LA EX RRP 2021 INDIAN GEOGRAPHY @upsc - Thought

RRP 2021 - INDIAN GEOGRAPHY
READY RECKONER
INDEX
Sl No Topic Pg No
1. Geographical Extent and Frontiers 1 – 2
2. Structure and Physiography of India 3 – 14
3. Drainage System 14 – 20
4. Climate 20 – 23
5. Indian Monsoon 23 – 30
6. Natural Vegetation 30 – 34
7. Soils 35 – 39
8. Agriculture 39 – 41
9. Minerals 41 – 43
10. Industries 43 – 46
11. Natural Hazards and Disasters 46 – 52

RRP 2021 - Indian Geography Ready Reckoner
Neighbouring
1. Geographical Extent Countries
Bordering States
and Frontiers
Jammu and Kashmir
Afghanistan
(Pakistan-Occupied Area).
1.1 India as a Geographical Unit: Jammu and Kashmir,
 Geographical Extent: 8° 4′ North to 37° 6′ Himachal Pradesh,
China
Uttarakhand, Sikkim and
North latitude and 68° 7′ East to 97° 25′
Arunachal Pradesh.
East longitude.
West Bengal, Mizoram,
 Northern most point–Indira col, Siachen Bangladesh Meghalaya, Tripura and
glacier in at an altitude of 5764 M. Assam.
 Easternmost Point – The tiny town of West Bengal, Sikkim,

Bhutan Arunachal Pradesh and
Kibithu in Arunachal Pradesh. Assam.
 Westernmost Point –Ghuar Moti, located Arunachal Pradesh,
in the Kutch District of Gujarat. Myanmar Nagaland, Manipur and
Mizoram.
 Southernmost Point – Indira Point in
Bihar, Uttarakhand, Uttar
Great Nicobar Island in the Andaman Sea.
Nepal Pradesh, Sikkim and West
Kanyakumari is southernmost in Indian Bengal.
mainland.
Jammu and Kashmir,
 India has 15106.7 Km of land border and a Pakistan Punjab, Rajasthan and
coastline of 7516.6 Km. Gujarat
1.2.1 Important Passes

State Pass
Jammu and Zoji La it is in Zaskar
Kashmir range, Banihal pass
Shipki La, Bara-Lacha
Himachal Pradesh
Pass, Rohtang pass
Mana, lipulekh, Niti
Uttarakhand
pass
Sikkim Nathu la, Jelep la
Arunachal
Bom di la,Dihang pass
Pradesh
Thalghat, Bhorghat, Pal
Western ghats
1.2 India’s Frontiers: ghat
 India’s longest border is with Bangladesh
and shortest border is with Afghanistan
(PoK touches Afghanistan).
www.laexias.com Page 1 https://elearn.laex.in

1.2.2 Important boundary line 5. Andhra Pradesh

Boundary Line Countries Important cities through which IST line passes
Between India and are, Mirzapur, Handi, Korba, Chunar,
Radcliffe Line
Pakistan Junagarh, Jaunpur etc.
Mac Mohan Line Between India and China In India meeting point of Tropic of cancer
Between Pakistan and and IST line is at the Sanjay Gandhi National
Durand Line
Afghanistan Park forest land of Chhattisgarh.
Between USA and
49th Parallel 1.3 India as a tropical country:
Canada
The temperate part (north of Tropic of Cancer)
Between North and South
38th Parallel is twice the area of tropical part. But India
Korea
has always been treated as a tropical
Between Germany and
Hidenberg Line country for two different reasons – physical
Poland
and cultural:
Between France and
Maginot line
Germany 1.3.1 Physical Reasons:
Between Germany and The country is separated from the rest of Asia
Oder Neisse Line
Poland by Himalayas. Its climate is dominated by the
tropical monsoons and the temperate air
1.2.3 Tropic of cancer: masses are blocked by Himalayas.
lies at 23.5 degree North in India passes
through 8 states and nearest cities to it are, 1.3.2 Entire area south of Himalayas is
essentially tropical from climatic point
1. Gandhinagar (Gujarat) - 23.10 N of view:
2. Jaipur (Rajasthan) - 26.55 N
 Although the night temperatures in winter
3. Bhopal (M.P) - 23.16 N
at several places in North India may come
4. Raipur (Chhattisgarh) - 21.16 N
down to the level of those prevailing in
5. Ranchi (Jharkhand) - 23.11 N
temperate lands, yet clear skies and
6. Kolkata (W.B) - 22.34 N
intense insolation raise the day
7. Agartala (Tripura) - 23.51 N
temperatures to a tropical level.
8. Aizawl (Mizoram) - 23.36 N
1.3.3 Cultural Reasons:
1.2.4 Indian Standard Time:
 Settlements, diseases, agricultural and
GMT +05:30 or 82.5° longitude East of
primary economic activities are all tropical
Greenwich passing through Mirzapur of Uttar
in nature.
Pradesh is Indian Standard line which passes
through 5 states of India.  Hence, it is primarily because of Himalayas
that India is a tropical country.
1. Uttar Pradesh
2. Madhya Pradesh
3. Chhattisgarh
4. Odhisa
geological structure and geomorphologic

2. Structure and
processes active in the Indian
Physiography of India
subcontinent came into existence.
 Based on the variations in its geological
 Earth is approximately 4600 million years structure and formations, India can be
old. Overtime it has undergone many divided into three geological divisions.
changes brought about primarily by the These divisions follow the physical
endogenic and exogenic forces. features:
 These forces have played a significant role (i) The Peninsular Block
in giving shape to various surface and (ii) The Himalayas and other Peninsular
subsurface features of earth. Indian Mountains
plate was south of equator, millions of
(iii) Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain.
years ago. It was much larger in size and
the Australian plate was a part of it.
 Over millions of years, this plate broke into
many parts and Eurasian plate moved
towards south eastern direction and Indian
plate to the north.
 This northward movement of the Indian
plate is still continuing and it has
significant consequences on physical
environment of Indian subcontinent.
(i) The Peninsular Block:
i.i Peninsular Block Extension:

 The northern boundary of the Peninsular
Block - line running from Kachchh along
the western flank of the Aravali Range near
Delhi and then roughly parallel to the
Yamuna and the Ganga as far as the
Rajmahal Hills and the Ganga delta.
 Karbi Anglong and Meghalaya Plateau in
the northeast and Rajasthan in the west
are also extensions of this block.
 The north-eastern parts are separated by
Malda fault in West Bengal from
 It is primarily through the interplay of Chotanagpur plateau.
these endogenic and exogenic forces and
lateral movements of plates that present
i.ii (i) Peninsular block formation:  Consequently, they are still subjected to
 The Peninsula is formed by a great the interplay of exogenic and endogenic
complex of very ancient gneisses and forces, resulting in the development of
granites, which constitutes a major part of faults, folds and thrust planes.
it. It was formed due to breaking and  These mountains are tectonic in origin,
drifting of Gondwana land, thus making it dissected by fast-flowing rivers which are
part of oldest land mass. in their youthful stage.
 As a part of the Indo-Australian Plate, it  Various landforms like gorges, V-shaped
has been subjected to various vertical valleys, rapids, waterfalls, etc. are
movements and block faulting. The rift indicative of this stage.
valleys of the Narmada, the Tapi and the
(iii) Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain:
Mahanadi and the Satpura block
mountains are some examples of it.  The third geological division of India
comprises the plains formed by the river
 The Peninsula mostly consists of relict and
Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
residual mountains like the Aravali hills,
the Nallamala hills, the Javadi hills, the  Originally, it was a geo-synclinal
Veliconda hills, the Palkonda range and depression which attained its maximum
the Mahendragiri hills, etc. development during the third phase of the
Himalayan mountain formation
 The river valleys here are shallow with low
approximately 64 million years ago.
gradients. Most of the East flowing rivers
form deltas before entering into the Bay of  Since then, it has been gradually filled by
Bengal. The deltas formed by the the sediments brought by the Himalayan
Mahanadi, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the and Peninsular rivers.
Godavari are important examples.  The relief and physiography of India has
(ii) The Himalayas and other Peninsular been greatly influenced by the geological
Mountains: and geomorphological processes active in
Indian subcontinent.
 The Himalayas are young, weak and
flexible in their geological structure unlike 2.1 Physiography:
the rigid and stable Peninsular Block.  Physiography of an area is the outcome of
 The types of rocks found in the Himalayas structure, process and the stage of
vary widely depending on their specific development.
location, but can be classified into three  The north has a vast expanse of rugged
categories: metamorphic, igneous and topography consisting of a series of
sedimentary. Major rocks are mountain ranges with varied peaks,
metamorphic rocks (schist and gneiss) and beautiful valleys and deep gorges.
granites situated at altitudes of 3000 m to
 The south consists of stable table land
over 8000 m.
with highly dissected plateaus, denuded
rocks and developed series of scarps.

 In between these two lies vast north Indian barrier, they are also a climatic, drainage
plain. and cultural divide.
2.1.1 Based on these macro variations,  Some of the important ranges are the
India can be divided into following Greater Himalayan range (which includes
physiographic divisions: the Great Himalayas and the Trans-
Himalayan range), the Middle Himalayas
I) The Northern and North-eastern Mountains
and the Shiwalik.
II) The Northern Plain
III) The Peninsular Plateau
IV) The Indian Desert
V) The Coastal Plains
VI) The Islands
I. The North and North-Eastern

Mountains:
 The North and North-eastern Mountains
consist of Himalayas and the North-
eastern hills. I.1. Shiwalik Range:
 The Himalayas consist of a series of  Located in between the Great Plains and
parallel mountain ranges. Lesser Himalayas. The altitude varies
from 600 to 1500 metres.
 The general orientation of these ranges is
from northwest to the southeast direction  Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the
in the north-western part of India. Potwar Plateau (west) to the
Brahmaputra valley (east).
 Himalayas in the Darjeeling and Sikkim
regions lie in an east-west direction, while  The width of the Shiwaliks varies from 50
in Arunachal Pradesh they are from km in Himachal Pradesh to less than 15
southwest to the northwest direction. km in Arunachal Pradesh.
 In Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram, they  They are an almost unbroken chain of low
are in the north south direction. hills except for a gap of 80-90 km which is
occupied by the valley of the Tista River
 The approximate length of the Great
and Raidak River.
Himalayan range, also known as the
central axial range, is 2,500 km from east  Valleys are part of synclines and hills are
to west, and their width varies between part of anticlines or anti-synclines
160-400 km from north to south.
 Himalayas stand almost like a strong and
long wall between the Indian subcontinent
and the Central and East Asian countries.
Himalayas are not only the physical

I.2. Middle Himalayas or Himachal:

 In between the Shiwaliks in the south and
the Greater Himalayas in the north.
 The Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80
km wide and about 2400 km in
length.Elevations vary from 3,500 to
I. 4.1. Kashmir or North-western
4,500 m above sea level.
Himalayas:
 The Lower Himalayas have steep, bare  It lies between the Indus and the ravi river.
southern slopes (steep slopes prevent Comprise a series of ranges such as the
soil formation) and gentler, forest covered Karakoram, Ladakh, Zaskar and PirPanjal.
northern slopes.
I.3. Great Himalayas:

 Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central
Himalaya or Himadri.
 It is mainly formed of the crystallines
(granites and gneisses) overlaid by
metamorphosed sediments (limestone).
 The northeastern part of the Kashmir
This mountain arc convexes to the south
Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies
just like the other two ranges.
between the Greater Himalayas and the
 The Himadri terminates abruptly at the Karakoram ranges.
syntaxial bends. One in the Nanga Parbat
 Between the Great Himalayas and the Pir
in the north-west and the other in the
Panjal range, lies the world-famous valley
Namcha Barwa in the north-east.
of Kashmir and the famous Dal Lake.
I.4. Himalayas can be divided into
 Important glaciers of South Asia such as
the following sub-divisions:
the Baltoro and Siachen are also found in
1. Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas
this region.
2. Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalayas
3. Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas  The Kashmir Himalayas are also famous
4. Arunachal Himalayas for Karewa formations (Karewas
5. Eastern Hills and Mountains. are lacustrine deposits (deposits in lake)

made up of glacial clay and other materials  These are the Great Himalayan range, the
embedded with moraines), which are Lesser Himalayas (which is locally known
useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local as Dhaoladhar in Himachal Pradesh and
variety of saffron. Nag tibha in Uttarakhand) and the
Shiwalik range from the North to the
 Some of the important passes of the
South.
region are Zoji La on the Great Himalayas,
Banihal on the Pir Panjal, Photu La on the  The two distinguishing features of this
Zaskar and Khardung La on the Ladakh region from the point of view of
range. physiography are the Shiwalik and ‘Dun
formations’. (Duns are longitudinal valley:
deposits with coarse alluvium brought
down by Himalayan rivers)
 Some important duns located in this region
are the Chandigarh-Kalka dun, Nalagarh
dun, Dehra Dun, Harike dun and the Kota
dun, etc.
 Some of the important fresh lakes such as  Dehra Dun is the largest of all the duns
Dal and Wular and salt water lakes such with an approximate length of 35-45 km
as PangongTso and TsoMoriri are also in and a width of 22-25 km.
this region.  In the Great Himalayan range, the valleys
 This region is drained by the river Indus, are mostly inhabited by the Bhotia‘s.
and its tributaries such as the Jhelum and These are nomadic groups who migrate to
the Chenab. Jhelum in the valley of Bugyals‘ (the summer grasslands in the
Kashmir is still in its youth stage and yet higher reaches) during summer months
forms meanders – a typical feature and return to the valleys during winters.
associated with the mature stage in the This practice is called transhumance.
evolution of fluvial land form.  The famous ‘Valley of flowers‘ is also
I.4.2. Himachal and Uttarakhand situated in this region. The places of
Himalayas: pilgrimage such as the Gangotri,
Yamunotri, Kedarnath, Badrinath and
 It lies between the Ravi in the west and the
Hemkund Sahib are also situated in this
Kali (a tributary of Ghaghara) in the east.
part. The region is also known to have five
 Drained by two major river systems of famous Prayags.
India, i.e. Indus and Ganga.
I. 4.3. The Darjeeling and Sikkim
 Himalayas is an extension of the Ladakh Himalayas
cold desert, which lies in the Spiti
 Bordered by Nepal Himalayas in the west
subdivision of district Lahul and Spiti.
and Bhutan Himalayas in the east. It is
 All the three ranges of Himalayas are relatively small but is a most significant
prominent in this section also. part of the Himalayas.

