Hydrobiologia 430: 121–147, 2000.

121
T.J. Pandian (ed.), Recent Advances in Indian Aquatic Research.
© 2000 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

Ecology and fishery management of reservoirs in India

V. V. Sugunan
Central Inland Capture Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore 743101, West Bengal, India

Key words: limnology, primary productivity, energy transformation, culture-based fisheries, enhancement,
stocking, exotic species

Abstract
India has 19 370 small reservoirs with a total water surface area of 3 153 366 ha. At least 100 of them have
been subjected to scientific studies. Habitat variables responsible for a reservoir’s productivity can be summed up
into climatic, morphometric and hydro-edaphic factors. The peninsular reservoirs are characterized by a narrow
range of fluctuations in water and air temperature across seasons, a phenomenon which prevents the formation of
thermal stratification. Many reservoirs in the upper peninsula show thermal stratification during summer. Wind-
induced turbulence facilitates the return of nutrients to the trophogenic zone. Most reservoirs on the mountain
slopes of Western Ghats, Himalayas and the other highlands are deeper, with steeper basin walls, compared to
irrigation impoundments. Mean depth does not show any direct correlation with productivity, either at primary
or fish level. A high shoreline development index gives a better indication of productivity. Plankton, benthos
and periphyton pulses of Indian reservoirs coincide with the months of least level fluctuations. Oligotrophic
tendencies shown by some reservoirs are mainly due to poor nutrient status and other chemical deficiencies. In
most cases, poor water quality is accountable to poor catchment soil. Low levels of phosphate and nitrate are
not indicative of low productivity due to quick recycling of these nutrients. Specific conductivity reflects the
production propensities of reservoirs satisfactorily. Almost all productive reservoirs have a klinograde oxygen
curve and a vertical stratification of chemical variables such as pH, carbon dioxide, total alkalinity and specific
conductivity. High seasonal rainfall and discharge of water during monsoon result in high flushing rates, which do
not favour colonization by macrophytic communities. Similarly, inadequate availability of suitable substrata retards
the growth of periphyton. Plankton constitutes the major link in the trophic structure. A rich plankton community
with well-marked succession is the hallmark of Indian reservoirs with blue-green algae as the major component.
The main factors that retard the growth of benthos are a rocky bottom, frequent water level fluctuation and rapid
deposition of silt and other suspended particles. Large reservoirs, on average, harbour 60 species of fishes, of which
at least 40 contribute to the commercial fisheries. Fast-growing Indian major carps are the prominent commercial
fishes. Dam construction has adversely affected populations of many other species such as Tenualosa ilisha, Tor
spp. and Cirrhinus spp. Formulae for estimating fish yield potential and stocking density are described. While
culture-based fisheries have been successfully practiced in many small reservoirs, the management norm followed
in medium and large reservoirs is primarily on capture fishery. In large and medium reservoirs, stocking was
successful only when stocked fishes bred. Indian experience on species enhancement and introductions is described.
Environmental enhancement of small reservoirs has been attempted in some reservoirs of Tamil Nadu. Modeling,
using standard population parameters, such as the density-dependent growth, size dependent mortality and weight–
length relationship is discussed. Two exotic fishes viz., Oreochromis mossambicus and Cyprinus carpio have
been introduced into Indian reservoir with discouraging results. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, after an accidental
introduction, has performed well in Gobindsagar, a reservoir with a distinct cold water regime. Reservoir fisheries
in India are well poised for development, provided scientific management norms are adopted.
122
Introduction
A large number of reservoirs have been constructed in
India during the last five decades, with the primary ob-
jective of storing river water for irrigation and power
generation. Although these water bodies hold tre-
mendous fisheries development potential, they are not
contributing to the inland fish production of the coun-
try to the extent they should. Unlike rivers, which are
under increasing threat of environmental degradation,
