Stability

To be or not to be… stable!!

time
time

(a) (b)

time

(c)
Introduction

 The predominant objective of system analysis is the

determination of certain systems characteristics such
as system stability, the transient behavior, etc.
 However, knowing whether a system is absolutely
stable or not is insufficient information for most
practical purposes.
 If a system is stable, we want to know how close it is to
being unstable.
 If the system is stable, we want to know the characteristics
of the dynamic response, such as oscillatory behavior,
degree of oscillations, etc.
Models and Stability

Direct solution of the system equations may

be employed to analyze the dynamic behavior
of the process, however they may not be
appropriate for our specific task.

There are several techniques available to

analyze the response characteristics of a
given system without the need of solving it.
Qualitative Analysis
 Dynamic response of output y(s):

y s  g s u s 
Stability is determined

zs  by the roots of

g s  polynomial p(s)
ps  poles

If we know the location of the poles of a system, we can

determine the qualitative characteristics of the response
of a system to a particular input.
Qualitative Analysis

 Why the poles?

y (t )  c1 e p1t
 c2  e p2 t
 ....  cn  e pn t

general solution of an nth-order

differential equation

If any of the pi (i=1,..,n) is positive, the corresponding exponential function

will grow with time.
If all the pi (i=1,..,n) are negative all the exponential terms will decay with
time.
Qualitative Analysis

 What if:
1. poles are real and positive
2. poles are real and negative
3. poles are complex
• real part positive
• real part negative
• real part equal to zero
Qualitative Analysis
CASE 1:

ci e pi t
Exponential growth
pi  0
time

CASE 2:
ci e pi t
Exponential decay
pi  0
time
Qualitative Analysis
CASE 3:
 Complex poles always i  0
appear in conjugate pairs.
pi   i   i j
time

 These roots give rise to

terms like
et sin t   i  0

time
oscillations..
Qualitative Analysis

i  0
If the real part equal to
zero

time
sustained oscillations
Stability of Dynamic Systems

 A dynamic system is considered to be

stable if

..for every bounded input, it produces a

bounded output, regardless of its initial
state..

The location of the poles of a transfer

function gives us the first criterion for
checking the stability of a system.
Stability of Dynamic Systems

If the transfer function of a dynamic system

has even one pole with a positive real part,
the system is unstable.
Stability of Dynamic Systems

 We can analyze the stability of a dynamic system graphically

through the complex plane by the location of the poles.

Im

Re

Stable Region
Unstable Region
Closed loop stability

 Characteristic equation

K mGcGvG p Gd
Y Ysp  D (11-80)
1  GOL 1  GOL

where GOL is the open-loop transfer function,

GOL = GcGvGpGm.
Characteristic equation of the closed-loop system
1  GOL  0 (11-83)
Closed loop stability

General Stability Criterion: The feedback control

system is stable if and only if all roots of the
characteristic equation are negative or have negative
real parts. Otherwise, the system is unstable.
Methods of Analysis

 Several methods are available for

determining the response characteristics of
linear time-invariant systems.
 Two key methods are available for system
analysis which are simpler and more direct
than the time-domain methods for practical
linear model analysis.
 Routh’s Criterion
 Root-Locus Method
Routh’s Criterion
 Routh’s Criterion determines the position of the
poles without the need to calculate them by
considering the coefficients of polynomial p(s).
 The procedure is as follows:
 Step 1: Write the polynomial in s in the following
form:
p(s )  a0s n  a1s n 1  .........  an  0

where, an  0, that is, we eliminated any zero root and

an is positive.
Routh’s Criterion
 Step 2: We have two cases:

CASE 1:
If any of the coefficients is zero or negative in the
presence of at least one positive coefficient, then
there are one or more roots of p(s) with a positive real
part. In this case, the system is unstable.
Routh’s Criterion
CASE 2:

All the coefficients are positive, then, in this

case we cannot say anything about the
stability of the process, since the positiveness
condition is necessary for stability but not
sufficient.

In this case, we need to go to Step 3 in the

procedure.
Routh’s Criterion

 Step 3: If all coefficients are positive, we group the

coefficients in a Table (Routh Array).
The coefficients are calculated as follows:

a1a2  a0a3 b1a3  a1b2

b1  c1 
a1 b1
a1a4  a0a5 b1a5  a1b35
b2  c2 
a1 a1
a1a6  a0a7 b1a7  a1b4
b3  c3 
a1 b1
Routh Array

sn a0 a2 a4 a6 . .
sn-1 a1 a3 a5 a7 . .
sn-2 b1 b2 b3 b4 . .
sn-3 c1 c2 c3 c4 . .
sn-4 d1 d2 d3 d4
. . .
. . .
s2 e1 e2
s1 f1
s0 g1

First column is the key to the method.

Routh’s Criterion

 The Routh’s Criterion establishes that the number of

roots with positive real parts is equal to the number of
sign changes in the coefficients of the first column of
the Routh Array.

 The necessary and sufficient conditions for stability

are that :
 all the coefficients of p(s) be positive and

 all terms in the first row of the Routh Array have

positive signs
Example 1

 Let the characteristic equation be given

by the following polynomial:

p(s )  s  2s  3s  4s  5  0
4 3 2

 We generate the Routh Array .

Example 1

4
s 1 3 5
3  The number of sign
s 2 4 0
changes in the first
s
2
1 5 column is equal to two.

