Prediction of the Temperature Behaviour

During Friction Stir Welding (FSW) Using

Hyperworks®

Bahman Meyghani1 , Mokhtar B. Awang2(B) , and Reza Teimouri3

1 Institute of Materials Joining, Shandong University, 17923, Jingshi Road, Jinan 250061, China
2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi
PETRONAS (UTP), 32610 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Perak Darul Ridzuan, Malaysia
Mokhtar_awang@utp.edu.my
3 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, University of Kashan, Kashan, Iran

Abstract. Fundamentally, heat is needed during friction stir welding (FSW) for
joining materials together. This heat is usually produced by friction force and
material deformation. Therefore, friction coefficient is a significant factor and in
order to increase the efficiency and the quality of the simulated model, there is a
need to explore it accurately. However, previous studies used constant values of
the friction coefficient resulting in inaccuracy of the model. This paper proposes,
a mathematical formulation for predicting temperature dependent values of the
friction coefficient using coulomb friction and von Mises yield laws. Then, the
friction coefficient values are used to simulate a finite element model. HyperMe-
sh® and HyperView® solvers have been employed from Altair Hyperworks® to
simulate the process. The results of the model showed that, the temperature at the
shoulder surface is always higher than the pin area, thus the heat generated by
shoulder is found to be higher around 60 °C. Furthermore, higher temperature at
the advancing side (around 30 °C) was obtained. Finally, the model is verified to
show the accuracy of the predicted friction coefficient values and the results of the
finite element model.

Keywords: Friction stir welding · Heat · Friction force · Material deformation ·

Friction coefficient · Finite element model

1 Introduction
There is an increasing need to reduce structures weight, especially for the aircraft pan-
els and aerospace industries. Advanced welding techniques play a significant role in
manufacturing of these lightweight structures. Friction stir welding (FSW) is one of
the most important and relatively new solid state welding methods which was invented
and patented in the last decades [1–3]. FSW was developed in the automotive industry
as an alternative method for welding of aluminium sheets in 2001 [4, 5]. Nowadays,
FSW can be used to join a variety of materials without the use of filler material and
the process currently is using in a lot of industrial applications, such as railway, marine,

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
M. Awang and S. S. Emamian (Eds.): Advances in Material Science and Engineering, LNME, pp. 119–130, 2021.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-3641-7_16
120 B. Meyghani et al.

land transportation and aerospace [6–8]. As can be seen in Fig. 1, through this welding
method, a rotational cylindrical tool, which consists of a pin and a shoulder plunges into
the workpieces, then moves along the welding seam [9–11]. Some of the key benefits of
FSW are the elimination of solidification cracking, liquation cracking and porosity, and
the better-quality for mechanical properties of the join [12–14]. On the other hand, FSW
is a complicated procedure, because the process involves highly nonlinear (coupled)
physical phenomenon, such as severe plastic deformation, complex flow of the material,
complicated interactions behaviour between the tool and the workpiece, and complex
thermal behaviour [15–17]. These multiple parameters highly affect the joint quality and
the welding efficiency [18, 19]. Consequently, FSW has been studied by a considerable
amount of studies [20–25].

Fig. 1. Friction stir welding schematic view

In the meantime, without finite element modelling techniques, FSW can only be stud-
ied in experiments [26–29] which is time consuming and expensive [30]. As mentioned
earlier, the welding process has a very complicated behaviour, therefore the investigation
of the FSW process such as predicting the temperature evaluation or finding the mate-
rial behaviour during the weld is very difficult [31–34], while finite element methods
(FEMs) are able to solve complicated governing equations by providing an effective way
for analysing the joint formation and the behaviour of the weld [19, 35].
Basically, FE is a technique in which approximate solutions of complex equations
can be solved by using boundary conditions, because the calculations of variations in
FE minimize the error and produce a stable condition. To illustrate, in FEMs many
tiny lines will produce a large domain, because the method uses various simple ele-
ments for connecting all of the small sub domains (named finite elements) in order to
find approximate shape over a larger domain. In the meantime, modelling of FSW is a
very complicated process that involves a highly nonlinear thermomechanical behaviour.
For example, some nonlinear behaviours are heat transfer mechanics and extremely
severe plastic deformations near the pin (in the stirring zone). Consequently, by using
FEMs the material behaviour and the thermal history during different process parameters
and different tool geometries can be investigated. Hence, numerical simulations can be
appropriate for investigating significant features of the process [36–38].
 Prediction of the Temperature Behaviour During Friction Stir Welding (FSW) 121

