2.

LINEAR DYNAMICS OF PARTICLES

A particle is a body whose physical dimensions are small enough that they can be neglected and the
body treated as a point mass. What small enough means depends on the situation. For example the
Shuttle Orbiter is 37.2m long, but can still be treated as a particle when calculating its orbital motion.

We will start off by considering linear motion (motion in a straight line) of particles. Because the
particle moves in a straight line we can think of its position, velocity and acceleration as being scalar
quantities rather than vectors. This gives you a chance to understand the mechanics without getting
confused by vectors. When we study general motion of particles later on we will have to use vectors.

2.1 Kinematics
Meriam & Kraige 2/2; Bedford &Fowler 2.2
Kinematics is the study of motion without reference to how the motion is
caused.
s

O v

The position of a particle is measured from a fixed point O (for origin). The velocity of the particle
is the rate of change of its position:

ds
=
v =( s ) (2.1)
dt

The dot over the s is shorthand for d dt . Acceleration is rate of change of velocity, so

dv d 2 s
=
a = =( 
s) (2.2)
dt dt 2

The double dot over the s is shorthand for d 2 dt 2 .

Velocity and acceleration are positive in the same direction as position.

Now introduce the notation s1 is the position at time t1 and s2 is the position at time etc. By
integrating the expressions for velocity and acceleration we can write
t2 t2

s2 − s1 =∫ vdt and v2 − v1 =∫ adt

t =t1 t =t1

s2
s1

O v1 v2

If the acceleration a is constant we can write the simple equations

v2 =v1 + a ( t2 − t1 ) (2.3)
1
s2 = s1 + v1 ( t2 − t1 ) + a ( t2 − t1 )
2
(2.4)
2

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 5

Combining these equations gives the further equation

v12 2a ( s2 − s1 )
v22 =+ (2.5)

These last equations are valid for constant acceleration only.

A common situation is when a is a function of v: a = f (v) . An example is

when a drag force (proportional to the square of velocity) acts on a particle.
2 t 2v
dv dv
We have = f ( v ) and integrating both sides gives ∫ dt = t2 − t1 = ∫
dt =t t1= v v1
f (v)

2.2 Kinetics
Kinetics is the study of how forces acting on something change its motion.

2.2.1 Equation of Motion

Meriam & Kraige 3/4; Bedford & Fowler 3.4

s m
O F
a
N2: F is the sum of the forces acting on the particle so we can write
F = ma (2.6)

The sense for positive force and positive acceleration must be the same (in the
picture above it’s left to right).

EXAMPLE 2.1: BUNGEE JUMPING

A bungee jumper of mass m jumps from the deck of the Clifton Suspension Bridge. The distance to
the bottom of the gorge is D. We want to choose the original (un-stretched) length of bungee L so
that the jumper stops just short of the bottom. In other words we want sMAX ≤ D , where s is the
distance fallen by the bungee jumper measured downwards from the bridge deck.

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 6

We need to know the stiffness of the bungee (which we assume to be linear elastic). We can find
this by applying a known force F to a sample of the bungee of original length l and measuring the
end displacement δ . The stiffness λ is defined by:
δ
λδ l
=
F =( λε )
l F
Now from s = 0 to s = L the jumper is in free fall with an acceleration downwards equal to g. The
velocity of the jumper when s = L (just as the bungee becomes tight) is given by v = 2 gL

From s = L to s = sMAX the bungee is being stretched. Applying N2:

λ ( s − L)
mg − ma ( ms)
==
L s λ ( s − L)
F=
and rearranging: L
λs λ

s+ =g+
mL m mg
This is a differential equation. The solution is:
mgL
s A cos ω t + B sin ω t +
= +L
λ
This is the equation for simple harmonic motion (SHM) with

λ
ω=
mL
A and B are constants found from the initial conditions as follows:

mgL
If we set time t = 0 when s = L we have A = −
λ

2mg
− Aω sin ω t + Bω cos ω t and when t = 0 , s = 2 gL so B = L
By differentiation s =
λ

mgL 2mg mgL

Therefore we have s =
− cos ω t + L sin ω t + +L
λ λ λ

We want to find sMAX which occurs when s = 0 . Solving for t and making substitutions results in:

 mg  2λ  
sMAX = L 1 + 1 + 1 + 
 λ  mg  

We can check that the equation makes dimensional sense. We see that it does because sMAX and L
have the same units (metres) and mg and λ have the same units (Newtons).