1  This means that there

s -6
are two roots with
s
0
5 positive real parts
(unstable).
Example 2

 Consider the following characteristic equation, which

is function of a parameter k

p(s )  s  3s  3s  2s  k  0
4 3 2

 The Routh Array is

4
s 1 3 k
3
s 3 2 0
2
s 7/3 k
1
s -2-9/7k
0
s k
Example 2

 The following observations can be made:

 For stability, k must be positive (from last row)

 Also k should always be k < 14/9

 When k = 14/9, the system becomes oscillatory

with a constant amplitude
When there exist time delays

 Approximate it and use the same

procedure
Direct Substitution Method
• The imaginary axis divides the complex plane into stable
and unstable regions for the roots of characteristic
equation.
• On the imaginary axis, the real part of s is zero, and thus
we can write s=jw. Substituting s=jw into the characteristic
equation allows us to find a stability limit such as the
maximum value of Kc.
• As the gain Kc is increased, the roots of the characteristic
equation cross the imaginary axis when Kc = Ku.

32
Use the direct substitution method to determine Ku
for the system with the characteristic equation
10s3  17 s 2  8s  1  K c  0 . (11-99)

Substitute s  jω and Kc = Ku into

. Eq. 11-99:

10 jω3  17ω2  8 jω  1  Ku  0

   
1  Ku  17ω2  j 8ω  10ω3  0
 1  Ku  17ω2  0 (11-106a)


8ω  10ω3  ω 8  10ω2  0 (11-106b)
Therefore,
ω2  0.8  ω  0.894 (11-107)
and from (11-106a),
Ku  12.6
35
Root-Locus Method

 The Root-Locus method is a graphical procedure for

finding the roots of the characteristic equation for all
values of a parameter(s) of the system from zero to
infinity.

 Let the characteristic equation be represented by:

1  GOL (s)  0

The idea is to find the locus of the roots of this

equation when kc varies from zero to infinity.
Example
 Let the characteristic equation be given by:

f (s, k )  s 2  s  k  0
 In this case since f(s,k) is a quadratic equation, the
roots are
1 1 1 1
s1    1  4k s2    1  4k
2 2 2 2

The roots are:

• real for k<=1/4
• complex for k>1/4
Example
Im

k=1 k=0
k=0
Re

-1

k=1/4 k=1 Root Locus

Example

 From the diagram we can study the behavior of the

system for different values of k:
 When k=0, then, s1 = 0 and s2 = -1
 Increasing k from zero to ¼, the poles move
towards the point (-1/2,0). They move along the
real axis and they are all real.
 At k=1/4, the two real poles become equal.
 For k>1/4, the poles become complex and since
the real part is independent of k, they move along
the line -1/2.
Example

Consider a feedback control system that has the open-

loop transfer function,
4 Kc
GOL  s   (11-108)
 s  1 s  2  s  3
Plot the root locus diagram for 0  K c  20.

Solution:
The characteristic equation is 1 + GOL = 0 or

 s  1 s  2  s  3  4Kc  0 (11-109)

40
 X denotes an open-loop pole.
 Dots denote locations of the closed-loop poles for different values of Kc.
 Arrows indicate change of pole locations as Kc increases.

41
Example
Summary

 The qualitative analysis of the response of a process is

based on the location of the system poles.
 The stability of a process is determined by the sign of the
real part of its poles.
 Poles of a system transfer function are equivalent to the
eigenvalues of the state matrix.
 Two analytical tools for stability analysis are described
• The Routh’s Criterion
• The Root-Locus method
 Routh’s Criterion provides a qualitative stability result.
 Root-Locus shows how a system parameter affects the
location of the poles in the complex plane.
Feedback Control Design
Introduction
 At some stage, we are faced with the following
questions:
 which type of controllers should one use (i.e., P, PI, PID) ?
 what are the controller parameters (controller tuning)?

 To answer these questions, we need to define

quantitative measures of closed-loop system behavior

Performance Criteria
This, in turn, will allow us to compare
design alternatives.
Design Objectives
 The main goal of control system design is to meet
established performance specifications.

 These specifications are the constraints placed on

system response characteristics.

 Generally, these specifications take the form of:

 Time-domain specifications are expressed in terms of the

time response of the closed-loop system.
 Frequency-response specifications are expressed in terms
of the frequency response of the closed-loop system.
Design Objectives

 In this chapter, we focus on the time-domain

specifications.

 In general, these specifications deal with important

properties of the system dynamics. For example,

 Speed of response
 Accuracy of response or allowable tracking error
Design Objectives
Stability is, of course, the main characteristic of the system
performance. We discussed the stability problem in the
previous chapter. Since stability defines a range of admissible
controller parameters, we now concentrate on achieving
desired performance within the allowable stability range.
 Performance Criteria
 The performance criteria can based on:
 Steady-state characteristics, or

 Transient (dynamic) process characteristics.

 Steady-State Performance is expressed in terms of the

asymptotic response of the process as it reaches
equilibrium, often specified as zero steady-state error.

This is related to the presence or

absence of offset in the closed-loop
response.
Performance Criteria
 Dynamic (Transient) performance is based on key
features of the closed-loop transient response against
a set point change (and/or change in the disturbance).
This is usually the step response.

 Overshoot
 Speed of response
 ..
 Decay ratio
C 1

A 4
Quarter Decay Ratio
Desirable Controller Features

0. Stable
1. Quick responding
2. Adequate disturbance rejection
3. Insensitive to model, measurement errors
4. Avoid excessive controller action
5. Suitable over a wide range of operating conditions

Impossible to satisfy all 5 unless self-tuning.