The contact interactions contain a pair of interactions which defines the contact
between the workpiece and the tool. There are two different surfaces in the interaction,
first one that is the tool surface has to be defined as a master surface, because it is
harder in comparison with the workpiece which needs to be defined as a slave surface.
In this regard, this “balanced master slave” arrangement is significant for getting more
uniform pressure of the contact in the welding surfaces and also avoiding the hourglass
effects. It is also combined with a softened contact interaction property to promote
a sharing of the local contact pressure among nodes on both sides of the interface.
One of the most important facts in modelling of the FSW process is the choice of the
contact model. Many researchers [39, 40] have chosen the classical Coulomb friction
law and considered that the Coulomb friction model allows realistic results. Two contact
conditions were used to investigate the heat generation which compared the classical and
the modified Coulomb law. The results showed that, the temperature and friction force
are controlled by the contact pressure. Since in the research, there was a comparison
between Norton and Coulomb laws, it was determined that the coefficient in the Norton
model affected by forces, but these forces should be computed experimentally [41]. Two
important parameters in the contact condition are the friction coefficient and the slip rate.
Several studies [42, 43] have estimated these parameters by measuring the tool torque and
the axial pressure. In the meantime, full sticking, full sliding or partial sliding/sticking
conditions have been used. For example, full sliding condition was employed in a study
[44], but the pin depth was neglected and the contact geometry was not realistic. Another
study assumed [45] an uniform shear stress in the tool workpiece surface by using a
machine power input. Meanwhile, in order to discover the mechanical and the thermal
behaviours of FSW, a thermal model was proposed in a full sliding contact condition [46].
In addition, some researchers [47, 48] measured the plastic deformation to investigate the
contact behaviour. Two conditions, full sliding and full sticking were considered [49],
but unfortunately, both models were uncoupled due to the complexity of the process.
Furthermore, Gerlish et al. [50] and Schmidt et al. [51] results showed that, the contact
condition has a partial sliding/sticking condition.
Meanwhile, due to the simplifications, the friction coefficient values were taken from
other machining processes or were considered as a hypothetical amount that were taken
from the literature. Based on the discussion above, friction coefficient has a significant
role in increasing the accuracy of the results. In this paper, in order to increase the accu-
racy and development of the modelling of the FSW process, a mathematical formulation
is proposed to resolve the governing equations of the FSW contact condition. Then,
FEMs are used to predict the temperature behaviour during the process.

2 Material and Methodology

2.1 Sliding, Sticking and Partial Sliding/Sticking Conditions

True estimation of the friction coefficient by using straightforward methods is still unde-
termined [52], because the friction coefficient values depends on many different param-
eters such as material properties and tribological behaviours [53]. A linear sliding rate is
presented when the intensity of the shear stress on the workpiece segments is available
122 B. Meyghani et al.

in the model. In the Coulomb law, the shear stress of the contacting interface is written
as follows,
τfric = μP0 (1)
where τfric is the shear stress, μ is the friction coefficient and P0 is the pressure.
When the contact shear stress is more than the yield stress, the workpiece surfaces
stick to the tool segments and with the increase of the temperature, von Mises shear stress
criterion controls the material behavior. The shear stress, based on von Mises theory is
calculated as follows [54],
σy
τy = √ (2)
3
In Johnson-cook model the equivalent yield stress is defined as a function of temperature
and strain rate which is written as follows,
     
  ε̇P TFSW − Troom m
σy = A + B(εP )n 1 + C 1− (3)
ε̇0 Tmelt − Troom
where the values are the temperature (TFSW ), yield stress (A), strain factor (B), strain rate
factor (C), strain exponent (n), temperature exponent (m), material melting point (Tmelt )
and room temperature (Troom ). A mixed state of the sliding and the sticking conditions
can be established when the full sliding (δ = 0) and the full sticking (δ = 1) conditions
are explained as below,
τfric = μP0 when δ = 0 (4)

τfric = τy when δ = 1 (5)

In addition, the pressure at the shoulder and the pin bottom can be calculated as,
FN
P0 = (6)
π R2S
where FN is the normal force and RS is the shoulder radius.
In a partial sliding/sticking condition, the shear stress at the shoulder and pin bottom
[55] is written as fallows,
τ0 = δτy + (1 − δ)μP0 (7)
where δ is the slip rate. For the pin side, the shear stress is defined as,
τ1 = μP0 sinα when δ = 0 (8)

τ1 = τy when δ = 1 (9)
Hence, in the partial sliding/sticking condition the shear stress for pin side area can be
explained as,
τ1 = δτy + (1 − δ)μP0 sinα (10)
 Prediction of the Temperature Behaviour During Friction Stir Welding (FSW) 123

where α is the cone angle.