We can also check whether the equation is sensible by examining some special cases. Let’s see what
happens if we make λ large compared to mg. We can then simplify the equation as follows:

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 7

  mg  2λ  
sMAX = L 1 + 1 + 1 + 
 λ  mg  
 mg  2λ  
≈ L 1 + 1 + 
 λ  mg  
 mg  2λ    2mg 
≈ L 1 +    = L 1 + 
 λ  mg    λ 
≈L
This result makes sense because if the stiffness of the bungee is very high compared to the mass of
the jumper it won’t stretch much during the jump. It doesn’t make for a very comfortable jump of
course.

To make the problem tractable we made a few assumptions: we neglected drag and we made the
bungee linear.

We won’t be able to find a nice solution to the more general case.

Instead we could use a computer to model the situation. It is interesting
F
to see how this would be achieved.

For the behaviour of the bungee we would write F = F ( ε ) which means

the force in the bungee is a function of the strain. Drag is roughly
proportional to velocity squared and again may be found from tests (in a ε
wind tunnel). So P = P ( v )

The drag force on an object may be calculated using the empirical formula:
1 
P = CD A  ρ v 2 
2 
where P is the drag force, CD is the drag coefficient (different for different
shaped bodies) and A is the cross sectional area of the body.

Applying N2 again we now have mg − P ( v ) − F ( ε ) = ma but how can this be solved? Because
computers are good at doing the same calculation over and over again the answer is to solve the
problem incrementally (in steps). We choose a small increment of time ∆t , say 1 millisecond. We
use the notation si is the distance s at the end of the i’th increment.

(i) We start by putting s0 = 0 , v0 = 0 and use N2 to give a0 = g (just as the jumper jumps off the
bridge).
(ii) We find the distance travelled at the end of the first increment (after ∆t of time) by
P ( v0 ) F ( ε 0 )
s1 = s0 + v0 ∆t and the velocity by v1 = v0 + a0 ∆t . We use N2 to find a1 =
g− −
m m
where ε 0 is the initial strain in the bungee (which is 0 because the bungee hasn’t stretched
yet).
(iii) We find the distance travelled at the end of the second increment (after 2∆t of time) by
P ( v1 ) F ( ε1 )
s2 = s1 + v1∆t and the velocity by v2 = v1 + a1∆t . We use N2 to find a2 = g− −
m m
(iv) We keep repeating this process. We’d have to put a line in the program to stop if the distance
fallen exceeds the depth of the gorge or if the bungee jumper dies of old age.

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 8

2.2.2 Work and Energy
Meriam & Kraige 3/6, 3/7; Bedford & Fowler 4.2, 4.3
Force F acting on a particle moving through a small distance ds does work dU (measured in Joules)
given by dU = Fds . (Because ds is a small distance, the force is assumed to be roughly constant.)
When the particle moves through a finite distance the work done is given by
s2

U1→2 = ∫
s = s1
Fds (2.7)

where U1→2 means the work done on the particle moving it from position 1 to position 2.

s ds

O F

If the force F is constant the work done is= U F ( s2 − s1 ) . If F is not constant it is necessary to
know how F varies with s in order to evaluate the integral.

Note that the positive direction for F is the same as the positive direction for s. It is possible for the
work done by the force F to be positive or negative.

The kinetic energy T of a particle is defined as

1 2
T= mv (2.8)
2

Kinetic energy is always positive. If we consider two positions, 1 and 2, then we can write
∆T = T2 − T1 , or the difference in kinetic energy between position 2 and position 1 is ∆T . In general
∆T can be positive or negative.

We can say that the work done by a force acting on a particle is equal to the particle’s change in
kinetic energy.