Performance Criteria
 Different performance criteria lead to different control
designs.
 A single criterion may not describe the dynamic
response completely and often multiple criteria are used.
 Often performance criteria conflict with one another.
For example, increasing the speed of response will also
increase the overshoot.

The controller design problem is a trade-off

between conflicting objectives and the task of the
designer is to balance these conflicting
characteristics to achieve a satisfactory design!
Selection of Controller Modes
 For simple, low-order (first- or second-order)
processes that can tolerate some offset, P or PD
control is satisfactory.
 For processes that cannot tolerate offset and are
of low order, PI control is required.
 For processes that are of high order (those with
transport lag or many first-order lags in series),
PID control is needed to prevent large overshoot
and long settling time.
Time-Integral Performance Criteria
 These criteria depend on the shape of the closed-loop
response for a specific input function.

 The closed-loop error is defined as the difference

between the process output and the desired set-point:
e(t )  y sp (t )  y (t )

ISE   e 2 (t )dt Integral of the squared error (ISE)
0

IAE   e(t ) dt Integral of the absolute value of the error (IAE)
0


ITAE   t e(t ) dt Integral of the time-weighted absolute error (ITAE)
0
 Example
y sp y
1 k
g c  k c (1  gp 
+- p
)
Is  ps  1

Consider a PI controller with two 1.8

Set 1
different settings: y(t)
1.6

1.4 Set 2
1. kc  10, I  0.464 1.2

2. kc  50, I  0.258 0.8

0.6

Criterion ISE IAE ITAE 0.4

Set 1 6.355 14.752 128.83 0.2

0
Set 2 6.090 14.697 130.22 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Time (sec.)
Controller Tuning Techniques

 We will learn three tuning techniques:

 The step-testing or open-loop tuning method

(Cohen-Coon).
 The on-line or closed-loop tuning method
(Zeigler-Nichols).
 Direct synthesis method
Open-Loop Tuning (Cohen-Coon)
Method
• Consider the “opened” (manual) control system:
d (s)

M
c(s)  g d (s )
s

ysp (s) e(s) u (s)

+ y (s)
g c (s ) g f (s ) g (s ) +
+
-

ym (s)
g m (s )

• Introduce a step change of magnitude M in the manipulated

variable, c(s).
• Record the value of the output, ym(t), with respect to time.
Process Reaction Curve
 Process Reaction Curve

Find the parameters of a

ym(s)
FOPDT transfer function
from the process reaction
curve.

y m (s) k e  θs
g PRC (s)  
c(s) τ s 1

tD time
Process Reaction Curve

𝐵𝑢
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
y 

 
Cohen-Coon Controller Settings

1 τ θ 
Kc  1  
k θ  3τ 
 θ
 30  3 
1 τ θ   τ
Kc   0.9   τI  θ
k θ 12τ  θ
9  20
τ

 θ
 6  2 
1 τ5 θ   τ
Kc     τD  θ
k θ  4 6τ  θ
22  3
τ
 1 τ4 θ 
Kc    
k θ  3 4τ 

 θ
 32  6 
τI  θ  τ
 θ
 13  8 
 τ

4
τD  θ
 θ
11  2 
 τ
 Cohen-Coon Settings
Advantages
 Only a single experiment is
necessary.
 It does not require a trial-
and-error procedure.
 The controller settings are
easily calculated.
Disadvantages
 The experimental test must be
performed in open-loop.
 It may be difficult to determine
the slope at the inflection point
accurately, especially for noisy
systems.
 The method is based on the
assumption that the FOPTD
model approximates the actual
process behavior well.
Closed-Loop Tuning (Ziegler-
Nichols) Method
 The continuous cycling method was proposed by
Ziegler and Nichols in 1942 and is the best known
methods for tuning PID controllers.
 This is a closed-loop tuning methodology and is
also known as loop tuning or ultimate gain method
since the first step involves obtaining the closed-loop
ultimate gain.KCU).

Ultimate Gain (kcu) is the largest value of the controller

gain kc that maintains closed-loop stability when a
proportional-only controller is used.
Closed-Loop Tuning (Ziegler-
Nichols) Method
 Step 1: Eliminate integral and derivative actions, i.e.
keep a proportional-only (P) controller.
 Step 2: Set kc at a low value.
 Step 3: Increase the controller gain kc by small
increments until the closed-loop system response
exhibit continuous cycling (or sustained oscillations
with constant amplitude). The period of the sustained
oscillations is referred to as the ultimate period, pu.
 Step 4: The PID controller settings are calculated
using kcu and pu based on Ziegler-Nichols (ZN)
tuning relations.
Ziegler-Nichols Settings

Ziegler-Nichols tuning relations:

Controller kc I D
P 0.5kcu --- ---

PI 0.45kcu pu/1.2 ---

PID 0.6kcu pu/2 pu/8

Closed-Loop Tuning (Ziegler-
Nichols) Method
Advantages Disadvantages

 Closed-loop experiments are  Continuous cycling may be

used. objectionable since the process
 The controller settings are is pushed to the stability limit.
easily calculated.  Caution should be used for
 Does not assume a model open-loop unstable processes.
structure for the process  Some simple processes that
output. can be represented exactly as
a first- or second-order without
delay would not have an
ultimate gain.
Controller Tuning Strategy

We should emphasize that the settings provided

by either of the techniques have to regarded as
“good” first estimates and subsequent fine-
tuning should be considered.
Example

• Consider the following process:

2e s
g p (s )  ; g f (s )  1; g m (s )  1
10s  15s  1

• Design a PI & PID controller using both CC

and ZN methods.
Example - CC
2
y(t)

The process 1.5

reaction curve is
obtained and its 1 2e 4s
parameters are g PRC (s ) 
determined. (13s  1)
0.5
They are used to
obtain CC settings.
0
0 20 40 time 60

Controller kc I D
PI 1.50 8.16 ---
PID 2.29 8.75 1.37
Example - CC
PI Controller

Set-point Response Disturbance Response

Example - CC

PID Controller

Set-point Response Disturbance Response

Example - ZN

Using P-controller
only, the closed-loop
system is brought to
the edge of the
stability limit. pu= 12
The proportional gain
that yields sustained
oscillations and the
period of oscillations kcu= 8
are noted.