 Known for its fast-flowing rivers such as

Teesta, it is a region of high mountain
peaks like Kanchenjunga (Kanchengiri),
and deep valleys.
 The higher reaches of this region are
inhabited by Lepcha tribes while the
southern part, particularly the Darjeeling
Himalayas, has a mixed population of
Nepalis, Bengalis and tribal from Central
India.
 These ranges are dissected by fast-flowing
 The British, taking advantage of the rivers from the north to the south, forming
physical conditions such as moderate deep gorges. Brahmaputra flows through a
slope, thick soil cover with high organic deep gorge after crossing NamchaBarwa.
content, well distributed rainfall Some of the important rivers are Kameng,
throughout the year and mild winters, Subansiri, Dihang, Dibang and Lohit.
introduced tea plantations in this region. These are perennial with the high rate of
 Absence of the Shiwalik formations. In precipitation, thus, having the highest
place of Shiwaliks here, the ‘duar hydro-electric power potential in the
formations‘ are important, which have country.
also been used for the development of tea  An important aspect of the Arunachal
gardens. Himalayas is the numerous ethnic tribal
community inhabiting in these areas.
I.4.4 The Arunachal Himalayas
 Extend from the east of the Bhutan  Some of the prominent ones from west to
Himalayas up to the Diphu pass in the east are the Monpa, Daffla, Abor, Mishmi,
east. Nishi and the Nagas. Most of these
communities practise Jhumming. It is also
 The general direction of the mountain
known as shifting or slash and burn
range is from southwest to northeast.
cultivation.
 Some of the important mountain peaks of
 This region is rich in biodiversity which
the region are Kangtu and NamchaBarwa.
has been preserved by the indigenous
communities.
 Due to rugged topography, the inter-valley
transportation linkages are nominal.
Hence, most of the interactions are carried
through the duar region along the
Arunachal- Assam border.

I. 4.5. The Eastern Hills and  From the north to the south, these can be
Mountains: divided into three major zones: the Bhabar,
Part of Himalayan mountain system having the Tarai and the alluvial plains.
their general alignment from the north to the  The alluvial plains can be further divided
south direction. into the Khadar and the Bhangar.
 They are known by different local names.
In the north, they are known as Patkai
Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and in
the south as Mizo or Lushai hills.
 These are low hills, inhabited by numerous
tribal groups practising Jhum cultivation.
 The Barak is an important river in
Manipur and Mizoram.
 Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between
 The physiography of Manipur is unique by 8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at
the presence of a large lake known as the break-up of the slope. As a result of
‘Loktak‘ lake at the centre, surrounded by this, the streams and rivers coming from
mountains from all sides. Mizoram which the mountains deposit heavy materials of
is also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ rocks and boulders, and at times,
which is made up of soft unconsolidated disappear in this zone.
deposits.
 South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, with
 Most of the rivers in Nagaland form the an approximate width of 10-20 km where
tributary of the Brahmaputra. most of the streams and rivers re-emerge
 While two rivers of Mizoram and Manipur creating marshy and swampy conditions
are the tributaries of the Barak river, known as the Tarai.
which in turn is the tributary of Meghna.  Bhangar old alluvium deposit and
 Rivers in eastern part of Manipur are khaddar new alluvium deposit.
tributaries of Chindwin, which in turn is a  These plains have characteristic features of
tributary of the Irrawady of Myanmar. mature stage of fluvial erosional and
II. The Northern Plains: depositional landforms such as sand bars,
meanders, ox- bow lakes and braided
 Formed by the alluvial deposits brought by
channels. The Brahmaputra plains are
the rivers – the Indus, the Ganga and the
known for their riverine islands and sand
Brahmaputra. Extend approximately 3,200
bars.
km from the east to the west. Average
width of these plains varies between 150-  Most of these areas are subjected to
300 km. periodic floods and shifting river courses
forming braided streams.
 The mouths of these mighty rivers also
form some of the largest deltas of the
world, for example, the famous wall-like quartzite dykes offering natural
Sunderbans delta. sites for water storage.
III. The Peninsular Plateau  The western and north-western part of the
plateau has an emphatic presence of black
 Rising from the height of 150 m above the
soil.
river plains up to an elevation of 600-900m
is the irregular triangle known as the  This Peninsular plateau has undergone
Peninsular plateau. recurrent phases of upliftment and
submergence accompanied by crustal
 Delhi ridge in the northwest, (extension
faulting and fractures. (The Bhima fault
of Aravalis), the Rajmahal hills in the
needs special mention, because of its
east, Gir range in the west and the
recurrent seismic activities).
Cardamom hills in the south constitute
the outer extent of the Peninsular plateau.  The north-western part of the plateau has
a complex relief of ravines and gorges. The
 However, an extension of this is also seen
ravines of Chambal, Bhind and Morena are
in the northeast, in the form of Shillong
some of the well-known examples.
and Karbi-Anglong plateau.
On the basis of the prominent relief features,
 The Peninsular India is made up of a series
the Peninsular plateau can be divided into
of patland plateaus such as the
three broad groups:
Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu plateau,
the Ranchi plateau, the Malwa plateau, 1. The Deccan Plateau
the Coimbatore plateau and the 2. The Central Highlands
Karnataka plateau, etc. 3. The North-eastern Plateau.
III.1. The Deccan Plateau:

 This is bordered by the Western Ghats in
the west, Eastern Ghats in the east and
the Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo
hills in the north.
 Western Ghats are locally known by
different names such as Sahyadri in
Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka
 This is one of the oldest and the most and Tamil Nadu and Annamalai hills and
stable landmass of India. Cardamom hills in Kerala.
 The general elevation of the plateau is from  Western Ghats are comparatively higher
the west to the east, which is also proved in elevation and more continuous than the
by the pattern of the flow of rivers. Eastern Ghats.
 Some of the important physiographic

features of this region are tors, block
mountains, rift valleys, spurs, bare rocky
structures, series of hummocky hills and
 Some of the important ranges include the

Javadi hills, the Palconda range, the
Nallamala hills, the Mahendragiri hills, etc.
 The Eastern and the Western Ghats meet
each other at the Nilgiri hills which is
situated at boundary of three states i.e.
Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka and
Sathyamangalam Wildlife Sanctuary and
Tiger Reserve connects both ghats.
III.2. The Central Highlands:

 Their average elevation is about 1,500 m  They are bounded to the west by the
with the height increasing from north to Aravalli range.
south. ‘Anaimudi‘ (2,695 m), the highest  Central Highlands of India are a
peak of Peninsular plateau is located on biogeographic region in India formed by
the Annamalai hills of the Western Ghats the disjunctive ranges of the Satpura and
followed by Meesapulimala (2,640m) and Vindhya Hills
Doddabetta (2,637 m) on the Nilgiri hills.
 The Satpura range is formed by a series of
 Most of the Peninsular rivers have their scarped plateaus on the south, this forms
origin in the Western Ghats. the northern most boundary of the Deccan
plateau. It is a classic example of the relict
mountains which are highly denuded and
form discontinuous ranges.
 The extension of the peninsular plateau
can be seen as far as Jaisalmer in the
West, where it has been covered by the
longitudinal sand ridges and crescent-
 Eastern Ghats comprising the
shaped sand dunes called barchans.
discontinuous and low hills are highly
eroded by the rivers such as Mahanadi, the  This region has undergone metamorphic
Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri, etc. processes in its geological history, which
can be corroborated by the presence of
metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate,
gneiss, etc.
III.3. The North-Eastern Plateau:

 It is an extension of peninsular plateau. It
is believed that due to the force exerted by
the north-eastward movement of the
Indian plate at the time of the Himalayan
origin, a huge fault was created between

the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya precipitation and high evaporation makes
plateau. it a water deficit region.
 Later, this depression got filled up by the  Luni river flowing in the southern part of
deposition activity of the numerous rivers. the desert is of some significance.
Today, the Meghalaya and Karbi Anglong
 There are some streams which disappear
plateau stand detached from the main
after flowing for some distance and present
Peninsular Block.
a typical case of inland drainage by
 The Chhota Nagpur Plateau is a plateau in joining a lake or playa.
eastern India, which covers much of
 The lakes and the playas have brackish
Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts
water which is the main source of
of Odisha, West Bengal and Chhattisgarh.
obtaining salt.
 The Meghalaya plateau is further sub-
V. The Coastal Plains
divided into three: (i) The Garo Hills; (ii)
The Khasi Hills; (iii) The Jaintia Hills,  On the basis of the location and active
named after the tribal groups inhabiting geomorphological processes, it can be
this region. broadly divided into two:
1. Western coastal plains.
 An extension of this is also seen in the
2. Eastern coastal plains.
Karbi Anglong hills of Assam. Similar to
the Chotanagpur plateau, the Meghalaya V.1 Western Coastal Plains:
plateau is also rich in mineral resources
 Submerged Coastal Plain. It is believed
like coal, iron ore, sillimanite, limestone
that the city of Dwaraka which was once a
and uranium.
part of the Indian mainland situated along
 This area receives maximum rainfall from the west coast is submerged under water.
the south west monsoon. As a result, the
 Because of this submergence it is a narrow
Meghalaya plateau has a highly eroded
belt and provides natural conditions for
surface. Cherrapunji displays a bare
the development of ports and harbours.
rocky surface devoid of any permanent
Kandla, Mazagaon, JLN port NavhaSheva,
vegetation cover.
Marmagao, Mangalore, Cochin, etc. are
IV. The Indian Desert: some of the important natural ports
 To the northwest of the Aravalli hills lies located along the west coast.
the Great Indian desert. It is a land of V.1.1 Western coast may be divided
undulating topography dotted with into following divisions:
longitudinal dunes and barchans. 1. Kachchh and Kathiawar coast in Gujarat.
2. Konkan coast in Maharashtra.
 This region receives low rainfall below 150
3. Canara coast and Malabar coast in
mm per year; hence, it has arid climate
Karnataka and Kerala respectively.
with low vegetation cover. It is because of
these characteristic features that this is  The rivers flowing through this coastal
also known as Marusthali. Low plain do not form any delta.

 The Malabar coast has got certain

distinguishing features in the form of
‘Kayals‘ (backwaters), which are used for
fishing, inland navigation and also special
attraction for tourists.
V.2 Eastern Coastal Plains:

The eastern coastal plain is broader and is an
example of an emergent coast.
 There are well developed deltas here,
formed by the rivers flowing eastward in to
the Bay of Bengal. These include the deltas
of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the  The entire group of island is divided into
Krishna and the Kaveri. two broad categories – the Andaman in the
 Because of its emergent nature, it has less north and the Nicobar in the south.
number of ports and harbours. (The  Andaman and Nicobar Islands were formed
continental shelf extends up to 500 km due to collision between Indian Plate and
into the sea, which makes it difficult for Burma Minor Plate (part of Eurasian Plate)
the development of good ports and (Similar to formation of Himalayas).
harbours).
 Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
VI. The Islands: southward extension of Arakan Yoma
 There are two major island groups in India range (Myanmar) (Arakan Yoma in itself is
– one in the Bay of Bengal and the other an extension of Purvanchal Hills).However,
in the Arabian Sea. some smaller islands are volcanic in origin.
Barren island, the only active volcano in
India.
 These islands receive convectional rainfall
and have an equatorial type of vegetation.
VI.1 The islands of the Arabian Sea:

 Include Lakshadweep and Minicoy. These
are scattered between 8°N-12°N and 71°E -
74°E longitude, they are coral origin.
 The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of

about 572 islands/islets.
 These are situated roughly between 6°N-
14°N and 92°E -94°E.

