23 May 2004

Exercise 3-1
Use simple detection theory to calculate the S/N required to achieve a single pulse
probability of detection Pd = 0.9 and probability of false alarm Pfa = 10-6. Compare with
Figure 3-6 or Table 3.1.

6
Pd  0.9 Pfa  1  10

Equation 3-11 relates probability of detection, probability of false alarm, and S/N.
Unfortunately, it is Pd as a function of S/N and Pfa. We need to try a few S/N values, SNR
in the equation below, and see what Pd we get. A few S/N values are shown before we
narrow in on the actual value.

SNR  15 10 log ( SNR)  11.7609

0.5  erfc  ln  Pfa  

SNR  0.5  0.6222 (3-11)

SNR  25 10 log ( SNR)  13.9794

0.5  erfc  ln  Pfa  

SNR  0.5  0.9703

SNR  20.9 10 log ( SNR)  13.2015

0.5  erfc  ln  Pfa  

SNR  0.5  0.9007

The S/N from Figure 3.6 is approximately 13.2 dB, the SNR from Table 3-1 is also 13.2 dB.

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Exercise 3-2
In order to increase the performance of a power-limited radar, you plan to use coherent
integration. You currently achieve single-pulse Pd = 0.5, Pfa = 10-4. How many coherent
pulses are required to be integrated to obtain Pd = 0.95, Pfa = 10-12?

Using Figure 3-6 or Table 3-1 we can find the S/N required to achieve the given Pd and Pfa
values. Currently the S/N required is given by SNR1 (dB). To achieve the new Pd and Pfa
values the S/N required is given by SNRnp (dB). The difference between these two S/N
values is the necessary coherent integration gain, GI_dB (dB).

SNR1  9.4 SNRnp  16.1 Both values obtained from Table 3-1.

GI_dB  SNRnp  SNR1 GI_dB  6.7

The relationship between coherent integration gain, GI (no units), the number of coherent
pulses integrated, np (pulses), is given Equation 3-17. Thus, the number of coherent pulses
required is determined by converting the coherent integration gain from dB to absolute, as
shown below:

GI np np  10
 0.1GI_dB
np  4.6774 pulses

Since pulses can only have integer values, we would say that 5 pulses are required.

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Exercise 3-3
To make use of the fact that a noncoherent radar's scan pattern illuminates each target with
four pulses, a computerized four-pulse detection scheme is proposed. The threshold is set a
Pd = 0.9, Pfa = 0.1. Calculate the probabilities for Pd and Pfa associated with threshold
crossings of one, two, three, and four pulses.

The "M-out-of-N" detection probability using the binomial probability equation, Equation 3-
27

N M ( NM)
P ( M  N  p )   p ( 1  p)
M  ( N  M)

where:
P = Probability of M detections out of N attempts
M = Number of required detections
N = Number of detection attempts
p = Probability of a single detection attempt being successful

We will use this equation to compute the probabilities for Pd associated with threshold
crossings of exactly one, two, three, and four pulses as shown below:

Pd1  P ( 1  4  0.9) Pd1  0.0036

Pd2  P ( 2  4  0.9) Pd2  0.0486

Pd3  P ( 3  4  0.9) Pd3  0.2916

Pd4  P ( 4  4  0.9) Pd4  0.6561

While these values are correct, generally a broader view of M-out-of-N detections is taken.
As discussed in the text, we sum the exact probabilities to obtain the probability of at least M-
out-of-N detections. The probability of at least M-out-of-N detections, Pd_least, is shown
below:

Pd_least 1  Pd1  Pd2  Pd3  Pd4 Pd_least 1  0.9999

Pd_least 2  Pd2  Pd3  Pd4 Pd_least 2  0.9963

Pd_least 3  Pd3  Pd4 Pd_least 3  0.9477

Pd_least 4  Pd4 Pd_least 4  0.6561

We will use the same approach to compute the probabilities for Pfa associated with
threshold crossings of exactly one, two, three, and four false alarms as shown below:

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Pfa1  P ( 1  4  0.1) Pfa1  0.2916

Pfa2  P ( 2  4  0.1) Pfa2  0.0486

Pfa3  P ( 3  4  0.1) Pfa3  0.0036

Pfa4  P ( 4  4  0.1) Pfa4  0.0001

While these values are correct, generally a broader view of M-out-of-N false alarms is taken.
As discussed in the text, we sum the exact probabilities to obtain the probability of at least M-
out-of-N false alarms. The probability of at least M-out-of-N false alarms, Pfa_least, is shown
below:

Pfa_least 1  Pfa1  Pfa2  Pfa3  Pfa4 Pfa_least1  0.3439

Pfa_least 2  Pfa2  Pfa3  Pfa4 Pfa_least2  0.0523

Pfa_least 3  Pfa3  Pfa4 Pfa_least3  0.0037

Pfa_least 4  Pfa4 Pfa_least4  0.0001

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Exercise 3-4
With single-pulse Pd = 0.5, Pfa = 10-4, use Figure 3-6 or Table 3-1 to approximate what Pd
four-pulses of coherent integration would give at Pfa = 10-8.