Controller kc I D
PI 3.63 10 ---
PID 4.70 6 1.5
Example - ZN

PI Controller

Set-point Response Disturbance Response

Example - ZN

PID Controller

Set-point Response Disturbance Response

Comparison of Ziegler-Nichols and Cohen-Coon Equations
for Controller Tuning (1940’s, 50’s)

Controller Ziegler-Nichols Cohen-Coon

Proportional  
KK C       13
KK C  
Proportional  
KK C  0.9  KK  0.9  0.083
C 
  3.33  0.33  
+

 3.33 
Integral 
1.0  2.2 
I I

  

Proportional KK  1.2  KK  1.35  0.270

C  C

 32  6  
+
 2.0 
Integral  
13  8 
I I

+   

 0.5 

0.37  
Derivative D
  

 1.0  0.2 
D


Summary of Tuning Relationships

1. KC is inversely proportional to KPKVKM .

2. KC decreases as / increases.

3. I and D increase as / increases (typically D =

0.25 I ).

4. Reduce Kc, when adding more integral action;

increase Kc, when adding derivative action

5. To reduce oscillation, decrease KC and increase I .

Summary
 The control design objectives are introduced. We seek
desired performance within the stability limit.
 Different performance criteria were analyzed to develop
quantitative measures of the closed-loop performance
such as integral measures and time-domain criteria such
as decay ratio.
 Two design techniques were discussed based on:
• open-loop response of the system.
• closed-loop response
 Cohen-Coon technique is based on the process reaction
curve and is an open-loop technique.
 Ziegler-Nichols technique relies on identifying the
proportional gain that corresponds to the stability limit
and is a closed-loop method.
 Inverse-response systems

Inverse response processes

Boiler drum

Disturbance : inlet water

temperature
Input: cold feed water flowrate
Output : level in the boiler

 In the long run, the level is expected to increase, because we

have increased the feed material without changing the heat
supply
 But immediately after the cold water has been increased, a
drop in the drum liquid temperature is observed, which causes
the bubbles to collapse and the observed level to reduce
Distillation reboiler
 When the steam pressure to the reboiler is suddenly
changed.
 An increase in steam pressure ultimately will decrease
the reboiler level (in the absence of level control) by
boiling off more of the liquid.
 However, the initial effect usually is to increase the
amount of frothing on the trays immediately above the
reboiler, causing a rapid spillover of liquid from these
trays into the reboiler below.
 This initial increase in reboiler liquid level, is later
overwhelmed by a decrease due to the increased
vapor boil-up.
Tubular catalytic reactors
with exothermic chemical reactions

 Exhibit an inverse response in exit temperature when

the feed temperature is increased.
 Initially, increased conversion in the entrance region of
the bed momentarily depletes reactants at the exit end
of the bed, causing less heat generation there and
decreasing the exit temperature.
 Subsequently, higher reaction rates occur, leading to a
higher exit temperature, as would be expected.
 Conversely, if the feed temperature is decreased, the
inverse response initially yields a higher exit
temperature.
Inverse-response systems

 Inverse response is the net result of two

i) opposing dynamic modes of ii) different
magnitudes, operating on iii) different time
scales
 the faster mode has a small magnitude and is
responsible for the initial, “wrong way” response
 the slower mode has a larger magnitude and is
responsible for the long-term, dominant response
 Inverse-response systems

 There is an initial
inversion in the
output variable response: the
process starts
moving away from
input and output

input its ultimate value

variable

 The process output

eventually heads
in the direction of
the final steady
state

time
Controller Design - Direct Synthesis Method
Model based design

• Based on mathematical of the actual process

Specify Closed – Loop Transfer Function

Y  e  s
  
 R d  s  1
(first – order response, no offset)
Derivation of PI Controller for FOPTD Process

Consider the standard first-order-plus-time-delay model,

Keθs
G s 
τs  1
Specify closed-loop response and approximate
e- s - 1 - s.

Substituting and rearranging gives a PI controller,

Gc  Kc 1  1/ τ I s  , with the following controller settings:
1 τ
Kc  , τI  τ
K θ
Derivation of PID Controller for FOPTD Process

Let  Ke  s K (1   s )
 Y  1 2 s G (s)   2
    s  1 ( s  1)(1   s)
 R d s 1 2
1- θ s
   
2
 τs + 1 1 + θ s
2 • cτ s + 1  τs +1 1+ θ s
2
Gc = =

K 1- θ s
2  1-
1- θ s
2 K 
θ +τ s
2 c 
τ c s +1

   
 2   1
  
Kc     
1
I   D 
K   
1
2 2( )  1
    
2 
Second-Order-plus-Time-Delay (SOPTD) Model

Keθs
G s 
 τ1s  1 τ 2 s  1
 1 
Gc  K c 1   τDs 
 τI s 

where
1 τ1  τ 2 τ1τ 2
Kc  , τ I  τ1  τ 2 , τD 
K   τ1  τ 2
 Example
Use direct synthesis design method to calculate PID controller settings
for the process:
2e s
G
10s  1 5s  1
Consider  = 1, 3, and 10. Evaluate the controllers for unit step
changes in both the set point and the disturbance, assuming that Gd =
G. Perform the evaluation for two cases:

a. The process model is perfect (G = G).

b. The model gain is K = 0.9, instead of the actual value, K = 2. This
model error could cause a robustness problem in the controller for K
= 2. 0.9e s
G
10s  1 5s  1
Example

The controller settings for this example are:

 1  3   10

Kc K  2  3.75 1.88 0.682
K c  K  0.9  8.33 4.17 1.51
τI 15 15 15
3.33 3.33 3.33
τD

Note only Kc is affected by the change in process gain.