 The boundary line separating one drainage

basin from the other is known as the
watershed.
 The catchments of large rivers are called
river basins (larger area) while those of
small rivulets and rills are often referred to
as watersheds(Smaller Area).
 The drainage pattern resembling the
branches of a tree is known as Dendritic
Ex: the rivers of northern plain.
 When the rivers originate from a hill and
flow in all directions, the drainage pattern
is known as Radial. Ex: Amarkantak range
 When the primary tributaries of rivers flow
 There are approximately 36 islands of parallel to each other and secondary
which 11 are inhabited. tributaries join them at right angles, the
 Minicoy is the largest island with an area pattern is known as Trellis.
of 453 sq. km.  When the rivers discharge their waters
 The entire group of islands is broadly from all directions in a lake or depression,
divided by the Eleventh-degree channel, the pattern is know as Centripetal.
north of which is the Amini Island and to
the south of the Canannore Island.
3. Drainage System
 Flow of water through well-defined

channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the
network of such channels is called a
‘drainage system’.
 Perennial (always with water) 3.1 On the basis of discharge of
 Ephemeral (water during rainy season, and
water (orientations to the sea), it
dry)
may be grouped into:
1. Arabian Sea Drainage.
 A river drains the water collected from a
specific area, which is called its 2. Bay of Bengal Drainage.
‘catchment area’.  They are separated from each other
 An area drained by a river and its through the Delhi ridge, the Aravalis and
tributaries is called a drainage basin. the Sahyadris.

 Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area

consisting of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra,
the Mahanadi, the Krishna, etc. is oriented
towards the Bay of Bengal while 23 per
cent comprising the Indus, the Narmada,
the Tapi, the Mahi and the Periyar systems
discharge their waters in the Arabian Sea.
3.2 On the basis of the size of the

watershed, the drainage basins of
India are grouped into three
categories:
(i) Major river basins with more than
20,000 sq. km of catchment area. It
includes 14 drainage basins such as the (iii) Minor river basins with catchment area of
Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Krishna, less than 2,000 sq. km include fairly good
the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the number of rivers flowing in the area of low
Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc. rainfall
3.3 On the basis of the mode of

origin, nature and characteristics,
the Indian drainage may also be
classified into:
A) Himalayan Drainage
B) Peninsular Drainage.
(ii) Medium river basins with catchment

area between 2,000-20,000 sq. km
includes 44 river basins such as the
Kalindi, the Periyar, the Meghna, etc.
3.3. A. Himalayan Drainage:

 The Himalayan drainage system has
evolved through a long geological history. It
mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and
the Brahmaputra river basins.

 Rivers of this system are perennial. These

rivers pass through the giant gorges carved
out by the erosional activity carried on
simultaneously with the uplift of the
Himalayas.
 Course of these rivers is highly tortuous,
but over the plains they display a strong
meandering tendency and shift their
courses frequently.
Ex: River Kosi, also know as the ‘sorrow of
Bihar’, has been notorious for frequently
changing its course.  It is opined that in due course of time
Indo– Brahma river was dismembered into
three main drainage systems,
(i) The Indus and its five tributaries in
the western part
(ii) The Ganga and its Himalayan
tributaries in the central part
(iii) The stretch of the Brahmaputra in
Assam and its Himalayan tributaries
in the eastern part.
The dismemberment was probably due to the

Pleistocene upheaval in the western
Himalayas, including the uplift of the Potwar
Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the
water divide between the Indus and Ganga
drainage systems.
Likewise, the down- thrusting of the Malda
gap area between the Rajmahal hills and the
Meghalaya plateau during the mid-pleistocene
period, diverted the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay
of Bengal.

and enters the Punjab plains. It is an

antecedent river.
3.3.A.2. The Ganga System

 It rises in the Gangotri glacier near
Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi
district of Uttarakhand. Here, it is known
as the Bhagirathi.
 At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the
3.3.A.1. The Indus System Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the
 One of the largest river basins of the world Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source in
originates from Kailash Mountain range. In the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath.
Tibet, it is known as ‘SingiKhamban’ or The Ganga enters the plains at Haridwar.
Lion’s mouth.  The important left bank tributaries are the
After entering J&K it flows between the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the
Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges. The Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda. The
Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger, Hunza are river finally discharges itself into the Bay of
the other Himalayan tributaries of the Bengal near the Sagar Island.
Indus.  The Yamuna, the western most and the
 The Jhelum, an important tributary of the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its
Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag source in the Yamunotri glacier. It joins
situated at the foot of the PirPanjal.It flows the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). Right
through Srinagar and the Wularlake. bank tributaries of river Yamuna:
Chambal, Sind, Betwa, Ken. Left bank
 The Chenab is the largest tributary of the
tributaries of river Yamuna: Hindan, Rind,
Indus, formed by two streams, the
Senger, Varuna.
Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at
Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.  The Chambal rises near Mhow in the
Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga. Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh.
Chambal is famous for its badland
 The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near
topography called the Chambal ravines.
the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh. It
drains the area between the Pir Panjal and  The Gandak comprises two streams,
the Dhaola Dhar ranges. namely Kaligandak and Trishul ganga. It
rises in the Nepal Himalayas.
 The Beas originates near the Rohtang
Pass  The Damodar occupies the eastern
margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where
 The Satluj originates in the Rakas lake
it flows through a rift valley and finally
near Mansarovar, in Tibet where it is
joins the Hugli. The Barakar is its main
known as Langchen Khambab. It comes
tributary. Also known as the sorrow of
out of a gorge at Rupar. It passes through
Bengal.
the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges

 The Mahananda is another important  Lohit- Tributary of Brahmaputra, flows

tributary of the Ganga rising in the through Arunachal Pradesh. Along with
Darjeeling hills. river Dihang merges into Brahmaputra.
 The Son is a large south bank tributary of  Major tributaries -Dihang, Lohit,
the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak Subansiri, Teesta, Meghna (Barack in
plateau. Assam), Manas
3.3.B. The Peninsular Drainage System:

 Older than the Himalayan rivers. Evident
from the broad, largely-graded shallow
valleys.
 The Western Ghats running close to the
western coast act as the water divide
between the major Peninsular rivers,
discharging their water in the Bay of
Bengal and as small rivulets joining the
3.3.A.3. The Brahmaputra System: Arabian Sea. Most of the major Peninsular
 The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from
of the world, has its origin in the west to east.
Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash  The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the
range near the Mansarovar lake. Ken, the Son, originating in the northern
 It is called Tsangpo, in Tibet, which means part of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga
‘the purifier’ river system.
 The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh  The other major river systems of the
near Dhubri. In Bangladesh, the Tista Peninsular drainage are – the Mahanadi,
joins it on its right bank from where the the Godavari, the Krishna and the Kaveri.
river is known as the Jamuna. It finally  Peninsular rivers are characterised by
merges with the river Padma, which falls in fixed course, absence of meanders and
the Bay of Bengal. non- perennial flow of water. The
 The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, Narmada and the Tapi which flow through
channel shifting and bank erosion. This is the rift valley are, however, exceptions.
due to the fact that most of its tributaries 3.3.B.1 Evolution of Peninsular
are large, and bring large quantity of Drainage System:
sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its
Three major geological events in the distant
catchment area.
past have shaped the present drainage
 Teesta - Major tributary of Brahmaputra, systems of Peninsular India:
rises from Sikkim also known as lifeline of 1. Subsidence of the western flank of the
Sikkim. Peninsula leading to its submergence

below the sea during the early tertiary Maharastra, Karnataka and Andhra
period. Pradesh.
2. Upheaval of the Himalayas when the
northern flank of the Peninsular block was  The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills of
subjected to subsidence and the Kogadu district in Karnataka. Since the
consequent trough faulting. The Narmada upper catchment area receives rainfall
and The Tapi flow in trough faults and fill during the southwest monsoon season
the original cracks with their detritus (summer) and the lower part during the
materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial northeast monsoon season (winter), the
and deltaic deposits in these rivers. river carries water throughout the year.
3. Slight tilting of the Peninsular block
from northwest to the south-eastern It drains through Karnataka, Kerala and
direction gave orientation to the entire Tamil nadu. Its important tributaries are
drainage system towards the Bay of Bengal the Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati.
during the same period.
3.3.B.3 West Flowing Rivers:
3.3.B.2 River Systems of the Peninsular  The Narmada originates on the western
Drainage: flank of the Amarkantak plateau. Flowing
 The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur in a rift valley between the Satpura in the
district of Chhattisgarh and runs south and the Vindhyan range forms
through Odisha to discharge its water into Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur. The
the Bay of Bengal. It drains through Sher, the Shakkar, the Dudhi, the Tawa
Madhya Pradesh, chattisgarh and odisha. are the tributaries.
The major tributaries of Mahanadi are  The Tapi is the other important westward
Seonath, Jonk, Hasdo, Mand, Ib, Ong, flowing river. It originates from Multai in
Tel etc. the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. It
 The Godavari is the largest Peninsular drains through Maharastra, Madhya
river system. It is also called the Dakshin Pradesh, Gujarat.
Ganga. It rises in the Nasik district of  Tawa River rises from the Satpura Range
Maharashtra and discharges its water into of Betul in MP. This river is the longest
the Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run tributary of River Narmada.
through the states of Maharashtra,
 Sharavati River originates from the
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha
Shimoga district of Karnataka. The Jog
and Andhra Pradesh. The Penganga, the
Falls is created by the Sharavati River.
Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra are
its principal tributaries.  Mahi river originates from Dhar district of
Madhya Pradesh and flows through
 The Krishna is the second largest east-
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
flowing Peninsular river which rises near
Drains in to Gulf of Cambay.
Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. The Koyna,
the Tungbhadra and the Bhima are its  Sabarmati is the name given to the
major tributaries. It drains through combined stream of Sabar and Hathmati.
It originates in Aravalli’s. The Sabarmati

basin extends over states of Rajasthan and with high daily and annual range of
Gujarat. temperature.
 Note: Ghaggar is the most important river 2. Himalayan Mountains:
of inland drainage. It is a seasonal stream
Himalayas in the north along with its
which rises on the lower slopes of the
extensions act as an effective climatic divide.
Himalayas and forms boundary between
The towering mountain chain provides an
Haryana and Punjab.
invincible shield to protect the subcontinent
Largest river basin in India – Ganga > from the cold northern winds.
Godavari > Mahanadi > Krishna >
 Himalayas also trap the monsoon winds,
Narmada
forcing them to shed their moisture within
the subcontinent
4. Climate
3. Distribution of Land and Water:
 Weather is the momentary state of the  India is flanked by the Indian Ocean on
atmosphere which changes quickly while three sides in the south and girdled by a
climate refers to the average of the high and continuous mountain-wall in the
weather conditions over a longer period of north.
time.  As compared to the landmass, water heats
 Monsoon connotes the climate associated up or cools down slowly. This differential
with seasonal reversal in the direction of heating of land and sea creates different
wind. India has hot monsoonal climate air pressure zones in different seasons in
which is the prevalent climate in south and and around the Indian subcontinent.
southeast Asia. Difference in air pressure causes
reversal in the direction of monsoon
4.1 Factors Determining the
winds.
Climate of India:
4. Distance from the Sea:
4.1.1 Factors related to location and
With a long coastline, large coastal areas have
relief
an equable climate. Areas in the interior of
1. Latitude: India are far away from the moderating
Northern part of the India lies in sub-tropical influence of the sea. Such areas have
and temperate zone and the part lying south extremes of climate.
of the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical
5. Altitude:
zone. The tropical zone being nearer to the
Temperature decreases with height. Due to
equator, experiences high temperatures
thin air, places in the mountains are cooler
throughout the year with small daily and
than places on the plains.
annual range.
Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being away 6. Relief:
from the equator experiences extreme climate The physiography or relief of India also affects
the temperature, air pressure, direction and

speed of wind and the amount and

distribution of rainfall.
The windward side of Western Ghats and
Assam receive high rainfall during June-
September whereas the southern plateau
remains dry due to its leeward situation along
the Western Ghats.
4.1.2 Factors Related to Air Pressure

and Wind:
1. Distribution of air pressure and winds on
the surface of the earth
•
2. Upper air circulation caused by factors
controlling global weather and the inflow of
different air masses and jet streams
3. Inflow of western cyclones generally known
as disturbances during the winter season
and tropical depressions during the south-
west monsoon period into India, creating
weather conditions favourable to rainfall.
4.2 Mechanism of Weather in the