reservoirs offer ample scope for fish yield optimization
through suitable management. The sheer magnitude
of the resource makes it possible to enable substantial
increase in production by even a modest improvement
in yield. Thus, any attempt to increase productivity in
inland fisheries has to rely heavily on reservoirs.
Geo-climatic situations in India make it imper-
ative to store river water behind dams. The major
physiographic divisions of the country are Himalayas,
the Indo-Gangetic plains, the Vindhyas, the Satpuras,
the Western Ghats, the Eastern Ghats, coastal plains,
the deltas and the riverine wetlands (Figure 1). The
alignments of hills and their elevation have a pro-
found influence on the prevailing winds and thereby
the distribution of rainfall in the country. India re-
ceives, on average, 105 cm of rainfall every year,
which is one of the highest in the world for a coun-
try of comparable size (Rama, 1978). Total amount
of annual rainfall is estimated at 400 million hectare
meters (mhm) out of which 230 mhm goes back to the
atmosphere as evapo-transpiration, leaving 170 mhm
to the river (Rama, 1978). The temporal and spatial
distribution of rainfall exhibits wide variations. More
than 1 million km2 of the country receives inadequate
rainfall (Rao, 1979). This includes deserts, the semi-
arid regions of north India and the rain shadow of the
Western Ghats (Figure 2).
Large peninsular rivers like the Godavari, the
Krishna, the Pennar and the Cauvery pass through
extensive tracts of low rainfall area and hence carry
much less water than rivers passing through high rain-
fall areas like the northeast and the West Coast. In the
northeast, the Khasi and Jaintia hills receive a bounti-
ful 1000 cm of rainfall annually and the Brahmaputra
valley gets 200 cm of precipitation. Rainfall up to
1142 cm recorded in Cherrapunji and Mawsyngram is
one of the highest in the world (Rao, 1979); the west
coast of India, the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Him-
alayas receive rainfall of high order during southwest
monsoon.
Southwest monsoon (June–September) is the prin-
cipal rainy season, when 70% of annual rainfall is
received. In more than one third of the country, 90%
of the rainfall and thereby surface flow is limited to
a period of 2–3 months. This extreme seasonality
makes irrigation reservoirs a sine qua non for agri-
culture, especially in the rain shadow of peninsular
India. People inhabiting this area store water by erect-
ing barricades across minor stream and rivulets from
time immemorial. In recent years, with the advent of
modern hydraulic structures, larger and more complex
dams came into being. The steep gradient and heavy
discharge of water from the mountain slopes of the
Western Ghats, the northeast and the Himalayas offer
opportunities for hydroelectric power generation. A
large number of such projects have come up in these
regions in recent years. Thus, reservoirs have become
a common feature in the Indian landscape dotting all
river basins, minor drainages and seasonal streams.
Definition and classification of reservoirs in India
A reservoir is an impoundment obstructing the surface
flow of a river, stream or any water course (Sug-
unan, 1997a). However, water bodies less than 10 ha
in area have been excluded form this definition. The
Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India classi-
fies reservoirs as small (<1000 ha), medium (1000 to
5000 ha) and large (>5000 ha) for purpose of fish-
ery management, which constitute the single largest
inland fisheries resource in terms of resource size and
production potential.
Medium and large reservoirs are fewer in num-
ber and details on them are readily available with the
irrigation, power and public works authorities. How-
ever, enumeration of small reservoirs is a tedious task,
as they are ubiquitous and numerous. There also ex-
ist ambiguities in the nomenclature followed by some
states. The word tank is often loosely defined and used
in common parlance to describe small irrigation reser-
voirs. In the eastern states of Orissa and West Bengal,
pond and tank are interchangeable expressions, while
in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, tanks
refer to a section of irrigation reservoirs including
small and medium sized water bodies.
Tanks, as defined by David et al. (1974), are “water
bodies created by dams built of rubble, earth, stone
masonry work across seasonal streams as against
reservoirs formed by dams built with precise engin-
eering skill across perennial or long seasonal rivers
or streams using concrete masonry or stone for power
 123

