permeable in nature. A special
membranous structure is the mesosome which is formed by the
invagination of plasma membrane into the cell.

 These are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae. They help in cell
wall formation, DNA replication and distribution of daughter cells.
Mesosome is found in Gram positive bacteria. In cyanobacteria and
purple bacteria, chromatophores are seen which contain pigments.
RIBOSOME AND INCLUSION BODIES:

 In prokaryotes, ribosomes are associated with the plasma membrane.

They are about 15 nm by 20 nm in size and made up of two subunits- 50
S and 30 S which form 70 S ribosome.

 They are the site of protein synthesis. Cytoplasmic ribosomes synthesize

proteins which remain inside whereas the ribosomes on the plasma
membrane make proteins that are transported outside. Several
ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form polysomes.

 Reserve food material is stored in the cytoplasm as inclusion bodies.

They lie free in the cytoplasm and are not membrane bound. Eg:
Phosphate granules, Glycogen granules.
  Some inclusion bodies may be surrounded by a single layer non unit
membrane, which is 2-4 nm thick. Eg: Gas vacuoles which are seen in
blue-green algae.

EUKARYOTIC CELL:

 Eukaryotic cells possess an organized nucleus with a nuclear envelope.

Some important characteristics of eukaryotic cells are cytoskeletal
structure, membrane-bound organelles and organization of genetic
material into chromosomes.

 These cells occur in protista, fungi, plants and animals. It is simply a

prokaryotic cell covered by a cell envelope.
PLASMA/CELL MEMBRANE:

 Composed of lipids arranged in a bilayer. They are arranged with the

polar head towards the outer sides and the non-polar tails towards the
inner side. They also possess protein and carbohydrates.

 The peripheral proteins lie on the surface while the integral proteins are
partially or totally buried in the membrane. The membrane is described
as Protein icebergs floating in sea of phospholipids.

 This fluid nature is important for cell growth, secretion, cell division.
The membrane transports molecules selectively and occurs passively
(without energy) and actively (requires energy).
CELL WALL:

o Fungal cell wall – Chitin, a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine (NAG)

units.
o Algal cell wall – Cellulose, galactans, mannans and calcium carbonate.
o Plant cell wall – Cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins.

The cell wall maintains shape of the cells, protects the cells from mechanical
injury and wards off attacks of pathogens like viruses, fungi, etc.

ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM:

The interior of a eukaryotic cell is composed of many membrane bound

organelles. They are:

 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi complex
 Lysosomes
 Vacuoles

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM:

 It is a network of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm.

 It is of two types namely: Smooth ER (without ribosome) and Rough ER
(with ribosome).
  It is specialized in the synthesis of lipids and steroids, detoxification of
drugs, muscle contraction by release and uptake of Ca2+, and passes the
products of RER to Golgi complex.

GOLGI APPARATUS:

♦ First observed by Camillo Golgi in 1898. It is present in eukaryotic cells

except in mature sieve tubes of plants, mature RBCs of mammals and
sperm cells of bryophytes and pteridophytes. Called as dictyosomes in
plants.

♦ There are four parts namely cisternae, tubules, vesicles and golgian
vacuoles.
 ♦ The important function is to process, package and transport the
materials for secretions. It is the site of formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids. Root cap cells are rich in Golgi bodies which secrete
mucilage for the lubrication of root tip. Acrosome of the sperm is
modified Golgi apparatus. It also helps in formation of plasma
membrane during cytokinesis.

LYSOSOMES:

 They are tiny, spherical sac-like structures in the cytoplasm. Formed by

the packaging in the Golgi apparatus. They are bound by a single
membrane. They are rich in hydrolytic enzymes (lipases, proteases).

 They are divided into Primary, Secondary lysosomes, Residual bodies

and Autophagic vacuoles (suicidal bags).
VACUOLES:

 Vacuole is the membrane-bound space in the cytoplasm. It contains

water, sap, excretory products and other not useful materials. Also
called Sap vacuoles.
 In plants, they occupy 90% of the volume of the cell. They are bound by
a single, semi-permeable membrane called tonoplast.
 It is of the following types: Contractile (helps in excretion), Food and
Gas (provide buoyancy).
MITOCHONDRION:

 It is cylindrical or sausage-shaped double membraned organelle in the

cytoplasm. It is stained using Janus green to make them visible.

 Mitochondria are surrounded by two membranes namely outer and

inner. The outer membrane is smooth and forms continuous limiting
boundary of the mitochondria whereas the inner membrane forms a
number of infoldings called the cristae.