Winter Season:
4.2.1 Surface Pressure and Winds:
In winter months, the weather conditions over
India are generally influenced by the
distribution of pressure in Central and
Western Asia.
A high-pressure centre in the region lying to
the north of the Himalayas develops during 4.2.3 Jet Stream and Upper Air
winter. This centre of high pressure gives rise Circulation:
to the flow of air at the low level from the Higher up in the lower troposphere, about
north towards the Indian subcontinent, south three km above the surface of the earth, a
of the mountain range. different pattern of air circulation is observed.
The surface winds blowing out of the high- The variations in the atmospheric pressure
pressure centre over Central Asia reach India closer to the surface of the earth have no role
in the form of a dry continental air mass. to play in the making of upper air circulation.
These continental winds come in contact with All of Western and Central Asia remains under
trade winds over north-western India. the influence of westerly winds along the

altitude of 9-13 km from west to east. These An increase in the prevailing night
winds blow across the Asian continent at temperature generally indicates an advance in
latitudes north of the Himalayas roughly the arrival of these cyclones disturbances.
parallel to the Tibetan highlands. These are
Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay of
known as jet streams.
Bengal and the Indian ocean. These tropical
Jet streams are fast-moving winds in the cyclones have very high wind velocity and
upper atmosphere which influences the global heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil Nadu, Andhra
atmospheric phenomenon. Pradesh and Orissa coast. Most of these
cyclones are very destructive due to high wind
Jets streams play a key role in determining
velocity and torrential rain that accompanies.
the weather because they usually separate
colder air and warmer air. Jet streams
generally push air masses around, moving
weather systems to new areas and even
causing them to stall if they have moved too
far away.
Climatologists say that changes in the jet
streams are closely tied to global warming,
especially the polar jet streams, because there
is a great deal of evidence that the North and
South poles are warming faster than the
remainder of the planet. When the jets
streams are warmer, their ups and downs
become more extreme, bringing different types 4.3 Mechanism of Weather in the
of weather to areas that are not accustomed to Summer Season:
climate variations.
4.3.1 Surface Pressure and Winds:
Tibetan highlands act a barrier in the path of
Jet streams as a result it gets bifurcated. One As the summer sets in and the sun shifts
of its branches blows north of Tibetan northwards, the wind circulation over the
highland and southern branch blows in an subcontinent undergoes a complete reversal
eastward direction, south of the Himalayas at both, the lower as well as the upper levels.
there by influencing winter weather in India. By the middle of July, the low pressure belt
nearer the surface [termed as Inter Tropical
4.2.4 Western Cyclonic Disturbance and Convergence Zone (ITCZ)] shifts northwards,
Tropical Cyclones: by this time, the westerly jet stream
The western cyclonic disturbances which withdraws from the Indian region.
enter the Indian subcontinent from the west It is generally believed that there is a cause
and the northwest during the winter months, and effect relationship between the ITCZ and
originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are jet stream. The ITCZ being a zone of low
brought into India by the westerly jet stream. pressure, attracts inflow of winds from
different directions. The maritime tropical
airmass (mT) from the southern hemisphere, 4.3.2.2 The Inter Tropical Convergence
after crossing the equator, rushes to the low Zone (ITCZ):
pressure area in the general south-westerly A low pressure zone located at the equator
direction. It is this moist air current which is where trade winds converge, and so, it is a
popularly known as the southwest monsoon. zone where air tends to ascend.
In July, the ITCZ is located around 20°N-25°N
latitudes (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes
called the monsoon trough.
This monsoon trough encourages the
development of thermal low over north and
northwest India. Due to the shift of ITCZ, the
trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross
the equator between 40° and 60°E longitudes
4.3.2 Jet Streams and Upper Air
and start blowing from southwest to
Circulation:
northeast due to the Coriolis force. It
An easterly jet stream flows over the southern
becomes southwest monsoon.
part of the Peninsula in June. The easterlies
normally do not extend to the north of 30 In winter, the ITCZ moves southward, and so
degree N latitude in the upper atmosphere. the reversal of winds from northeast to south
and southwest, takes place. They are called
4.3.2.1 Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical northeast monsoons.
Cyclones:
The easterly jet stream steers the tropical 5. Indian Monsoon
depressions into India. These depressions
play a significant role in the distribution of 5.1 Onset of the Monsoon:
monsoon rainfall over the Indian
 During April and May when the sun
subcontinent. The tracks of these depressions
shines vertically over the Tropic of
are the areas of highest rainfall in India.
Cancer, the large landmass in the north of
The frequency at which these depressions visit Indian ocean gets intensely heated. This
India, their direction and intensity, all go a causes the formation of an intense low
long way in determining the rainfall pattern pressure in the north-western part of the
during the southwest monsoon period. subcontinent.
 Since the pressure in the Indian Ocean in
the south of the landmass is high as
water gets heated slowly, the low pressure
cell attracts the southeast trades across
the Equator.
 These conditions help in the northward
shift in the position of the ITCZ. The
southwest monsoon may thus, be seen as

a continuation of the southeast trades occur for one or more weeks, it is known as
deflected towards the Indian subcontinent break in the monsoon. These dry spells are
after crossing the Equator. These winds quite common during the rainy season.
cross the Equator between 40°E and 60°E
These breaks in the different regions are
longitudes.
due to different reasons:
 After withdrawal of westerly jet streams,
(i) In northern India rains are likely to fail if
easterly jet stream sets in at 15 degree N,
the rain-bearing storms are not very
thereby resulting in burst of monsoon in
frequent along the monsoon trough or the
India.
ITCZ over this region.
5.2 Entry of Monsoon into India: (ii) Over the west coast the dry spells are
The southwest monsoon sets in over the associated with days when winds blow
Kerala coast by 1st June and to reach Mumbai parallel to the coast.
and kolkata 10th and 13th June.
5.3 EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon:
5.2.1 Rain-bearing Systems and Rainfall EI-Nino is a complex weather system that
Distribution: appears once every three to seven years,
There seem to be two rain-bearing systems in bringing drought, floods and other weather
India. extremes to different parts of the world.
1. In Bay of Bengal causing rainfall over the The system involves oceanic and atmospheric
plains of north India. phenomena with the appearance of warm
2. Arabian Sea current of the southwest currents off the coast of Peru in the
monsoon which brings rain to the west Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many
coast of India. Much of the rainfall along places including India.
the Western Ghats is orographic as the EI-Nino is merely an extension of the warm
moist air is obstructed and forced to rise equatorial current which gets replaced
along the Ghats. temporarily by cold Peruvian current or
The intensity of rainfall over the west coast Humbolt current. This current increases the
of India is, however, related to two factors: temperature of water on the Peruvian coast by
10°C. This results in:
(i) The offshore meteorological
conditions. (i) Distortion of equatorial atmospheric
circulation
(ii) The position of the equatorial jet
stream along the eastern coast of (ii) Irregularities in the evaporation of sea
Africa. water
Frequency of tropical depressions depends on (iii) Reduction in the amount of planktons

position of ITCZ/ monsoon trough. which further reduces the number of fish
in the sea
5.2.2 Break in the Monsoon:
During the south-west monsoon period after
having rains for a few days, if rain fails to
 With a positive IOD winds over the Indian

Ocean blow from east to west (from Bay of
Bengal towards Arabian Sea). This results
in the Arabian Sea (western Indian Ocean
near African Coast) being much warmer
and eastern Indian Ocean around
Indonesia becoming colder and dry.
 In the negative dipole year (negative IOD),
reverse happens making Indonesia much
warmer and rainier.
5.5 The Rhythm of Seasons:

The climatic conditions of India can best be
described in terms of an annual cycle of 4
seasons:
1. Cold weather season
The word EI-Nino means ‘Child Christ‘
because this current appears around 2. Hot weather season
Christmas in December. December is a 3. Southwest monsoon season
summer month in Peru (Southern
4. Retreating monsoon season
Hemisphere).
5.5.1. The Cold Weather Season:
5.4 ENSO:
El Nino and the Southern Oscillation, also Temperature:
known as ENSO is a periodic fluctuation in  The cold weather season sets in by mid-
sea surface temperature (El Nino) and the air November in northern India. December
pressure of the overlying atmosphere and January are the coldest months in the
(Southern Oscillation) across the equatorial northern plain.
Pacific Ocean.  There are three main reasons for the
Indian Ocean Dipole excessive cold in north India during this
season:
 The Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) is defined
by the difference in sea surface (i) States like Punjab, Haryana and
temperature between two areas (or poles, Rajasthan being far away from the
hence a dipole) – a western pole in moderating influence of sea
the western Indian Ocean and an eastern experience continental climate.
pole in the eastern Indian Ocean south of (ii) The snowfall in the nearby Himalayan
Indonesia. ranges creates cold wave situation;
 IOD develops in the equatorial region of (iii) The cold winds coming from the
Indian Ocean from April to May peaking in Caspian Sea and Turkmenistan bring
October.

cold wave along with frost and fog 5.5.2. The Hot Weather Season
over the north-western parts of India.
Temperature:
 The Peninsular region of India, however,
With the apparent northward movement of the
does not have any well-defined cold
sun towards the Tropic of Cancer in March,
weather season. There is no seasonal
temperatures start rising in north India. April,
change in the distribution pattern of the
May and June are the months of summer in
temperature in coastal areas because of
north India. In the coastal regions, the north-
moderating influence of the sea and the
south extent of isotherms parallel to the
proximity to equator.
coast confirms that temperature does not
5.5.1.2 Pressure and Winds: decrease from north to south rather it
increases from the coast to the interior.
By the end of December (22nd December), the
sun shines vertically over the Tropic of 5.5.2.1 Pressure and Winds:
Capricorn in the southern hemisphere. The
The summer months are a period of excessive
weather in this season is characterised by
heat and falling air pressure in the northern
feeble high pressure conditions over the
half of the country. Because of the heating of
northern plain.
the subcontinent, the ITCZ moves
5.5.1.3 Rainfall: northwards occupying a position centred at
25°N in July.
Winter monsoons do not cause rainfall as
they move from land to the sea. A sudden contact between dry and moist air
masses give rise to local storms of great
1. They have little humidity
intensity associated with violent winds,
2. Due to anti cyclonic circulation on land, torrential rains and hailstorms.
the possibility of rainfall from them
reduces. So, most parts of India do not 1. Mango Shower:
have rainfall in the winter season. Towards the end of summer, there are pre
monsoon showers common in Kerala and
However, there are some exceptions to it:
Karnataka. locally, they are known as mango
(i) In North-western India, some weak showers, since they help in the early ripening
temperate cyclones from the of mangoes.
Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in
Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western Uttar 2. Blossom Shower:
Pradesh. With this shower coffee flowers blossom in
kerala and nearby areas
(ii) During October and November, northeast
monsoon while crossing over the Bay of 3. Nor Westers:
Bengal, picks up moisture and causes
These are dreaded evening thunderstorm in
torrential rainfall over the Tamil Nadu
Bengal and Assam. Their notorious nature can
coast, southern Andhra Pradesh,
be understood from the local nomenclature of
southeast Karnataka and southeast
‘kalbaisakhi. These showers are useful for tea,
Kerala.

jute rice cultivation. In Assam, these storms 1200 m. Soon, they become cool, and as a
are known as Bardoli chheerha. result, the windward side of the
Sahyadris and Western Coastal Plain
4. Loo:
receive very heavy rainfall ranging
Hot, dry and oppressing winds blowing in the between 250 cm and 400 cm.
northern plains from Punjab to Bihar with
After crossing the Western Ghats, these
higher intensity.
winds descend and get heated up. This
5.5.3. The Southwest Monsoon Season reduces humidity in the winds. As a
Increase of temperature in May over the result, these winds cause little rainfall
north-western plains, the low-pressure east of the Western Ghats. This region of
conditions over there get further intensified. low rainfall is known as the rain-shadow
area. (orographic)
By early June, they are powerful enough to
attract the trade winds of Southern (ii) Another branch of the Arabian sea
Hemisphere coming from the Indian Ocean. monsoon strikes the coast north of
These southeast trade winds cross the equator Mumbai. Moving along the Narmada and
and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Tapi river valleys, these winds cause
Sea. Passing over the equatorial warm rainfall in extensive areas of central India.
currents, they bring with them moisture in Thereafter, they enter the Ganga plains
abundance. and mingle with the Bay of Bengal
branch.
After crossing the equator, they follow a
south-westerly direction. That is why they are (iii) A third branch of this monsoon wind
known as southwest monsoons. strikes the Saurashtra Peninsula and the
Kachchh. It then passes over west
The rain in the southwest monsoon season
Rajasthan and along the Aravalli, causing
begins abruptly, there by brings down the
only a scanty rainfall.
temperature substantially. This sudden onset
of the moisture-laden winds associated with 5.5.3.2. Monsoon Winds of the Bay of
violent thunder and lightning, is often termed Bengal:
as the break or burst of the monsoons. The Bay of Bengal branch strikes the coast of
The monsoon approaches the landmass in Myanmar and part of southeast Bangladesh.
two branches: But the Arakan Hills along the coast of
Myanmar deflect a big portion of this branch
(i) The Arabian Sea branch
towards the Indian subcontinent.
(ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
 The monsoon, therefore, enters West
5.5.3.1. Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea: Bengal and Bangladesh from south and
The monsoon winds originating over the southeast instead of south-westerly
Arabian Sea further split into three branches: direction. From here, this branch splits
into two under the influence of the
(i) Its one branch is obstructed by the
Himalayas and the thermal low in
Western Ghats. These winds climb the
northwest India.
slopes of the Western Ghats from 900-
 Its one branch moves westward along the Peninsula. Here, October and November
Ganga plains reaching as far as the are the rainiest months of the year.
Punjab plains.
 The widespread rain in this season is
 The other branch moves up the associated with the passage of cyclonic
Brahmaputra valley in the north and the depressions which originate over the
northeast, causing widespread rains. Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
eastern coast of the southern Peninsula.
 Its sub-branch strikes the Garo and Khasi
These tropical cyclones are very
hills of Meghalaya. Mawsynram, located on
destructive.
the crest of Khasi hills, receives the highest
average annual rainfall in the world. 5.5.4.1. Characteristics of Monsoonal
Rainfall:
 Here it is important to know why the
Tamil Nadu coast remains dry during (i) Rainfall received from the southwest
this season. There are two factors monsoons is seasonal in character,
responsible for it: which occurs between June and
September.
(i) The Tamil Nadu coast is situated
parallel to the Bay of Bengal branch of (ii) Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by
southwest monsoon. relief or topography.
(ii) It lies in the rain shadow area of the (iii) The monsoon rainfall has a declining
Arabian Sea branch of the south-west trend with increasing distance from
monsoon. the sea.
5.5.4. Season of Retreating Monsoon: (iv) The monsoon rains occur in wet spells of
few days duration at a time. The wet
 The months of October and November are
spells are interspersed with rainless
known for retreating monsoons.
interval known as Monsoonal breaks.
 By the end of September, the southwest
(v) The summer rainfall comes in a heavy
monsoon becomes weak as the low
downpour leading to considerable run off
pressure trough of the Ganga plain starts
and soil erosion.
moving southward in response to the
southward march of the sun. (vi) Monsoons play a pivotal role in the
agrarian economy of India because over
 The retreating southwest monsoon season
three-fourths of the total rain in the
is marked by clear skies and rise in
country is received during the south-
temperature. The land is still moist.
west monsoon season.
Owing to the conditions of high
temperature and humidity, the weather (vii) Its spatial distribution is also uneven
becomes rather oppressive. This is which ranges from 12 cm to more than
commonly known as the October heat. 250 cm.
 The weather in the retreating monsoon is

dry in north India but it is associated
with rain in the eastern part of the
5.6. Distribution of Rainfall: most of western Rajasthan receive rainfall

below 50 cm.
 Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan
region.
5.7 Climatic Regions of India:

5.7.1 Major climatic types of India:
 Based on Koppen‘s Scheme: Koppen
based his scheme of Climatic classification
on monthly values of temperature and
precipitation.
 The average annual rainfall in India is
about 125 cm, but it has great spatial  He identified five major climatic types,
variations. namely:
 Areas of High Rainfall: The highest (i) Tropical climates, where mean
rainfall occurs along the west coast, on monthly temperature throughout the
the Western Ghats, as well as in the sub- year is over 18°C.
Himalayan areas is the northeast and (ii) Dry climates, where precipitation is
the hills of Meghalaya. Here the rainfall very low in comparison to
exceeds 200 cm. In some parts of Khasi temperature, and hence, dry.
and Jaintia hills, the rainfall exceeds 1,000
(iii) Warm temperate climates, where
cm. In the Brahmaputra valley and the
mean temperature of the coldest
adjoining hills, the rainfall is less then 200
month is between 18°C and minus
cm.
3°C.
 Areas of Medium Rainfall : Rainfall
(iv) Cool temperate climates, where
between 100-200 cm is received in the
mean temperature of the warmest
southern parts of Gujarat, east Tamil
month is over 10°C, and mean
Nadu, north eastern Peninsula covering
temperature of the coldest month is
Odisha, Jharkhand, Bihar, eastern
under minus 3°C
Madhya Pradesh, northern Ganga plain
along the sub-Himalayas and the Cachar (v) Ice climates, where mean
Valley and Manipur. temperature of the warmest month is
under 10°C.
 Areas of Low Rainfall: Western Uttar
Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab, Jammu
and Kashmir, eastern Rajasthan, Gujarat
and Deccan Plateau receive rainfall
between 50-100 cm.
 Areas of Inadequate Rainfall: Parts of the
Peninsula, especially in Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka and Maharashtra, Ladakh and
5. Littoral and Swamp forests
6.1.1. Tropical Evergreen forests and

. semi ever green forests.
 Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen
6. Natural Vegetation Forests found in the western slope of the
Western Ghats, hills of the north-eastern
 Natural vegetation refers to a plant region and the Andaman and Nicobar
community that has been left undisturbed Islands found in warm and humid areas
over a long time, so as to allow its with an annual precipitation of over 200
individual species to adjust themselves to cm and mean annual temperature above
climate and soil conditions as fully as 22degree C.
possible.
 Well stratified, with layers closer to the
 Himalayan heights are marked with ground and are covered with shrubs and
temperate vegetation; the Western creepers, with short structured trees
Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands followed by tall variety of trees up to height
have tropical rain forests. The deltaic of 60cm.
regions have tropical forests and
 There is no definite time for trees to
mangroves. The desert and semi desert
shed their leaves, flowering and fruition.
areas of Rajasthan are known for cactii, a
As such these forests appear green all the
wide variety of bushes and thorny
year round.
vegetation
 Species found in these forests include
6.1 Types of Forests: rosewood, mahogony, aini, ebony, etc.
1. Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen
forests
2. Tropical Deciduous forests
3. Tropical Thorn forests
4. Montane forests
Semi Evergreen Forests: 6.1.3. Tropical Thorn Forests

 Found in the less rainy, such forests have  Found in the areas which receive rainfall
a mixture of evergreen and moist less than 50 cm.
deciduous trees.
 These consist of a variety of grasses and
 The undergrowing climbers provide an shrubs. It includes semi-arid areas of
evergreen character to these forests. south west Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
 Main species are white cedar, hollock and
Pradesh.
kail.
 Plants remain leafless for most part of the
6.1.2. Tropical Deciduous Forests:
year and give an expression of scrub
 These are the most widespread forests in vegetation.
India, also called as monsoon forests.
 Babool, ber, and wild date palm, khair,
They are found in areas with rainfall of 70-
neem, khejri, palas, etc. Tussocky grass
200 cm.
grows upto a height of 2 m as the under
 On the basis of the availability of water, growth.
these forests are further divided into moist
and dry deciduous. 6.1.4. Montane Forests:
 In mountainous areas, the decrease in
6.1.2.a The Moist Deciduous:
temperature with increasing altitude leads
 Rainfall of 100-200 cm. These forests are to a corresponding change in natural
found in the northeastern states along the vegetation.
foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the
Mountain forests can be classified into two
Western Ghats and Odisha.
types.
 Teak, sal, shisham, hurra, mahua, amla,
a. The Northern mountain forests
semul, kusum, and sandalwood etc. are
b. The Southern mountain forests
the main species of these forests.
6.1.2.b Dry Deciduous Forest: 6.1.4.a. Northern Mountain Forests:

 The Himalayan ranges show a succession
 Covers vast areas of the country, where
of vegetation from the tropical to the
rainfall ranges between 70 - 100 cm.
tundra, which changes with the altitude.
found in rainier areas of the Peninsula and
the plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of
dry season begins, the trees shed their the Himalayas.
leaves completely.
It is succeed by the wet temperate type of
 Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, axle forests between an altitude of 1000-2000m in
wood etc. are the common trees of these the higher hill areas of west Bengal and
forests. Uttaranchal, Evergreen broad leaf trees such
as oak and chestnut are predominant.
Between 1500-1750m, Pine forests are well
developed, with Chir pine as a very useful
commercial tree. Deodar, a highly valued 6.1.5 Littoral and Swamp Forests:
endemic species grows mainly in the western  India has a rich variety of wetland
part of the Himalayan range. Deodar is a habitats. About 70 per cent of this
durable wood mainly used in construction comprises areas under paddy cultivation.
activity, similarly the chinar and the walnut, Two sites — Chilika Lake (Odisha) and
which sustain the famous Kashmir Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are
handicrafts belong to this zone blue pine and protected as water-fowl habitats under the
spruce appear at altitude of 2225 -3048 m. Convention of Wetlands of International
At many place in this zone temperate grass Importance (Ramsar Convention).
lands are found. But in the higher reaches 6.2 Forest Cover in India:
there is a transaction to alpine forests and
 The forest area covers 23.28 per cent of the
pastures. Silverfirs, junipers, pines, birch and
total land area of the country.
rhododendrons, etc., occur between used
extensively for transhumance by tribes like  The forest area is the area notified and
the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, thebhotiyas and recorded as the forest land irrespective of
the gaddis. the existence of trees, while the actual
forest cover is the area occupied by
Southern slopes of the Himalayans carry a
forests with canopy.
thicker vegetation cover because of relatively
higher precipitation than the drier north – 6.3 India State of Forest Report
facing slopes at higher altitudes, mosses and (ISFR) 2019:
lichens from part of tundra vegetation.  The Ministry for Environment, Forests and
6.1.4.b. Southern Mountain Forests: Climate Change has released the India
State of Forest Report (ISFR), 2019.
 Found in three distinct areas of Peninsular
India viz; the Western Ghats, the  ISFR is a biennial publication of Forest
Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are Survey of India (FSI), an organization
closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m under the Ministry of Environment
above the sea level, vegetation is temperate Forest & Climate Change.
in the higher regions, and subtropical on  The ISFR assesses the forest and tree
the lower regions of the Western Ghats, cover, bamboo resources, carbon stock and
especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and forest fires.
Karnataka.
 The 2019 report for the first time has
 The temperate forests are called Sholas assessed the qualitative nature of the
in the Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. forest cover, including listing its
Some of the other trees of this forest of biodiversity and the type of plants and
economic significance include magnolia, trees found.
laurel, cinchona and wattle. Such forests
 It also created a national forest inventory
are also found in the Satpura and the
for the first time on produce from forests.
Maikal ranges.

6.3.1 Key Findings 6.5 Social Forestry:

Forest Cover  Social forestry means the management and
protection of forests and afforestation on
 Forest Cover (Area-wise): Madhya
barren lands with the purpose of helping in
Pradesh > Arunachal Pradesh>
the environmental, social and rural
Chhattisgarh > Odisha > Maharashtra.
development.
 Forest Cover (Percentage): Mizoram
 Urban forestry pertains to the raising and
(85.4%)> Arunachal Pradesh (79.63%)>
management of trees on public and
Meghalaya (76.33%)
privately owned lands in and around
 The country’s forest cover includes all urban centres such as green belts, parks,
patches of land with a tree canopy density roadside avenues, industrial and
of more than 10% and more than 1 hectare commercial green belts, etc.
in area, irrespective of land use, ownership
 Rural forestry lays emphasis on
and species of trees.
promotion of agro-forestry and community-
 The total forest cover of the country is forestry.
7,12,249 sq km which is 21.67% of the
 Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and
geographical area of the country.
agriculture crops on the same land
 The top five states to have shown an inclusive of the waste patches. It combines
increase in forest cover include Karnataka forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the
(1,025 sq km) > Andhra Pradesh (990 sq simultaneous production of food, fodder,
km) > Kerala (823 sq km) > J&K (371 sq fuel, timber and fruit.
km) > Himachal Pradesh (334 sq km).
 Community forestry involves the raising
 Total forest cover in the North Eastern of trees on public or community land such
region is 1,70,541 sq km, which is 65.05% as the village pasture and temple land etc.
of its geographical area.
 Farm forestry is a term applied to the
 There has been a decrease of forest cover process under which farmers grow trees for
to the extent of 765 sq km (0.45%) in the commercial and non-commercial purposes
region. Except Assam and Tripura, all the on their farm lands.
States in the region show decrease in
forest cover.
6.4 Forest Conservation:

 Forest policy in 1952, which was further
modified in 1988. According to the new
forest policy, the Government will
emphasise sustainable forest
management in order to conserve and
expand forest reserve on the one hand, and
to meet the needs of local people on the
other.
6.6 Forests of India:

Forest Type Distribution Climatic Conditions Characteristics Species
Rainy Slopes of
Western ghats
North-Eash India Mahogany, Mahua,
except Arunachal Rainfall >200cm Height of trees is 40 to Bamboo, Cones, Ironwood,
Tropical Pradesh. Relative humidity > 70% 60m Kadam, Irul, Jamun,
Evergreen Hopea, Rubber tree, Toon,
Forests Eastern part of Average temperature is about 24°C. Leaves are dark green
West Bengal and and broad Telsur etc.
Hot and humid climate.
Odisha
Andaman and
Nicobar Islands
Eastern parts of
Sahyadris (Western
ghats)
North Eastern part
of Peninsula.
30 to 40 m high trees. Sal, Teak, Arjun,
Tropical Middle and lower
100 to 200cm rainfall per annum Due to deficiency of Mulberry, Kusum,
Moist Ganga valley
water, they shed their Sandalwood, Siris, Haldi,
Deciduous Foothills of Moderate temperature.
leaves in spring (onset of Khair, Mango, Banyan tree
Forests Himalayas in
summer) etc.
Bhabar and Tarai
region
These cover about
20% India’s forest
area
Large parts of
Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh.
Parts of Punjab,
Haryana and
Eastern parts of
Rajasthan. 50 to 100 com rainfall. 6 to 15 m high.
Tropical Dry Teak, Sal, Bamboo,
Deciduous Mango, Acacia, Neem,
Forests Northern and Moderate humidity. Roots are thick and long. Shisham etc.
Western parts of
Madhya Pradesh.
Tamil Nadu.
Southern parts of
Uttar Pradesh.
Rajasthan and
adjoining areas of Thorny vegetation.
Low rainfall (less than 50cm per Cactis.Thorny bushes,
Dry Forests Haryana, Gurjarat
annum). Kikar, Babool, Date palm,
or Arid and Punjab. Roots are very long.
Acacia, Khair, Euphorbias
Forests
Relative humidity is less etc
Rainshadow areas Leaves are small.
of peninsular India.
Due to increase of altitude the
Mountainous Each vegetation belt Sal, Teak, Chir, Deodar,
temperature decreases hence
forests or In Himalayan occurs at relatively 300m Oak, Olive, Chestnut,
Himalayan forests contain all the
Himalayan region more height in Eastern Conifers, Spruce and Lirch
varieties of world except equatorial
Forest Himalayas. etc.
forest
Wildlife-Covered in Environment Ready Reckoner