Kc decreases as  increases, but the values of τ I and τ D
do not change with .

 =1
 =3
 =5

Response for correct model gain.

  =1
 =3
 =5

Response for incorrect model gain.

Controller Tuning Relations

How to Select ?

1.  / θ > 0.8 and   0.1τ (Rivera et al., 1986)

2. τ    θ (Chien and Fruehauf, 1990)

3.   θ (Skogestad, 2003)
Frequency Response

Time-domain vs Frequency -
domain?

Im

0
Re


AR

A
0
Introduction

 When a linear system is subjected to a sinusoidal

input, the ultimate response (after a long time has
passed) is also a sustained sinusoidal wave.
y(t)
m(t)
Input Wave Output Wave

Ay
Am

 time
Question 1: What are the features of the output sinusoidal wave ?
Question 2: How do they change as a function of frequency ?
Frequency Response Analysis
y(t)
m(t)
Input Wave Output Wave

Ay
Am

 time
AR= Ay / Am : Amplitude Ratio  : Phase Shift (lag)

Amplitude ratio  AR G j   ReG j  ImG j 

2 2

 ImG j  
Phase angle  G j tan1 
 ReG j  
Computation of the Frequency
Response

If g(s) is the transfer function of a

process, g(j ) represents its
frequency response !!!
 Sinusoidal Forcing of a First-Order
Process
For a first-order transfer function with gain K and time constant τ, the response

to a general sinusoidal input, x t  A sin ωt is:

y t  
KA
2 2
ω τ 1
 ωτet / τ  ωτ cos ωt  sin ωt  (5-25)

Note that y(t) and x(t) are in deviation form. The long-time response, yl(t), can
be written as:

KA
y t   sin  ωt  φ  for t   (13-1)
ω2 τ 2  1
where:

φ   tan 1  ωτ 
5
 Frequency Response Characteristics of
a First-Order Process
For x(t )  A sin t , y  t   Aˆ sin  ωt  φ  as t   where :
KA
Aˆ  and φ   tan 1  ωτ 
ω2 τ 2  1
1. The output signal is a sinusoid that has the same frequency, , as the input
signal, x(t) = Asint.
2. The amplitude of the output signal, Â , is a function of the frequency  and
the input amplitude, A:

KA
Aˆ  (13-2)
ω2 τ 2  1
3. The output has a phase shift, φ, relative to the input. The amount of
phase shift depends on .

6
 Aˆ K
AR   (13-3a)
A ω2 τ 2  1
which can, in turn, be divided by the process gain to yield the normalized
amplitude ratio (ARN)

1
AR N  (13-3b)
ω2 τ 2  1

7
Shortcut Method for Finding
the Frequency Response
The shortcut method consists of the following
steps:
Step 1. Set s=j in G(s) to obtain G  jω.
Step 2. Rationalize G(j); We want to express it in the form.
G(j)=R + jI
where R and I are functions of . Simplify G(j) by multiplying
the numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the
denominator.
Step 3. The amplitude ratio and phase angle of G(s) are given by:

AR  R 2  I 2
Memorize 
  tan 1 ( I / R)

8
Example
1
G s  (13-16)
τs  1
Solution
First, substitute s  jω in the transfer function

1 1
G  jω    (13-17)
τjω  1 jωτ  1
Then multiply both numerator and denominator by the complex conjugate of the
denominator, that is,  jωτ  1

 jωτ  1  jωτ  1
G  jω    2 2
 jωτ  1  jωτ  1 ω τ  1

1
j
 ωτ   R  jI (13-18)
ω τ 1
2 2
ω τ 1
2 2
9
From Step 3 of the Shortcut Method,

2 2
   ωτ 
1
AR  R  I   2 2    2 2 
2 2
 ω τ 1   ω τ 1 

or
AR 
 
1  ω2 τ 2 1
(13-20a)
 ω τ  1
2
2 2 ω τ 1
2 2

1 
I
Also,
φ  tan    tan 1  ωτ    tan 1  ωτ  (13-20b)
R
10
Complex Transfer Functions

Ga  s  Gb  s  Gc  s 
G s  (13-22)
G1  s  G2  s  G3  s 
Substitute s=j,
Ga  jω  Gb  jω  Gc  jω 
G  jω   (13-23)
G1  jω  G2  jω  G3  jω 
From complex variable theory, we can express the magnitude and angle of
G  jω 
as follows:

Ga  jω  Gb  jω  Gc  jω 
G  jω   (13-24a)
G1  jω  G2  jω  G3  jω 

G  jω   Ga  jω   Gb  jω   Gc  jω  

 [G1  jω   G2  jω   G3  jω   ] (13-24b)
11
Bode-Nyquist Diagrams

 The frequency response of a system is

characterized by its
Bode Diagram
 amplitude ratio, (Logarithmic Plot)
 phase angle

Nyquist Diagram
Frequency is a parameter.
(Polar Plot)
 Bode Diagrams

2
AR

 A Bode Diagram consist 1

of a pair of plots showing:

0 -2 -1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10  10
 How AR varies with
frequency 0

 How  varies with
frequency -50

-100 -2

-1 0 1 2
10 10 10 10 10

First-Order Process
 Bode Diagrams
• A special graph, called the Bode diagram or Bode plot, provides a
convenient display of the frequency response characteristics of a transfer
function model. It consists of plots of AR and φ as a function of .
• Ordinarily,  is expressed in units of radians/time.