We start by using Figure 3.6 or Table 3-1 to determine the S/N required for Pd = 0.5, Pfa =
10-4, SNR1 (dB). We then use Equation 3-17 to compute the coherent integration gain, GI
(no units). Next we convert the coherent integration gain to decibels, GI_dB (dB). The S/N
after the coherent integration of four pulses is the sum of the single-pulse S/N and the
coherent integration gain, SNR4 (dB). We finish up by looking up the Pd that corresponds to
the S/N after coherent integration and Pfa = 10-8 using Table 3-1.

SNR1  9.4 Table 3-1 at Pd = 0.5, Pfa = 10-4

np  4

GI  np GI  4

GI_dB  10  log  GI GI_dB  6.0206

SNR4  SNR1  GI_dB SNR4  15.4206

Pd 0.99 Table 3-1 at SNR4 and Pfa = 10-8

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Exercise 3-6
A radar uses a five-attempt binomial detection with a three-out-of-five threshold-crossing
criterion. The single attempt probability of detection Pd = 0.5, probability of false alarm
Pfa = 10-4, and associated detection threshold S/N = 9.4 dB (Figure 3.6 or Table 3-1).
What is the probability three or more detection attempts? What is the probability of false
alarm associated with three or more threshold crossings? Use Figure 3.6 or Table 3-1 to
determine the detection threshold associated with the probability of detection and
probability of false alarm after three or more detection attempts?

The "M-out-of-N" detection probability using the binomial probability equation, Equation
3-27.
N M ( NM)
P ( M  N  p )   p ( 1  p)
M  ( N  M)

where:
P = Probability of M detections out of N attempts
M = Number of required detections
N = Number of detection attempts
p = Probability of a single detection attempt being successful

We will use this equation to compute the probabilities for Pd associated with threshold
crossings of exactly three, four, and five detection attempts as shown below:

Pd1  P ( 3  5  0.5) Pd1  0.3125

Pd2  P ( 4  5  0.5) Pd2  0.1563

Pd3  P ( 5  5  0.5) Pd3  0.0313

We sum the exact probabilities to obtain the probability of at least 3-out-of-5 detections. The
probability of at least 3-out-of-5 detections, Pd_least, is shown below:

Pd_least  Pd1  Pd2  Pd3 Pd_least  0.5

We will use the same approach to compute the probabilities for Pfa associated with threshold
crossings of exactly three, four, and five false alarms as shown below:


Pfa1  P 3  5  10
 4
Pfa1  9.998  10
 12

Pfa2  P  4  5  10 
4  16
Pfa2  4.9995  10

Pfa3  P  5  5  10 
4  20
Pfa3  1  10

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We sum the exact probabilities to obtain the probability of at least 3-out-of-5 false alarms. The
probability of at least 3-out-of-5 false alarms, Pfa_least, is shown below:

 12
Pfa_least  Pfa1  Pfa2  Pfa3 Pfa_least  9.9985  10

Using Table 3-1 we find the detection threshold associated with Pd_least and Pfa_least is 13.9
dB.

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Exercise 3-7
A radar has a probability of detection Pd = 0.4, and probability of false alarm Pfa = 10-6 for
each detection event. Calculate the cumulative probabilities of detection and false alarm
when six individual detections are combined.

The cumulative probability of detection is given in Equation 3-25. This equation can also be
used for be used to determine the cumulative probability of false alarm.

6
n  6 Pd ( x)  0.4 Pfa ( x)  10

i  1  n

Pdc  1 
  1  Pd ( i)  Pdc  0.9533
i

  1  Pfa ( i) 
6
Pfac  1  Pfac  6  10
i

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Exercise 3-8
When the radar in Exercise 3-6 uses an at least three-out-of-five threshold crossing
detection criterion its detection range is Rd = 100-km. What is the detection range if the
radar uses a one threshold crossing detection criteria? [Hint: use the results of Exercise 3-6]

In Exercise 3-6 we were given a single attempt detection threshold SNRd1_dB = 9.4 dB
(dB). We computed the detection threshold necessary to give the same detection
performance, SNRd2_dB = 13.9 dB, as we would get for the M-out-of-N detection
approach.

3
Rd1  100  10 m SNRd1_dB  9.4 SNRd2_dB  13.9

Equation 3-24 defines the radar detection range. We write this equation for the two
detection ranges and detection thresholds. We can see from these two equations that the vast
majority of terms are the same. These same terms can be represented by the constant C. We
can then solve for C in each equation, and then equate the two. These equations are shown
below.
4
2 2 4
P  G      GI C
Rd1 Rd1
 4  3  SNRd1   Fn  1  k  T 0  B  Ls
SNRd1

4
2 2 4
P  G      GI C
Rd2 Rd2
 4  3  SNRd2   Fn  1  k  T 0  B  Ls
SNRd2

4 4 4  SNRd1  4
C Rd1  SNRd1 Rd2  SNRd2 Rd2    Rd1
 SNRd2 

Now its time to put all the numbers in the equation. First we convert from decibels to absolute.

 0.1SNRd1_dB
SNRd1  10 SNRd1  8.7096

SNRd2  10
 0.1SNRd2_dB
SNRd2  24.5471

4
SNRd1 4
Rd2   Rd1 Rd2  7.7179  10 m Rd2  77.1792 km
SNRd2

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