7. Soils arrangement of layers is known as the soil

profile.
 The mixture of rock debris and organic 7.1. Classification of Soils

materials which develop on the earth‘s  In ancient times, soils used to be classified
surface. into two main groups – Urvara and Usara,
 The major factors affecting the formation of which were fertile and sterile, respectively.
soil are relief, parent material, climate,
vegetation and other life-forms and time.
 Components of the soil are mineral
particles, humus, water and air.
 Horizon A is the topmost zone, where
organic materials have got incorporated
with the mineral matter, nutrients and
water, which are necessary for the growth
of plants.
 Horizon B is a transition zone between
the ‘horizon A‘ and ‘horizon C‘, and
contains matter derived from below as well
as from above. It has some organic matter  Indian Council of Agricultural Research
in it, although the mineral matter is (ICAR) has classified the Indian soils into 8
noticeably weathered. categories. On the basis of genesis,
colour, composition and location, the
soils of India have been classified into:
7.1.1. Alluvial Soils:

 Alluvial soils are widespread in the
northern plains and the river valleys.
These soils cover about 40 per cent of the
total area of the country.
 They are depositional soils, transported
and deposited by rivers and streams.
 Through a narrow corridor in Rajasthan,
they extend into the plains of Gujarat. In
the Peninsular region, they are found in
 Horizon C is composed of the loose parent deltas of the east coast and in the river
material. This layer is the first stage in the valleys.
soil formation process and eventually
 They vary in nature from sandy loam to
forms the above two layers. This
clay and are rich in potash but poor in
phosphorous.
Bangar –old alluvium  The soil develops a reddish colour due to

a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline
Khaddar- new alluvium
and metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow
Kankar –calcerous deposits when it occurs in a hydrated form.
 Alluvial soils are intensively cultivated.  The fine-grained red and yellow soils are
7.1.2. Black Soil: normally fertile, whereas coarse-grained
soils found in dry upland areas are poor in
 Black soil covers most of the Deccan
fertility.
Plateau which includes parts of
Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat,  They are generally poor in nitrogen,
Andhra Pradesh and some parts of Tamil phosphorous and humus
Nadu.
7.1.4. Laterite Soil:
 These soils are also known as the ‘Regur  Laterite has been derived from the Latin
Soil’ or the ‘Black Cotton Soil’. Generally word ‘Later’ which means brick.
clayey, deep and impermeable.
 The laterite soils develop in areas with
 They swell and become sticky when wet high temperature and high rainfall.
and shrink when dried. So, during the dry These are the result of intense leaching
season, these soil develop wide cracks like due to tropical rains. With rain, lime and
‘self-ploughing‘. silica are leached away, and soils rich in
 Because of this character of slow iron oxide and aluminium compound are
absorption and loss of moisture, the black left behind.
soil retains the moisture for a very long  Humus content of the soil is removed fast
time, which helps the crops, especially, by bacteria that thrives well in high
the rain fed ones, to sustain even during temperature.
the dry season.
 Poor in organic matter, nitrogen,
 Chemically, the black soils are rich in phosphate and calcium, while iron oxide
lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They and potash are in excess. Hence, laterites
also contain potash. But they lack in are not suitable for cultivation .
phosphorous, nitrogen and organic matter.
 Red laterite soils in Tamil Nadu, Andhra
The colour of the soil ranges from deep
Pradesh and Kerala are more suitable for
black to grey.
tree crops like cashewnut.
7.1.3. Red and Yellow Soil:
 The laterite soils are commonly found in
 Red soil develops on crystalline igneous Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya
rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and
and southern part of the Deccan Plateau. Assam.
Yellow and red soils are also found in parts
of Odisha and Chhattisgarh and in the 7.1.5. Arid Soils:
southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.  Arid soils range from red to brown in
colour.

 They are generally sandy in structure and 7.1.7 Peaty Soils:

saline in nature.  Found in the areas of heavy rainfall and
 They lack moisture and humus. Nitrogen high humidity, where there is a good
is insufficient and the phosphate growth of vegetation.
content is normal. Lower horizons of the  Thus, large quantity of dead organic matter
soil are occupied by ‘kankar‘ layers accumulates in these areas, and this gives
because of the increasing calcium content a rich humus and organic content to the
downwards. soil. Organic matter in these soils may go
 The ‘Kankar’ (calcium) layer formation in even up to 40-50 per cent.
the bottom horizons restricts the  Soils are normally heavy and black in
infiltration of water, and as such when colour.
irrigation is made available, the soil
 Occurs widely in the northern part of
moisture is readily available for a
Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal and
sustainable plant growth.
the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa
 Arid soils are characteristically developed and Tamil Nadu.
in western Rajasthan, which exhibit
characteristic arid topography. These soils 7.1.8. Forest Soils:
are poor and contain little humus and  Forest soils are formed in the forest areas
organic matter. where sufficient rainfall is available.
7.1.6. Saline Soils:  They are Loamy and silty on valley sides
and coarse-grained in the upper slopes.
 Also known as Usara soils. Saline soils
contain a larger proportion of sodium,  In the snow-bound areas of the Himalayas,
potassium and magnesium, and thus, they experience denudation, and are acidic
they are infertile, and do not support any with low humus content. The soils found
vegetative growth. in the lower valleys are fertile.
 They occur in arid and semi-arid regions, 7.2. Soils in India:

and in waterlogged and swampy areas. Types of Area of Crops
Compositions
Soils Occurrence grown
 Their structure ranges from sandy to Large
variety of
loamy. Punjab, Rich in potash Rabi and
Haryana, and lime but Kharif
 They lack in nitrogen and calcium. Uttar deficient in crops such
Alluvial
Pradesh, nitrogen and as wheat,
 Saline soils are more widespread in Bihar and phosphoric rice,
Jharkhand acid sugarcane,
western Gujarat, deltas of the eastern
cotton and
coast and in Sunderban areas of West jute etc
Deccan Rich in iron,
Bengal.
plateau, lime, Cotton,
valleys of aluminium, sugarcane,
Black (or
Krishna and magnesium, jowar,
Regur
Godavari, calcium but tobacco,
soil)
Andhra lacks in wheat and
Pradesh, nitrogen, rice
Madhya phosphorus

Pradesh and and humus 7.3. Soil Degradation:
Tamil Nadu
Eastern
Rich in iron  Defined as the decline in soil fertility,
parts of
and potash Wheat, when the nutritional status declines and
Deccan
but deficient rice,
Plateau, depth of the soil goes down due to erosion
Red in lime, cotton,
Tamil Nadu,
nitrogen sugarcane and misuse.
Goa, Odisha
phosphorus and pulses
and
and humus  Soil degradation is the main factor leading
Meghalaya
Summits of to the depleting soil resource base in India.
Eastern and
Western Rich in iron
ghats, but poor in Tea, coffee,
7.4. Soil Erosion:
Assam hills, silica, lime, rubber,  The destruction of the soil cover is
Laterite
Andhra phosphorus, cashew
Pradesh, potash and and millets described as soil erosion.
Karnataka, humus
West Bengal  The soil forming processes and the
and Odisha erosional processes of running water and
Generally
unsuitable wind go on simultaneously. But generally,
for there is a balance between these two
cultivation,
West and but with processes. The rate of removal of fine
North-West irrigation particles from the surface is the same as
India, Rich in soluble useful for
Rajasthan, salts, but cultivation the rate of addition of particles to the soil
Desert
North deficient in of drought-
layer.
Gujarat and organic matter resistant
Southern lime,
Punjab millets,
 Wind and water are powerful agents of soil
barley, erosion because of their ability to remove
cotton,
maize and
soil and transport it.
pulses
With
 Wind erosion is significant in arid and
Hills of
Jammu and Rich in iron
fertilizers, semi-arid regions.
tea, fruits
Kashmir and humus,
Mountain
Uttarakhand but deficient
and  In regions with heavy rainfall and steep
medicinal
and Assam in lime
plants can slopes, erosion by running water is more
hills
be grown significant.
Drier parts
of Bihar,  Sheet erosion takes place on level lands
Jharkhand,
Uttar
Many salts after a heavy shower and the soil removal
Saline such as
and
Pradesh,
sodium,
Unfit for is not easily noticeable. But it is harmful
Haryana, agriculture
Alkaline
Punjab,
magnesium since it removes the finer and more fertile
and calcium
Rajasthan top soil.
and
Maharashtra  Gully erosion is common on steep slopes.
Kerala,
Contain large Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the
coastal
amount of
regions of agricultural lands into small fragments
soluble salts Useful for
Peaty Odisha,
and organic rice and and make them unfit for cultivation. A
and Tamil Nadu
matter, but jute
Marshy and region with a large number of deep gullies
lack in potash cultivation
Suderbans
and or ravines is called a badland topography.
of West
phosphates
Bengal Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal

basin. They are also found in Tamil Nadu Trenches are made in front of the barriers
and West Bengal. to collect water.
 Deforestation is one of the major causes  Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow
of soil erosion. down the flow of water. This prevents
gullies and further soil loss.
 A fairly large area of arable land in the
irrigated zones of India is becoming saline  Terrace farming: These are made on the
because of over- irrigation. The salt steep slopes so that flat surfaces are
lodged in the lower profiles of the soil available to grow crops. They can reduce
comes up to the surface and destroys its surface run-off and soil erosion
fertility.
 Intercropping: Different crops are grown
 Chemical fertilisers in the absence of in alternate rows and are sown at different
organic manures are also harmful to the times to protect the soil from rain wash.
soil. Unless the soil gets enough humus,
 Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to
chemicals harden it and reduce its
the contours of a hill slope to form a
fertility in the long run.
natural barrier for water to flow down the
7.5. Soil Conservation: slope.
 Soil conservation is a methodology to  Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry
maintain soil fertility, prevent soil erosion regions, rows of trees are planted to check
and exhaustion, and improve the degraded the wind movement to protect soil cover.
condition of the soil.
 Over-grazing and shifting cultivation in
many parts of India have affected the 8. Agriculture
natural cover of land and given rise to
extensive erosion. It should be regulated  Three Cropping Seasons of India
and controlled by educating villagers about
the consequences. 1. Rabi:
 This season starts after the rainy season
 Contour bunding, Contour terracing,
sowing begins in September -October and
regulated forestry, controlled grazing, cover
harvesting takes place in February –
cropping, mixed farming and crop rotation
march.
are some of the remedial measures which
are often adopted to reduce soil erosion.  Wheat, barley, pulses and some oil seeds
are grown in rabi season.
7.6. Methods of soil conservation
 Mulching: The bare ground between 2. Kharif:
plants is covered with a layer of organic  Season begins with onset of monsoons in
matter like straw. It helps to retain soil June - July.
moisture.  The crops grown in the rainy season and
 Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are harvesting takes place after the retreat of
used to build barriers along contours. monsoon in September – October.
 Rice, maize, millets, Groundnuts, cotton Karnataka, Andhra

and jute are in the Kharif season. Sunflower Pradesh and
Maharashtra
3. Zaid:
Maharashtra and
 This is the summer season for growing Cotton
Gujarat
crops which remain till April, May, and
June. West Bengal and
Jute
Bihar
 Products are mainly vegetables and fruits. Fibre crops
Karnataka and
8.1. Major Crops and Producing Silk
Kerala
States
Madhya Pradesh
Crop Type Crop Name Major Producers Hemp
and Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh,
Karnataka and
Wheat Punjab and Madhya Coffee
Kerala
Pradesh
Kerala and
West Bengal and Rubber
Rice Karnataka
Uttar Pradesh Plantations
Cereals Tea Assam and Kerala
Maharashtra, Uttar
Barley Pradesh and Gujarat,
Rajasthan Tobacco Maharashtra and
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra,
Bajra Gujarat and Kerala, Karnataka
Pepper
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu
Uttar Pradesh and Kerala and Uttar

Sugarcane Spices Ginger
Maharashtra Pradesh
Cash Crops
Uttar Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh and
Poppy Turmeric
Himachal Pradesh Odisha
Kerala and Tamil 8.2. Crops and Their Geographical