Bode Plot of A First-order System

Recall:
1
AR N  and φ   tan 1  ωτ 
ω2 τ 2  1
 At low frequencies ( ω  0 and ω<<1)
 1) :
AR N  1 and   

 At high frequencies ( ω   and ω >>1)

1) :
AR N  1/ ωτ and   
14
Figure. Bode diagram for a first-order process.
15
• The asymptotes intersect at ω  ωb  1/ τ, known as the break frequency or
corner frequency.

1
AR N  ω  ωb    0.707 (13-30)
11

• Some books and software defined AR differently, in terms of decibels. The

amplitude ratio in decibels ARd is defined as

AR d  20 log AR (13-33)

16
Integrating Elements

Y s K
G s   (5-34)
U s s

K K
AR  G  jω    (13-34)
jω ω

φ  G  jω   K       90 (13-35)

Second-Order Process
K
G s  (13-40)
τ s  2ζτs  1
2 2

17
 2ωτζ 
(13-41a) φ  tan 1 
K
AR  (13-41b)
1  ω 2 τ 2 
1  ω τ   
2
  2ωτζ 
2 2 2

Figure. Bode diagrams for second-order processes.

18
 Time Delay
,

s  jω
G  jω   e jωθ (13-53)
which can be written in rational form by substitution of the
Euler identity,

G  jω   e jωθ  cos ωθ  j sin ωθ (13-54)

From (13-54)

AR  G  jω   cos 2 ωθ  sin 2 ωθ  1 (13-55)

 sin ωθ 
φ  G  jω   tan 1   
 cos ωθ 
or
φ  ωθ (13-56)

20
Figure. Bode diagram for a time delay .
21
Figure. Phase angle plots for e θs and for the 1/1 and 2/2 Padé approximations
(G1 is 1/1; G2 is 2/2).

22
Process Zeros
Consider a process zero term,

G  s   K ( sτ  1)
Substituting s=j gives

G  jω   K ( jωτ  1)
Thus:

AR  G  jω   K ω2 τ 2  1
φ  G  jω    tan 1  ωτ 

Note: In general, a multiplicative constant (e.g., K) changes the AR by a

factor of K without affecting φ.

23
Frequency Response Characteristics of
Feedback Controllers

Proportional Controller. Consider a proportional controller with positive gain

Gc  s   Kc (13-57)
In this case Gc  jω   K c , which is independent of . Therefore,

AR c  Kc (13-58)
and
φc  0 (13-59)

24
Proportional-Integral Controller:

 1   τI s 1 
Gc  s   K c 1    Kc   (13-60)
 τ I 
s τ
 I  s
Substitute s=j:

 1   jτ I  1   1 
Gc  j  K c 1    Kc    Kc 1  j
 τ I j   jτ I   τI  
Thus, the amplitude ratio and phase angle are:

1  ωτ I  2
1
AR c  Gc  jω   K c 1   Kc (13-62)
 ωτ I  2 ωτ I

φc  Gc  jω   tan 1  1/ ωτ I   tan 1  ωτ I   90 (13-63)

25
  10s  1 
Figure. Bode plot of a PI controller, Gc  s   2  
 10 s 
26
 PID Controller Forms

 Parallel PID Controller:

 1 
Gc  s   K c 1   τDs 
 τ1s 
 Series PID Controller:

 τ1s  1 
Gc  s   K c    τ D s  1 (13-73)
 τ1s 

27
  1 
Gc  s   2 1   4s 
 10s 

28
Example - First-Order Process
Bode Diagram
1
10

AR
0
10
2
g (s ) 
10
-1
3s  1
-2
10
10
-2
10
-1 c=0.33 10
0
 10
1

0
 -20
2
-40 AR  g ( j ) 
-60
9 2  1
-80   arg( g ( j ))  tan 1( 3 )
-100
-2 -1 0 1
10 10 10 10

Example - First-Order Process with Delay
Bode Diagram
1
10

AR
0
10

2e 0.5s
10
-1
g (s ) 
-2
3s  1
10
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
 10 1

0
 2
-100 AR  g ( j ) 
9 2  1
-200
  arg( g ( j ))   tan 1(3 )  (0.5 )
-300

-400
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
 10
1

With the addition of a delay term, AR remains the same, but the Phase
Shift is significantly affected.
Summary
 Frequency response is a compact representation of
process dynamics.
 The frequency response is expressed through the
amplitude ratio and the phase shift.
 A Bode or a Nyquist Diagram can be used to describe the
frequency response.
 A first-order system has a maximum phase shift of 900
Stability based on frequency response
Stability based on Bode diagram
The Bode stability criterion has two important
advantages in comparison with the Routh stability
criterion

1. It provides exact results for processes with time delays,

while the Routh stability criterion provides only
approximate results due to the polynomial approximation
that must be substituted for the time delay.