By using Eq. 7 and 10 the amount of the friction coefficient can be calculated as,
τ0 − τ1
μ= (11)
(1 − δ)P0 (1 − sinα)
And by solving Eq. 7 or 10, the slip rate is written as follows,
τ1 − τ0 sinα
δ= (12)
(1 − sinα)τy

2.2 Finite Element Model Descriptions

During FSW, the interface temperature reaches up to 80–90% of the base material melting
point [56], thus the temperature dependent material properties for aluminium 6061-T6
are selected for the workpiece material. C3D8RT element in dynamic explicit is used
for the mesh. Near the welding seam, small mesh size is selected, while outside of the
welding area larger size for the mesh is set. The rotational speed of 800 rpm and the
transverse speed of 40 mm/min and the tilt angle of 2° are applied to the model. To
decrease the computational time, mass scaling is set, also the tool is considered as a
rigid body, because in this situation there is no need to calculate the outcomes for the
rigid body. Therefore, the computational time of the simulation would be decreased.

3 Results and Discussion

According to the Eq. 2, when the temperature increases, material shear stress decreases,
due to the direct proportion between the material shear stress and the material yield
stress. It should be noted that, according to Johnson cook law, when the temperature
rises, the material becomes softer, then the yield stress decreases. Furthermore, when
the temperature increases, the material becomes weaker and whereby the welding force
and the friction coefficient decrease. This is because the coefficient is highly influenced
by the welding temperature. Figure 2 shows that, the friction coefficient has dropped
with the rise of the temperature. In the term of the friction coefficient, the value of the 0
means there is no friction between surfaces and the value of 1 means that the frictional
force is equal to the normal force (applied by the machine). It needs to be explained that,
the coefficient depends on the contact geometry, forces, material property, and welding
parameters.
The results of the literature [9] showed that, since the heat generation depends on
the friction and the deformation, by the growth of the heat the coefficient would reduce.
This issue happens, because of the growth of the stirring phenomenon at higher temper-
atures. To illustrate more, higher frictional force and higher deformation result in lower
resistance of the material, and this issue increases the peak temperature. Consequently,
higher frictional forces and deformations decrease the welding forces and increase the
temperature [43, 57].
124 B. Meyghani et al.

Fig. 2. The calculated values of the friction coefficient

Fig. 3. Three dimensional view of the workpiece a) plunging and b) welding steps
 Prediction of the Temperature Behaviour During Friction Stir Welding (FSW) 125

The measured values showed that, the temperature varies from the room temperature
to the material melting point. As can be seen in Fig. 3, the maximum temperature at the
plunging step is around 485 °C and in the welding step is about 586 °C. This issue
confirms by the literature who claimed that the welding temperature usually is in a range
of 80% to 90% of the base material melting point [56]. Therefore, the achieved values
for the temperature have a good agreement with the reported values in the literature
[12, 58].
Figure 4 indicates the distribution of the temperature at the plunging and welding
steps. As can be seen, the deformation pattern for the mesh is regular. At the plunging
step, below the material moves up due to the plunging force of the tool, however in the
welding step, the material which is located in the outside of the shoulder, formed an “U”
shape patter. This results shows that the majority of the temperature is produced by the
shoulder.

Fig. 4. Cross section of the workpiece at the a) plunging and b) welding steps

Figure 5 indicates the top view of the workpiece at the welding stage with and without
the tool. It can be observed that, the temperature has a confined pattern at the back side of
the welding, while at the front side the distance between the temperature circles is wider.
The most important reason of this issue is the presence of the tilt angle which causes an
additional forging force at the back side of the welding. It needs to be mentioned that,
this additional forging force enhances the mixing of the material, whereby improves the
quality of the welding.
126 B. Meyghani et al.

Fig. 5. Top view of the workpiece a) with tool and b) without tool

4 Conclusions
Based on the discussed results, below points are concluded:

• Friction coefficient values were declined as the temperature of the welding increased.
• The maximum temperature of 485 °C at the plunging and 586 °C at the welding stages
were obtained.
• At the plunging step the material which is located under the shoulder pushed upward,
however at the welding step the material which is located outside of the shoulder area
pushed upward.
• Compared to the pin side and pin bottom surfaces, the shoulder bottom surface
generates more heat, thus it had higher temperature.
• Confined pattern for the temperature at the front side of the welding were observed,
while at the welding back side, a wider distance between the temperature contour
circles were achieved.

Acknowledgement. The authors would like to acknowledge the fellowship of the government
of China, Shandong University from the International Postdoctoral Exchange Program and the
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS (UTP), Malaysia for the financial support from YUTP-FRG
grant cost center 0153AA-H18. Moreover, the authors would like to thank Altair Engineering Sdn
Bhd, Malaysia and Professor Wallace Kaufman for their endless support and collaboration.
 Prediction of the Temperature Behaviour During Friction Stir Welding (FSW) 127

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