Coconut
Nadu Conditions of Growth
Crop Temperature Rainfall Soil
Rajasthan, Madhya
Not above 150-300 Clayey or
Linseed Pradesh and Rice
35°C cm loamy
Haryana 19°-15°C Well-
(winter), drained
Gujarat, Andhra Wheat 80 cm
Oil Seeds 21°-26°C loams and
Groundnut Pradesh and Tamil clay loam
(Summer)
Nadu
21°-26°C, but Black soil
Rajasthan, Madhya not below (regar),
50-75
Cotton 21°C, 200 alluvial or
Rape seed Pradesh and cm
frost free laterite
and Mustard Haryana days soils
Sugarcane 20°-26°C 100-150 Any type

cm of soil that
can retain 9. Minerals
moisture
Variety of
Minerals generally occur in the Earth’s crust
100 cm soils
Not below in the form of ore. It is mined, extracted,
Jowar including
16°C
clayey and processed and utilised for the economic
sandy
benefits of the society.
Rainfall
of Light 9.1 Metallic Minerals:
150cm, sandy or
Jute 24°-35°C
with clayey
9.1.1 Iron:
90% loams
humidity India stands first in iron ore reserves in
Well- Asia. Iron ore is mainly distributed in the
drained,
peninsular India.
125-375 deep
cm, friable
Tea 24°-30°C grown loams or Varieties of Iron Ore:
on hill forest  Magnetite: The best quality iron ore
slopes soils, rich
in organic
containing 72% of pure Iron.
water  Haematite: Contains 60-70% of pure Iron
Rich, well-
drained  Limonite: Contains 40-60% of pure Iron
friable
loams  Siderite: Contains less than 40% of pure
150-200
Coffee 15°-28°C containing Iron
cm
good
amount of Distribution of iron ore- Karnataka, Odisha,
vegetable Chattisgarh, Goa, Jharkhand.
mould
Sandy 9.1.2 Manganese:
40-50 loams, red
Bajra 25°-30°C  It is used for smelting of Iron and also for
cm and black
soils making alloys containing Manganese.
Red,
50-100 sandy  India has second largest manganese
Ragi 20°-30°C
cm loams and reserves after Zimbabwe.
light black
50-75 Dry, light  India is the fifth largest producer of
Pulses 20°-25°C
cm soil Manganese in the world.
Rich, well-
Rubber 25°-35°C
150-200
drained
 Manganese reserves in India are found in
cm Odisha (44%), Karnataka (22%), Madhya
soils
Well- Pradesh (13%), Maharashtra(8%).
drained
50-100
Tobacco 16°-40°C
cm
loamy soil, 9.1.3 Copper:
alluvial or
black soils  It is widely utilised by electrical industry
for manufacturing wires and other
electrical equipments. It is also added with
gold to impart strength.
 Major share of Copper production comes 9.2.1 Mica:

from Madhya Pradesh (58%), Rajasthan  Mica’s insulating properties have made it a
(32%) and Jharkhand(11%). valuable mineral in electrical and
 Major copper mining centres are at electronics industry. It can withstand high
Singhbhum (Jharkhand), Malanjkhand voltage and has low power loss factor.
(MP), Khetri-Singhana and Alwar  India contributes about 60 per cent of
(Rajasthan), Kho- Dariba and Delwara- world’s total production.
Kirovli.
 Andhra Pradesh is the largest mica
9.1.4 Bauxite: producing state of India.
 It is the ore of Aluminium. 9.2.2 Limestone:
 Major producers of Bauxite are Kalahandi  Limestone is used for a large variety of
and Koraput belt of Odisha (36%), Gujarat purposes. Of the total consumption, 75 per
(20%), Maharashtra (13%) and Jharkhand cent is used in cement industry, 16 per
(13%). cent in iron and steel industry and 4 per
 NALCO, BALCO and HINDALCO are major cent in the chemical industries. Rest of the
companies engaged in mining of Bauxite in limestone is used in paper, sugar,
the country. fertilizers, glass, rubber and
ferromanganese industries.
9.1.5 Gold:
 Over three-fourths of the total limestone
 India’s share in the world gold production
production in India is from six
is less than one percent.
states , Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
 Karnataka is the leading producer of gold Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh
accounting for 99% of total production and and Tamil Nadu.
the rest comes from Jharkhand.
9.2.3 Asbestos:
 Major gold fields in India: Kolar
 The name ‘Asbestos’ denotes two different
(Karnataka), Hutti (Karnataka), Ramgiri
minerals, namely, Ampibole and
(Andhra Pradesh).
Chrysotile.
Other Metallic Minerals:  Chrysotile accounts for 80% of asbestos
 Diamond is found in Panna belt of of commercial use.
Madhya Pradesh, Raichur-Gulbarga
 Andhra Pradesh is the largest producer of
districts of Karnataka.
Asbestos in India.
 Silver is produced from Zawar mines of
Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
9.2.4 Dolomite:
 Limestone with more than 10% Magnesium
9.2 Non-Metallic Minerals: is called Dolomite.
Non-metallic minerals are used in a large
 Dolomite is used in Iron and Steel industry
variety of industries; the major industries
(more than 90%), followed by Fertilizer
being cement, fertilizers, electricals, etc.
(4%), Glass (2%) and steel (1%).
 Chhattisgarh is the leading producer of 9.3.4 Lithium and Zirconium:

Dolomite (28%), followed by Andhra  Lithium is a light metal which is
Pradesh (23%), Odisha (13%) and distributed in the states of Jharkhand,
remaining 36% by other states. Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
9.2.5 Gypsum:  Zirconium is found in Kerala coasts and in
 Gypsum is mainly used in making alluvial deposits of Ranchi and Hazaribagh
Ammonia sulphate fertilizer and in of Jharkhand.
cement industry.
 Bulk of production of Gypsum comes from
Rajasthan (99%) and the remaining 1%
from Jammu and Kashmir and Gujarat.
9.3 Atomic Minerals:

9.3.1 Uranium:
 Uranium deposits occur in Jaduguda of
Singbhum and Hazaribagh districts of
Jharkhand, Gaya district of Bihar and
Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
 India accounts for only 2% of world
Uranium production.
9.3.2 Thorium:
10. Industries
 It is found in the Monazite sands of Placer
deposits of coastal regions.
 Although Monazite sands are found in east
and west coast, the largest concentration is
on the Kerala coast.
 Thorium is also extracted from Thorianite.
 Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, Tamil nadu and
Rajasthan are the major producers of
Thorium.
9.3.3 Beryllium:
 Beryllium oxide is used as moderator in 10.1. Factors responsible for the
nuclear reactors. location of Industries:
 India has sufficient reserves of Beryllium. 1. Raw Material: Industries using weight-
losing raw materials arelocated in the
regions where raw materials arelocated.

ofraw supplementin
2. Power: Power provides the motive force for
materials g
machines, and therefore, its supply has to rawmaterials
be ensured before the location of any Important iron and steel industry are,
industry. Rourkela – Odisha –Germany, Bhilai- MP-
3. Market: Markets provide the outlets for Soviet Union, Durgapur- West Bengal-UK,
manufactured products. Heavy machine, Bokaro-Bihar –soviet union
machine tools, heavy chemicals are
2. The Cotton Textile Industry:
located near the high demand areas as
these are market orientated. Cotton textile It is one of the traditional
industries of India. India was
industry uses a non-weight-losing raw famous worldwide
Historical
material and is generally located in large for the production of muslin, a
Significance
very fine variety of cotton cloth,
urban centre, e.g. Mumbai.
calicos, chintz and other different
4. Transport: Earlier industries were located varieties of fine cotton cloth.
only in metro cities that was because of a) it is a tropical country and
cotton is the most comfortable
better transport network. Now due to
fabric for a hot and humid
growing web of transport infrastructure, Reasons for climate. b) Large quantity of
industries are being set up in interior part. development cotton was grown in India.
C)Abundant skilled
5. Labour: Industries require skilled labour. labour required for this industry
In India, labour is quite mobile and is was available in this country
available in large numbers due to our  Cotton is a “pure” raw material
which does not lose weight in
large population. the manufacturing process. so
6. Industrial Policy: government of India other factors, like, power to
provides lots of incentives to industries drive the looms, labour, capital
Factors or market may determine the
locating in backward areas. responsible location of the industry.
for locations  Kolkata due to its port facilities
10.2. Footloose Industries:  Lower labour costs: Ujjain,
Footloose industry can be located at any Bharuch, Agra, Hathras,
Coimbatore and Tirunelveli.
location without effect from factors  abundant availability of hydel
power for the mills: Tamil Nadu
10.3. Major Industries in India:  Presently, the major centres of
1. The Iron and Steel Industry: the cotton textile industry are
Importanc Raw Reason for Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi,
Location
e materials Location Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur,
All these In India, Indore and Ujjain
raw Chhattisgarh,  Maharashtra, Gujarat and
Almost all
materials Northern Tamil Naduare the leading
sectors of Current
iron are Orissa,
the Indian cotton producing states.
oreand gross(weigh Jharkhand position
industry  Tamil Nadu has the largest
coking t losing), and western
depend number of mills and most of
coal, therefore, West Bengal,
heavily on them produce yarn rather than
limestone, the best which is
the iron
dolomite, location for extremely cloth. Coimbatore has emerged
and steel
manganes the iron richin high as the most important centre
industry for
e fire clay and steel grade iron with nearly half the
their basic
plants is ore, good millslocated there
infra.
near the quality coking
source coalandother

3. Sugar: 5. Chemical Industries:

India-largest producer of both sugarcane Chemical Products Location of the
and canesugar. industry Manufactured Industry
khandasari and gur or jaggery are also  Chemicals  India is a  Major plants
Importance prepared from sugarcane. industry in strong global producing
Sugar industry is a seasonal industry India is highly dye supplier, sulphuric acid
because of the seasonality of raw diversified, accounting for are located at
materials. covering more approximately Khetri, Alwaye
Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. Its than 80,000 16% of the (Kerala),
sucrose content begins to dry during commercial world Mumbai,
haulage after it has been harvested from products. It is production of Kolkata,
Location the field. Sugar factories hence, are located broadly dyestuff and Burnpur and
within the cane producing regions. classified into dye Jamshedpur.
Maharastra is leading producer followed Basic intermediates.  Major plants
by UP and TN. chemicals,  Fertilisers, are located at
Specialty insecticides Mithapur,
4. Petrochemical Industries: chemicals, and and pesticides. Dharangadhra
Agrochemicals. and
Types of
 India’s Porbandar—all
raw
Need Locations proximity to the in Gujarat.
materials it
provide
Middle East, the  The Hindustan
world’s source Organic
In 1960s,
of Chemicals
demand for
petrochemicals Limited at
organic
feedstock, Rasayani
chemicals
makes for (Maharashtra)
increased so fast
economies of produces the
that it became
scale. chemicals
difficult to meet Mumbai is the hub of
required for
this demand. At the petro-chemical
drugs,
that time, industries. Cracker
(i)polymers, dyestuffs and
petroleum units are also located
(ii) synthetic synthetic
refining industry in Auraiya (Uttar
fibres, rubber.
expanded Pradesh), Jamnagar,
(iii) 6. Cement:
rapidly. Many Gandhinagar and
elastomers,
items are Hajira (Gujarat), Cement industry Features of the industry
(iv)
derived from Nagothane, Ratnagiri In India comprises of  India is the second largest
surfactant
crude (Maharashtra), Haldia 125 large cement plants producer of cement in the
intermediate
petroleum, (West Bengal) and and over 300 mini world.
which provide Vishakhapatnam cement plants having  India's cement industry is a
raw materials for (Andhra Pradesh) total installed capacity vital part of its economy,
many new of 148.28 million tonnes providing employment to
industries, these and 11.10 million more than a million people,
are collectively tonnes per annum directly or indirectly.
known as respectively.  The housing and real estate
petrochemical The raw materials sector is the biggest
industries needed to produce demand driver of cement,
cement (calcium accounting for about 65 per
Polymers are made from ethylene and carbonate, silica, cent of the total
propylene. These materials are obtained in the alumina and iron ore) consumption in India. The
are generally extracted other major consumers of
process of refining crude oil. from limestone rock, cement include public
chalk, clayey schist or infrastructure at 20 per
clay. cent and industrial
development at 15 per cent.
 They are located in the
states of Andhra Pradesh,
Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu.

10.4. Industrial Regions in India: About 7500 long coast line of India served by
Industrial regions are those areas, where 12 major and medium, minor ports.
concentration of industries has occurred due Port State and Port Information
Kandla Gujarat, tidal port
to geo-economic conditions. These are areas Maharastra, biggest port with natural
Mumbai
within which manufacturing industry is and well sheltered harbours
Jawharlal Maharastra, decongest Mumbai port
carried out on a relatively large scale and Marmagao Goa, major iron ore export
employs a relatively large proportion of New Mangalore Karnataka, major iron ore export
Kochi Kerala, natural harbour
population. Mumbai - Pune, Hugli, Bangalore
Tuticorin Tamil nadu, natural harbour
- Chennai, Delhi Gurgaon are important Chennai Tamil nadu, oldest artificial port
Regions. Andhra Pradesh, deepest land locked
Vishakapatnam
and well protected port
Paradip Orissa, major iron ore export
Major Industrial Regions as shown in Haldia West Bengal, decongest Kolkata port
the image there are 8 major industries. Kolkata
West Bengal, riverine port located on
hoogly river
10.6. Sagarmala Project

 Sagarmala project is a port-led
development programme of Ministry of
Shipping.
 The objective of this initiative is to promote
“Port-led development” along India’s 7500
km long coastline.
 It aims to develop access to new
development regions with intermodal
solutions and promotion of the optimum
modal split, enhanced connectivity with
main economic centres and beyond
through expansion of rail, inland water,
coastal and road services.
10.5. Ports of India:

11. Natural Hazards and
Disasters
 Disasters- Disaster is an undesirable

occurrence resulting from forces that are
largely outside human control, strikes
quickly with little or no warning, which
causes or threatens serious disruption of
life and property.