2. The Bode stability criterion provides a measure of the

relative stability rather than merely a yes or no answer to
the question, “Is the closed-loop system stable?”
Stability based on Bode diagram

Before considering the basis for the Bode stability criterion, it is useful to review
the General Stability Criterion:
A feedback control system is stable if and only if all roots of the characteristic
equation lie to the left of the imaginary axis in the complex plane.
Before stating the Bode stability criterion, we need to introduce two important
definitions:

1. A critical frequency ωc is defined to be a value of ω for which φOL  ω   180 .

This frequency is also referred to as a phase crossover frequency.
2. A gain crossover frequency ω gis defined to be a value of ω for which
AROL  ω   1
Stability based on Bode diagram

Bode Stability Criterion. Consider an open-loop transfer function

GOL= GcGvGpGm that is strictly proper (more poles than zeros) and has
no poles located on or to the right of the imaginary axis. Assume that
the open-loop frequency response has only a single critical frequency
and a single gain crossover frequency ωg . Then the closed-loop
system is stable if AROL( ωc) < 1. Otherwise it is unstable.
Stirred-tank heater
Stirred-tank heater
Bode diagram for open-loop transfer function
of control system for stirred-tank heater
This is the AR between the signals  and B. Note that it is
dimensionless, as  and B both have the units of temperature
The control system is redrawn for Kc = 5000, with the loop opened. That is, the
feedback signal B is disconnected from the comparator.

Assume that a set point of is applied to the open loop.

Now imagine that, at some instant in time, R is set to zero and simultaneously
the loop is closed. It can be observed that the closed loop continues to oscillate
indefinitely. This oscillation is theoretically sustained even though both R and
U are zero.
• Now suppose Kc is set to a slightly higher value and
the same experiment repeated. This time, the signal e
is amplified slightly each time it passes around the loop.
• If Kc is set to 5001, after the first time around the loop
the signal e becomes (5001/5000) sin 43 t. After the
second time, it is (5001/5000)2 sin 43 t, etc.

• The phase angle is not affected by changing Kc .

• We thus conclude that, for Kc > 5000, the response is

unbounded, since it oscillates with increasing
amplitude.
The condition Kc > 5000 corresponds to
AR > 1
for the open-loop transfer function, at the frequency 43
rad/min, where the open-loop phase lag is 180 °
1. If the open loop AR < 1, the sine wave will
gradually diminish in amplitude and the system is
stable.

2. If the open loop AR = 1, the sine wave will sustain

with a constant amplitude and the system is
marginally stable.

3. If the open loop AR > 1, the sine wave will

gradually increase in amplitude and the system is
unstable.
A control system is unstable if the open-loop
frequency response exhibits an AR exceeding
unity at the frequency for which the phase lag
is 180°. This frequency is called the crossover
frequency. The rule is called the Bode stability
criterion.
Example

2
G p(s) 
(0.5s  1)3
Also, Gv = 0.1 and Gm = 10. For a proportional controller, evaluate the stability of
the closed-loop control system using the Bode stability criterion for three values
of Kc: 1, 4, and 20.

Solution:

2 2K c
G OL  G cG vG pG m  ( K c)(0.1) (10) 
(0.5s  1) 3
(0.5s  1)3

17
Figure. Bode plots for GOL = 2Kc/(0.5s+1)3.

18
Based on the amplitude ratio AROL for each value of Kc, we make the
following classifications:

Kc AROL  for ω  ωc  Classification

1 0.25 Stable
4 1 Marginally stable
20 5 Unstable

19
Understanding relative stability

+  AR=1
• The gain margin represents the additional gain for
destabilization.

• The phase margin represents the additional amount

of phase lag required to destabilize the system.
Example

Specify the proportional gain Kc for the control system when (i) D
= 0 (ii) D = 0.5
 The crossover frequency is 8.62 rad/min

 At this frequency, the AR is 0.0445 if Kc = 1

 According to the Bode theorem, the value of Kc

necessary for marginally stable condition is 1/0.0445
= 22.5
 To achieve a gain margin of 1.7, Kc must be taken as
22.5/1.7, or 13.2
Case-1: PD controller

AR/Kc
Case-1: PD controller

AR/Kc

g

Phase margin = 300

 The crossover frequency is 8.62 rad/min
 At this frequency, the open-loop gain is 0.0445 if the
value of Kc is unity
 According to the Bode criterion, the value of Kc
necessary to have AR=1 is 1/0.0445 = 22.5
 To achieve a gain margin of 1.7, Kc must be taken as
22.5/1.7, or 13.2
 The frequency for which the AR is unity (phase
margin is 30°) is 5.52 rad/min
 To achieve a phase margin of 30 0, Kc must be 12.3.
 Hence, select 12.3 as the controller gain which
provides a gain margin of 1.83
Case-2: P controller
Case-2: P controller

 Kc = 6.7 is needed for satisfactory gain

margin and Kc = 5.14 for satisfactory phase
margin.
 Hence, Kc is taken as 5.14, and the resulting
gain margin is 2.2
Limitations of Bode analysis
 Can not be applied to unstable processes
 Can not be applied when there exist multiple
cross over frequencies
Nyquist Stability Criteria
Nyquist Plot or Polar Plot

• Nyquist Plots were invented by Nyquist - who worked at Bell

Laboratories, the premiere technical organization in the U.S. at
that time.

• Bode' plots use frequency as the horizontal axis and use two
separate plots to display amplitude and phase of the frequency
response.

• Nyquist plots display both amplitude and phase angle on a

single plot, using frequency as a parameter in the plot.