U1→2 = ∆T

9 atoms of anti-hydrogen were made at CERN in 1995

Now, burning 1 kg of matter and 1 kg of antimatter provides 2c= 2
1.8 ×1017 J
of energy so if the USS Enterprise weighs 5×109 kg, how much matter and
antimatter must be burnt to go from rest to 0.9 times the speed of light?
Answer: 1×109 kg of matter and 1×109 kg of antimatter.

The power P of a force (measured in Watts) is its rate of doing work.

 ds 
= =
P Fv  F  (2.9)
 dt 

The rate of work done by the force is equal to the rate of change of kinetic energy.
dT
= =
P Fv
dt

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 9

 If your car has a more powerful engine it will be able to change the kinetic
energy of your car more quickly.

1 2
If we take T = mv and differentiate it (keeping m constant) we get
2
dT dT
= mav (a is dv dt ). Therefore we can write = P Fv = = mav . Notice
dt dt
that this is N2 where both sides have been multiplied by v.

It is usual to think of the work done by a gravity force as a change of gravitational potential energy.
The change in gravitational potential energy is ∆Vg given by

∆Vg = mg ( h2 − h1 ) = mg ∆h (2.10)

where h1 is the vertical distance above some datum position. If the vertical distance increases from
h1 to h2 then the gravitational potential energy increases and ∆Vg is positive.

Similarly it is usual to think of the work done by a spring force as a change of elastic potential
energy. If we write x for the extension of the spring and k for the spring stiffness we have F = kx . If
we stretch (for a tension spring) from an extension of x1 to an extension of x2 we can find the
change in elastic potential energy ∆Ve stored by the spring as

x2

k ( x22 − x12 )
1
∆=
Ve ∫
x = x1
=
kxdx
2
(2.11)

We now write an alternate form of the earlier equation

U1→2 = ∆T + ∆Vg + ∆Ve (2.12)

where U1→2 is now the work done on the particle by forces other than gravity and spring forces. If
there are no such forces then we get
∆T + ∆Vg + ∆Ve = 0 (2.15)

Eurostar (2002)
Maximum power = 12.2 MW (16300 HP)
Mass = 793 tonnes (793×103 kg)
Maximum power per tonne = 15.4 kW
GWR King plus train (1927)
Maximum power = 1.1 MW (1500 HP)
Mass = 500 tonnes (500×103 kg)
Maximum power per tonne = 2.2 kW
How did the King manage?
Answer: It accelerated and climbed gradients much more slowly.

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 10

 EXAMPLE 2.2 : BUNGEE JUMPING AGAIN
As before, we want to find maximum distance sMAX fallen by the bungee jumper for a bungee of
original length L.

The kinetic energy of jumper is zero when s = 0 and also when s = sMAX .

∆Vg =
−mgsMAX (jumper loses gravitational potential energy)

1λ
=
∆Ve ( sMAX − L ) (bungee gains elastic potential energy).
2

2L
Note the different form of the expression for ∆Ve because we chose to define the stiffness of the
bungee by F = λε , not F = kδ (If we had defined the stiffness by F = kδ , we would have a different
value for k for different lengths of bungee). So
1λ
= ( sMAX − L ) which is a quadratic equation in sMAX and can be solved to give
2
mgsMAX
2L
 mg  2λ  
sMAX = L 1 + 1 + 1 + 
 λ  mg  

2.2.3 Linear Momentum

Meriam & Kraige 3/9; Bedford & Fowler 5.1-5.2
Consider a force acting on a particle that varies in
Force (N)

time, starting and returning to zero. The integral of

the force with respect to time is called the impulse.
We can find the effect of an impulse acting on a
particle from N2.
t1 t2 Time (s)
If we integrate N2 with respect to time we obtain
t2 t2

∫ Fdt
=t t1=t t1
= ∫ madt
= mv2 − mv1 (2.13)

t2

where v1 is the velocity of the particle when t = t1 . The quantity ∫ Fdt

t =t1
is the impulse and the

quantity mv2 − mv1 the change in linear momentum of the particle or ∆G , where G is the linear
momentum defined by

G = mv (2.14)

2.2.4 Collisions
Meriam & Kraige 3/12; Bedford & Fowler 5.3
When two particles collide, the force exerted by particle A on particle B is equal and opposite to the
force exerted by particle B on particle A (N3). Therefore the impulse on particle A is equal and

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 11

opposite to the impulse on particle B. The sum of the linear momentum of the two particles is
conserved.

mAvbefore
A + mB vBbefore =mAv Aafter + mB vBafter (2.15)

where mA is the mass of particle A and vbefore

A is the velocity of particle A before the collision.