 Natural Hazards are elements of  Recently, some earth scientists have come
circumstances in the Natural environment up with a theory of emergence of a fault
that have the potential to cause harm to line and energy build-up along the fault
people or property or both. line represented by the river Bhima
(Krishna) near Latur and Osmanabad
 As compared to natural hazards, natural
(Maharashtra) and the possible breaking
disasters are relatively sudden and cause
down of the Indian plate.
large scale, widespread death, loss of
property and disturbance to social systems  National Geophysical Laboratory,
and life over which people have a little or Geological Survey of India, Department of
no control. Meteorology, Government of India, along
with the recently formed National Institute
11.1 Natural Disasters and Hazards
of Disaster Management, following five
In India
earthquake zones:
11.1.1 Earthquakes 1. Very high damage risk zone- North-east
 Earthquakes that are of tectonic origin states, areas to the north of Darbhanga
have proved to be the most devastating and Araria along the Indo-Nepal border in
and their area of influence is also quite Bihar, Uttarakhand, Western Himachal
large. Pradesh (around Dharamshala
 These earthquakes result from a series of 2. High damage risk zone- the remaining
earth movements brought about by a parts of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
sudden release of energy during the Pradesh, Northern parts of Punjab,
tectonic activities in the earth‘s crust. Eastern parts of Haryana, Delhi, Western
 The Indian plate is moving at a speed of Uttar Pradesh, and Northern Bihar fall
one centimetre per year towards the north under the
and north eastern direction and this 3. Moderate damage risk zone
movement of plates is being constantly
4. Low damage risk zone
obstructed by the Eurasian plate from the
5. Very low damage risk zone
north. As a result of this, both the plates
are said to be locked with each other
resulting in accumulation of energy at
different points of time. Excessive
accumulation of energy results in building
up of stress, which ultimately leads to the
 Some of the most vulnerable states are
Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and the Darjeeling
and subdivision of West Bengal and all the
seven states of the northeast

Most of the areas that can be considered safe oscillate between high crest and low trough
are from the stable landmass covered under in order to restore the water level.
the Deccan plateau.
 Over deep water, the tsunami has very
11.1.1.a Earthquake Hazard Mitigation: long wavelengths (often hundreds of
kilometres long) when a tsunami enters
(i) Establishing earthquake monitoring
shallow water, its wave-length gets reduced
centres (seismological centres) for regular
and the period remains unchanged, which
monitoring and fast dissemination of
increases the wave height.
information among the people in the
vulnerable areas. Use of Geographical  Tsunamis have a small amplitude (wave
Positioning System (GPS) can be of great height) offshore. This can range from a few
help in monitoring the movement of centimetres to over 30 m height. However,
tectonic plates. most tsunamis have less than 3 m wave
height.
(ii) Preparing a vulnerability map of the
country and dissemination of vulnerability  The speed of wave in the ocean depends
risk information among the people and upon the depth of water. It is more in the
educating them about the ways and shallow water than in the ocean deep.
means minimising the adverse impacts of
 As a result of this, the impact of tsunami is
disasters.
less over the ocean and more near the
(iii) Modifying the house types and building- coast where they cause large-scale
designs in the vulnerable areas and devastations. Therefore, a ship at sea is
discouraging construction of high-rise not much affected by tsunami and it is
buildings, large industrial establishments difficult to detect a tsunami in the deeper
and big urban centres in such areas. parts of sea
(iv) Finally, making it mandatory to adopt  Thus, these are also called Shallow Water
earthquake-resistant designs and use Waves. Tsunamis are frequently observed
light materials in major construction along the Pacific ring of fire, particularly
activities in the vulnerable area. along the coast of Alaska, Japan,
Philippines, and other islands of South-
11.1.2 Tsunami:
east Asia, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar,
 Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions that Sri Lanka, and India etc.
cause the sea-floor to move abruptly
resulting in sudden displacement of ocean 11.1.3 Tropical Cyclone:
water in the form of high vertical waves are  Tropical cyclones are intense low-pressure
called tsunamis (harbour waves) or areas confined to the area lying between
seismic sea waves. 30° N and 30° S latitudes, in the
atmosphere around which high velocity
 Normally, the seismic waves cause only
winds blow.
one instantaneous vertical wave; but, after
the initial disturbance, a series of after  Horizontally, it extends up to 500-1,000
waves are created in the water that km and vertically from surface to 12-14

km. A tropical cyclone or hurricane is like Bengal, cyclones mostly develop during the
a heat engine that is energised by the months of October and November.
release of latent heat on account of the
 Originate between 16°-2° N latitudes and
condensation of moisture that the wind
to the west of 92° E. By July the place of
gathers after moving over the oceans and
origin of these storms shifts to around 18°
seas.
N latitude and west of 90°E near the
 Some initial conditions for the emergence Sunderban Delta. A surge is generated due
of a tropical cyclone are: to interaction of air, sea and land. The
cyclone provides the driving force in the
1. Large and continuous supply of warm and
form of very high horizontal pressure-
moist air that can release enormous latent
gradient and very strong surface winds.
heat.
The sea water flows across the coast along
2. Strong Coriolis force that can prevent with strong winds and heavy downpour.
filling of low pressure at the centre
(absence of Coriolis force near the equator
prohibits the formation of tropical cyclone
between 0 ° -5 ° latitude).
3. Unstable condition through the
troposphere that creates local disturbances
around which a cyclone develops.
4. Finally, absence of strong vertical wind
wedge, which disturbs the vertical
transport of latent heat. 11.1.4 Floods:
11.1.3.a Structure of Tropical Cyclone:  The causes of floods are well- established.
Relatively slow in occurrences and often,
 The centre of the cyclone is mostly a warm
occur in well-identified regions and within
and low-pressure, cloudless core known as
expected time in a year. Floods occur
eye of the storm. Expansion of the wind
commonly when water in the form of
belt is about 10-150 km from the centre.
surface run-off exceeds the carrying
11.1.3.b Spatial-temporal Distribution capacity of the river channels and streams
of Tropical Cyclone in India and flows into the neighbouring low-lying
 Owing to its Peninsular shape surrounded flood plains.
by the Bay of Bengal in the east and the  Floods can also be caused due to a storm
Arabian Sea in the west, the tropical surge (in the coastal areas), high
cyclones in India also originate in these intensity rainfall for a considerably longer
two important locations. time period, melting of ice and snow,
 Though most of the cyclones originate reduction in the infiltration rate and
between 10°-15° north latitudes during the presence of eroded material in the water
monsoon season, yet in case of the Bay of due to higher rate of soil erosion.

• Though floods occur frequently over wide and over-utilisation of water from the
geographical area having disastrous reservoirs and other storages, including
ramifications in many parts of the world, the ground water.
floods in the South, Southeast and East
• Drought is a complex phenomenon as it
Asian countries, particularly in China,
involves elements of meteorology like
India and Bangladesh, are frequent and
precipitation, evaporation, evapo-
equally disastrous.
transpiration, ground water, soil moisture,
 Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Flood storage and surface run-off, agricultural
Commission) identified 40 million practices, particularly the types of crops
hectares of land as flood-prone in India
grown, socio-economic practices and
Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are
among the high flood-prone states of ecological conditions.
India. 11.1.5.a Types of Droughts:
 Meteorological Drought: It is a situation
when there is a prolonged period of
inadequate rainfall marked with mal-
distribution of the same over time and
space.
 Agricultural Drought: It is also known as
soil moisture drought, characterised by low
soil moisture that is necessary to support
the crops, thereby resulting in crop
failures.
 Hydrological Drought: It results when the
availability of water in different storages
and reservoirs like aquifers, lakes,
reservoirs, etc. falls below what the
precipitation can replenish.
 Ecological Drought: When the
productivity of a natural ecosystem fails
due to shortage of water and as a
consequence of ecological distress,
damages are induced in the ecosystem.
11.1.5.b Drought Prone Areas in India

11.1.5 Droughts: Extreme Drought Affected Areas:
• The term ‘drought‘ is applied to an  Most parts of Rajasthan, particularly areas
extended period when there is a shortage to the west of the Aravali hills, i.e.
of water availability due to inadequate Marusthali and Kachchh regions of
precipitation, excessive rate of evaporation Gujarat fall in this category.

Severe Drought Prone Area:  Agro-climatic basis for crop selection

 Parts of eastern Rajasthan, most parts of should be promoted. This can be done by
Madhya Pradesh, eastern parts of adjusting MSP by the government.
Maharashtra, interior parts of Andhra
11.1.6 Landslides:
Pradesh and Karnataka Plateau, northern
A landslide is defined as the movement of a
parts of interior Tamil Nadu and southern
mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope
parts of Jharkhand and interior Orissa are
included in this category. 11.1.6.a Landslide Vulnerability Zones
Moderate Drought Affected Area:

 Northern parts of Rajasthan, Haryana,
southern districts of Uttar Pradesh, the
remaining parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra
except Konkan, Jharkhand and
Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu and
interior Karnataka are included in this
category
11.1.5.c Drought mitigation technique

11.1.6.b Very High Vulnerability Zone:
 Adoption of micro-irrigation techniques by
 Highly unstable, relatively young
farmers. However, such systems will need
mountainous areas in the Himalayas and
to be subsidised to be made competitive for
Andaman and Nicobar, high rainfall
a majority of farmers who are small and
regions with steep slopes in the Western
marginal farmers.
Ghats and Nilgiris, the north-eastern
 Stringent application of water harvesting regions, along with areas that experience
measures not only at the individual level frequent ground-shaking due to
but at community and village level too. earthquakes, etc. and areas of intense
 Seechwal model can be implemented human activities, particularly those related
especially in acute water deficit areas. This to construction of roads, dams, etc. are
model is currently being extended along included in this zone.
the banks of the Ganga. 11.1.6.c High Vulnerability Zone:
 Wastewater recycling facilities in urban  Areas that have almost similar conditions
and industrial centres to allow for non- to those included in the very high
drinking uses. vulnerability zone are also included in this
 Agricultural practices should focus on category.
more crop, per drop. Government support  All the Himalayan states and the states
through Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), Soil from the north-eastern regions except the
Health Card scheme etc. must be extended plains of Assam are included in the high
to all gram panchayats. vulnerability zones.

11.1.6.d Moderate to Low Vulnerability per The National Waterways Act, 2016. Out of
Zone: the 111 NWs, 106 were created in 2016.
 Areas that receive less precipitation such National
Location
as Trans- Himalayan areas of Ladakh and waterway
Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), undulated yet Allahabad-Haldia stretch of
National
stable relief and low precipitation areas in Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river
Waterway1
system
the Aravali, rain shadow areas in the
National Sadiya-Dhubri stretch of the
Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan Waterway 2 Brahmaputra River (Assam)
plateau also experience occasional
Kottapuram-Kollam stretch of the
landslides. National West Coast Canal, Champakara
Waterway 3 Canal and Udyogmandal Canal
 Landslides due to mining and subsidence (Kerala)
are most common in states like
Kakinada-Pondicherry along
Jharkhand, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya National
Godavari and Krishna River
Waterway 4
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, system
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Goa and Kerala. National
TalcherParadip (Odisha)
Waterway 5
11.1.6.e Mitigation of landslides: National Lakhipur to Bhanga on the River
 It is always advisable to adopt area-specific Waterway 6 Barak (Assam - Proposed)
measures to deal with landslides.
 Restriction on the construction and other
developmental activities such as roads and
dams, limiting agriculture to valleys and
areas with moderate slopes, and control on *****
the development of large settlements in the
high vulnerability zones, should be
enforced. This should be supplemented by
some positive actions like promoting large-
scale afforestation programmes and
construction of bunds to reduce the flow of
water.
 Terrace farming should be encouraged in
the north-eastern hill states where
Jhumming (Slash and Burn/Shifting
Cultivation) is still prevalent.
11.2 Inland waterway

There are 111 officially notified Inland
National Waterways (NWs) in India identified
for the purposes of inland water transport, as


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RRP 2021 - INDIAN GEOGRAPHY

1. Geographical Extent and Frontiers 1 – 2

2. Structure and Physiography of India 3 – 14

11. Natural Hazards and Disasters 46 – 52

 Easternmost Point – The tiny town of West Bengal, Sikkim,

1.2.1 Important Passes

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1.2.2 Important boundary line 5. Andhra Pradesh

geological structure and geomorphologic

(i) The Peninsular Block:

i.i Peninsular Block Extension:

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I. The North and North-Eastern

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I.2. Middle Himalayas or Himachal:

I.3. Great Himalayas:

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 Known for its fast-flowing rivers such as

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III.1. The Deccan Plateau:

 Some of the important physiographic

 Some of the important ranges include the

III.2. The Central Highlands:

III.3. The North-Eastern Plateau:

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 The Malabar coast has got certain

V.2 Eastern Coastal Plains:

VI.1 The islands of the Arabian Sea:

 The Bay of Bengal island groups consist of

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 The boundary line separating one drainage

 Flow of water through well-defined

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 Nearly 77 per cent of the drainage area

3.2 On the basis of the size of the

3.3 On the basis of the mode of

(ii) Medium river basins with catchment

3.3. A. Himalayan Drainage:

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 Rivers of this system are perennial. These

The dismemberment was probably due to the

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and enters the Punjab plains. It is an

3.3.A.2. The Ganga System

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 The Mahananda is another important  Lohit- Tributary of Brahmaputra, flows

3.3.B. The Peninsular Drainage System:

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speed of wind and the amount and

4.1.2 Factors Related to Air Pressure

4.2 Mechanism of Weather in the

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