• Nyquist plots have properties that allow you to see whether a

system is stable or unstable.
Nyquist Plot

• Nyquist plot is a plot of the transfer function, G(s) with s

= jω.

• G(j ω) is a complex number for any angular frequency,

ω, so the plot is a plot of complex numbers.

• The complex number, G(j ω), depends upon frequency,

so frequency will be a parameter if we plot the
imaginary part of G(j ω) against the real part of G(j ω).
Polar plot of Frequency Response

To sketch the polar plot of G(jω) for the entire range of

frequency ω, i.e., from 0 to infinity, there are four key
points that usually need to be known:

1) The start of plot where ω = 0

2) The end of plot where ω = ∞
3) Where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0
4) Where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, i.e.,
Re(G(jω)) = 0.
Example: Polar Plot of First Order System

Consider a first order system where T is the time constant.

Representing G(s) in the frequency response form G( jω ) by replacing s = jω:

The magnitude of G( jω ) is

The phase of G( jω ) is
Example: Polar Plot of First Order System

The start of plot where ω = 0

The end of plot where ω = ∞

The mid part of plot where ω = 1/T

Example: Polar Plot of First Order System
Example
Example: Polar Plot of Second Order System
Example: Polar Plot of Second Order System
Example: Polar Plot of Higher Order System
Point 1: The start of plot where ω = 0

500
𝐺 0 = = 16.67 0
30 2 ∠𝐺 0 = tan−1 = 0°
30
Example: Polar Plot of Higher Order System

Point 2: The end of plot where ω = ∞

500 ∞ 3
𝐺 ∞ = =0 ∠𝐺 ∞ = tan−1 = −3 × 90° = −270°
∞ 30

Point 3: Where the plot crosses the real axis, i.e., Im(G(jω)) = 0

Take the imaginary part of equation, and put equal to zero, to get the value of
frequency ω at the interception of real axis.
Example: Polar Plot of Higher Order System

Point 4: Where the plot crosses the imaginary axis, Re(G(jω)) = 0

Take the real part of equation, and put equal to zero, to get the value of
frequency ω at the interception of imaginary axis.
Example: Polar Plot of Higher Order System

Im
Nyquist Stability Criterion

• The Nyquist stability criterion is similar to the Bode

criterion in that it determines closed-loop stability from
the open-loop frequency response characteristics.

16
Nyquist Stability Criterion

 Consider an open-loop transfer function GOL(s) that is proper and

has no unstable pole-zero cancellations.
 Let N be the number of times that the Nyquist plot for GOL(s)
encircles the -1 point in the clockwise direction.
 Also let P denote the number of poles of GOL(s) that lie to the right
of the imaginary axis.
 Then, Z = N + P where Z is the number of roots of the
characteristic equation that lie to the right of the imaginary axis.
 The closed-loop system is stable if and only if Z = 0.

17
18
Properties of the Nyquist stability criterion

1. It provides a necessary and sufficient condition for

closed-loop stability based on the open-loop transfer
function.
2. The reason the -1 point is so important can be deduced
from the characteristic equation, 1 + GOL(s) = 0. This
equation can also be written as GOL(s) = -1, which
implies that AROL = 1 and φOL  180 . The -1 point is
referred to as the critical point.

19
Properties of the Nyquist stability criterion

3. Most process control problems are open-loop stable.

For these situations, P = 0 and thus Z = N. Consequently,
the closed-loop system is unstable if the Nyquist plot for
GOL(s) encircles the -1 point, one or more times.

4. A negative value of N indicates that the -1 point is

encircled in the opposite direction (counter-clockwise).
This situation implies that each countercurrent
encirclement can stabilize one unstable pole of the open-
loop system.

20
Properties of the Nyquist stability criterion

5. Unlike the Bode stability criterion, the Nyquist stability

criterion is applicable to open-loop unstable processes.
6. Unlike the Bode stability criterion, the Nyquist stability
criterion can be applied when there exist multiple
values of ωc or ω g

21
Example

Evaluate the stability of the closed-loop system for

4e  s
G p(s) 
5s  1

(the time constants and delay have units of minutes)

Gv = 2, Gm = 0.25, Gc = Kc

Obtain ωc and Kcu from a Bode plot.

Let Kc =1.5Kcu and draw the Nyquist plot for the resulting open-loop system.

22
For ωc = 1.69 rad/min, OL = -180°
Kcu = 1/0.235 = 4.25. Setting Kc = 1.5Kcu gives Kc = 6.38.

23
Figure. Nyquist plot, Kc = 1.5Kcu = 6.38.

24
 8 Nyquist Diagram

2
Imaginary Axis

-2

-4

-6

-8
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Real Axis
 Nyquist Diagram

-1
Imaginary Axis

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Real Axis
Gain and phase margins

27
Gain and phase margins

Guideline. In general, a well-tuned controller should have a gain margin

between 1.7 and 4.0 and a phase margin between 30° and 45°.

28
Gain and phase margins

a
Gain Neutral Nyquist Plots - Example

Assume kc = 1 and draw the Nyquist plots

 Case (a)

Kc > 1/0.6 – Unstable

Kc < 1/0.6 - Stable
 Case (b)

Kc > 1/0.732 – Unstable

Kc < 1/0.732 - Stable
 Case (c)

• Intersects at two points (-19.8, 0)

and (-1.48, 0)
• Number of encirclements of (-1,0)
is zero
• When kc < 1/19.8 (0.051)
• When kc > 1/1.48 (0.674)

• Stable when kc < 0.051 and kc >

0.674

• Unstable when 0.05 < kc < 0.674