Before collision Collision After collision

v before
A vBbefore v Aafter vBafter

The precise velocities of the particles after the collision depend on the type of collision. The two
extremes are a perfectly plastic impact where the two particles stick together and a perfectly elastic
impact where the relative velocities before and after the collision are the same. Kinetic energy is
conserved only for a perfectly elastic impact. A real collision lies between these two extremes. The
coefficient of restitution, e, is a measure of the type of collision.

vBafter − v Aafter
e= (2.16)
vbefore
A − vBbefore

For a perfectly plastic collision e = 0 ( vBafter = v Aafter ), while for a perfectly elastic collision e = 1
( vBafter − v Aafter = vbefore
A − vBbefore ).

EXAMPLE 2.3 : LINKED MOTION OF PARTICLES

Two particles A and B of masses mA and mB are connected together by
light, inextensible cord as shown in the figure. Between the particles the
cord runs over light, frictionless pulleys. The particles are released
together from rest. Find the subsequent acceleration of particle A.

The first thing we need to do is to sort out the kinematics of the system.
The way we do this is to measure the displacement of the particles A B
relative to their initial position and then develop a relationship between
these displacements. This can be a bit confusing so here are two
methods for deriving the kinematic relationship.

Method 1 b
a
For method 1 we’ll find a general equation giving the total length of
the cord. Since the length of the cord remains constant we’ll easily be
able to relate the displacements of the particles. To start with we A B
draw the particles in their initial positions and label the distances in
the figure a and b. We also say the radius of the pulleys is given by r.
The length of the cord is then L =a + 2b + 2π r .
b
We now draw the particles in their displaced positions, defining the a
displacement of the particles by s A and sB . The length of the cord is
sA A
now given by L =( a − s A ) + 2 ( b + sB ) + 2π r . Since L is a constant we sB
must have − s A + 2 sB =
0 which is the required kinematic relationship.
B

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 12

Method 2

For method 2 we’ll just look at the pulley supporting particle B. A pulley
behaves instantaneously like a lever so we can find the kinematic relationship
by considering a small displacement of the lever. The displacement of the
left hand end of the lever is the same as that of particle A. The displacement
of the right hand end must be zero. Finally, the displacement of the centre of sB
sA
the lever is the same as particle B. The kinematic relationship can therefore
be found to be sB = s A 2 , the same relationship found using Method 1.

Once we have found the relationship − s A + 2 sB = 0 linking the displacements of the particles, we can
differentiate it with respect to time to link the velocities: −v A + 2vB =
0 and differentiate it once again
to link the accelerations:

− a A + 2aB =
0 (1)

The next step is to apply the equation of motion (N2) to each of the particles in turn. The first thing
to realise is that the tension in the cord is everywhere the same. (The tension would only be different
is the pulleys themselves have some inertia - this case will be covered in a later example).

We now apply N2 to each of the particles. For particle A we get T

T − mA g =
mA a A (2)
A aA
where T is the tension is the cord. For particle B
mB g − 2T = mB a B (3) mA g T T

We must be careful to take the direction for positive force in the same direction as
for positive motion. For particle B for example, it would have been wrong to write aB
2T − mB g = mB a B . B

From equations (2) and (3) we can eliminate the tension T to give: mB g

mB g − 2mA g = 2mA a A + mB aB

Now we can use equation (1) to replace aB with a A 2 giving

mB
mB g − 2mA g = 2mA a A + aA
2
Hence:

aA =
( mB − 2mA ) g
2mA + mB 2

Dynamics of Rigid Bodies 13