 Outer membrane is chemically 40% lipid and 60% proteins and the
inner membrane is 80% protein and 20% lipid and also rich in
cardiolipins.

 The matrix contains single circular dsDNA, a few RNA molecules, 70 S

ribosomes. It also consists enzymes for TCA cycle.

 The enzymes and electron carriers for formation of ATP are present
only in the inner membrane.
 The cristae and the inner face of the inner membrane is studded with
elementary particles or Particles of Fernandez and Moran or F1
particles or oxysomes. Each oxysome is differentiated into base, stalk
and head piece. The head piece contains enzyme ATP synthetase which
brings oxidative phosphorylation with release of ATP.

 Mitochondria are main sites of aerobic respiration. Energy released is

stored in the form of ATP. It helps to perform processes like muscle
contraction, nerve impulse conduction. Because of the formation of
ATP, mitochondria are called the power house of the cell.
PLASTIDS:

 Found in all plant cells and euglenoids. Depending on the color and
pigment, they are of three types: leucoplasts, chromoplasts and
chloroplasts.

 Leucoplasts are colorless plastids occurring in non-green cells. Types of

leucoplasts are amyloplast (starch), elaioplast (fats and oils), aleuroplast
(proteins).

 Chromoplasts are yellow, orange in color due to carotenoid pigments.

They are formed either from leucoplasts or chloroplasts.

 Chloroplasts are greenish plastids which possess photosynthetic

pigments, chlorophylls and carotenoids.
 Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound organelles having outer and
inner membrane. The space enclosed by the inner membrane is called
the stroma. Stroma contains a large number of flattened membranous
sacs called thylakoids which are arranged like a pile of coins called
grana.

 The thylakoids of different grana are connected by tubules called

stroma lamellae. The stroma of chloroplast contains enzymes for
synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins. It also contains small, double-
stranded circular DNA and ribosomes (70S).
  The chloroplasts perform functions like photosynthesis and storage of
starch.

NUCLEUS:

♦ Nucleus is a large organelle which controls all the activities of the cells.
It is differentiated into nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus and
chromatin.

♦ Nuclear envelope separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm. It has an

outer and inner membrane. The outer membrane is often connected to
ER.

NUCLEOPLASM:
  It is a transparent, semi-fluid and colloidal substance which fills the
nucleus. It contains nucleolus and chromatin.

NUCLEOLUS:

o It is a spherical structure in the nucleoplasm. It is not separated from

the nucleoplasm as it is not bounded by a membrane. It is the site of
ribosomal RNA synthesis. Thus, nucleoli are larger and numerous in
cells that are actively involved in protein synthesis.

CHROMATIN:

It is essentially composed of DNA and basic proteins called histones. It also

contains RNA and non-histone proteins. These proteins package DNA into
compacted structures called chromosomes.

CHROMOSOMES:

 A chromosome consists of two identical halves, the chromatids which

are held together at one point called centromere. It appears as a narrow
region called primary constriction, of the chromosome.

 On the sides of centromere, disc shaped kinetochores are seen. Ends of

the chromosome are called telomeres. They seal the ends of
chromosomes and prevent their shortenings.
 Depending on the position of centromere, they are classified as:
Metacentric, Sub-metacentric, Acrocentric and Telocentric.

 Metacentric – The centromere is at the centre and thus during anaphase

divides the chromosome into two equal arms (Isobrachial). They appear
V-shaped.
 Sub-metacentric – The centromere is present slightly away from the
centre of a chromosome or nearer to one end of a chromosome. As a
result, chromosome is divided into one shorter and one longer arm
(Heterobrachial). They appear L-shaped during anaphase.

 Acrocentric – The centromere is present very close to one end of the

chromosome. Thus, it forms one extremely short and one very long arm.
They appear J-shaped during anaphase.
 Telocentric – The centromere is present at the terminal end of the
centromere and thus, chromosome appear to have a single arm. They
appear I-shaped during anaphase.
MICROBODIES:

Many single membrane-bound minute vesicles called microbodies that contain

various enzymes are present in both plant and animal cells. They are
associated with oxidation reactions other than those of respiration. These
include:

 Peroxisomes
 Sphaerosomes
 Glyoxysomes

DIFFERENCE BTW PRO AND EUKARYOTIC CELL

REFERENCES:

 Prescott’s Microbiology, 8th Edition.

 Microbiology, 5th Edition.
 Cell Biology, 2nd Edition.
 The Cell, 5th Edition.