Figure 1. Physiographic divisions of India.

124

Figure 2. Distribution of rainfall in India.


supply large scale irrigation or flood control pur-
poses.” This definition is obviously tedious and in-
adequate. From limnological and fisheries point of
view, the distinction between small reservoirs and
tanks seems to be irrelevant. Moreover, numerous
small reservoirs fitting exactly the description of south
Indian reservoirs are already enlisted as reservoirs in
the rest of the country. Therefore, large tanks need to
be treated at par with reservoirs.
In Andhra Pradesh, tanks are classified as per-
ennial and long seasonal. In Tamil Nadu, tanks are
classified as short seasonal and long seasonal. The
latter, also known as major irrigation tanks, have
an average size of 34 ha and retain water for 9–12
months. Similarly, 4605 perennial large water bodies
in Karnataka listed as major irrigation tanks could be
easily brought under the ambit of reservoirs. After re-
moving these anomalies in nomenclature, it has been
estimated that India has 19 134 small reservoirs with a
total water surface area of 1 485 557 ha. Similarly, 180
medium and 56 large reservoirs of the country have an
area of 527 541 and 1 140 268 ha, respectively (Figure
3). Thus, the country has 19 370 reservoirs covering
3 153 366 ha (Sugunan, 1995).
Review of work done in Indian reservoirs
Considering the number and surface area of reservoirs
in India and their importance in fishery development,
research on this resource can be qualified as modest.
About 100 reservoirs have been subjected to some
form of studies. Research work done in various states
is briefly outlined in Table 1.
Factors determining productivity
The water and soil quality in a reservoir is a func-
tion of geo-climatic conditions. Productivity depends
on the synergistic effects of geo-chemical, meteorolo-
gical, morphometric and hydrographic variables. In-
dian reservoirs are spread over various types of terrain
and soil types, exposed to diverse climatic conditions
and they receive drainage from a variety of catchment
areas. This imparts a high degree of diversity to their
biotic communities in terms of biomass and species
number.
In reservoirs, fluviatile and lacustrine characters
co-exist. The lotic sector of the reservoir sustains a
fluviatile biocoenos, whereas the lenitc and bay zones
125
harbour lacustrine communities (Sugunan, 1991).
During the months of heavy inflow and outflow, the
whole reservoir mimics a lotic environment, whereas
in summer, when inflow and outflow dwindle, a lentic
condition prevails. Another unique feature of reser-
voirs is the water renewal pattern, marked by swift
changes in level. In India, most precipitation is during
monsoon. During this period, due to heavy inflow, all
outlets of the dams are usually opened, resulting in
total flushing. This process dislodges a considerable
part of the biotic communities and disturbs natural
community succession (Sugunan, 1980). Sudden level
fluctuations also affect the benthos by exposing or
submerging substrata (Sugunan & Das, 1983) .
In reservoirs, nutrient input from allochthonous
sources often determines water quality, nutrient re-
gime and production. Catchment of parent rivers is
often situated far away from the reservoir, under
totally different geo-climatic conditions. Deep draw-
down, wind-mediated turbulence and locking up of
nutrients in deep basins are but some factors that
impart uniqueness to the reservoir ecosystem. Be-
sides, the varying purpose and design of the dams
make reservoirs different in their hydrographic and
morpho-edaphic characteristics, with implications on
production.
Construction of a dam and consequent impound-
ment bring a sudden transformation of a lotic envir-
onment to a lentic one. This process triggers a series
of changes in the riverine community, which are akin
to secondary community succession. A number of
organisms perish, some migrate to more hospitable
environs, and the more hardy ones adapt themselves
to the changed habitat. There is usually an initial
spurt of plankton and benthic communities due to the
increased availability of nutrients released from the
decay of submerged vegetation. This trophic burst is
also on account of the saproxenic lacustrine species
filling the vacant niches created by the disappear-
ance of saprophobic riverine taxa. As the effects of
trophic burst wean away, the reservoir passes into a
phase of trophic depression and the final fertility is re-
gained after a few years. Habitat variables responsible
for a reservoir’s productivity can be summed up into
climatic, morphometric and hydro-edaphic factors.
Climatic factors
The Indian reservoirs are distributed in a wide range
of climates extending from the temperate Himalayas
in the north to the tropical in the southern peninsula.
126

Figure 3. Distribution of reservoirs in India.

 127
Table 1. Summary of scientific literature on reservoir fisheries of India

State/Reservoir Nature of work Reference

Tamil Nadu

Red Hills lake Plankton, water quality Ganapati (1940)

Stanley reservoir Limnology and fisheries Ganapati &Alikunhi (1949), Ganapati

(1955), Sreenivasan, (1966, 1969)

Hope Lake Limnology and fisheries Ganapati (1956a)

Errakuppam Limnology Ganapati (1956b)

Mukerti reservoir Limnology Ganapati (1957)

Bhavanisagar Limnology and fisheries, post- Sreenivasan (1964),Sreenivasan et al.

impondment changes, phytoplankton,
Biology of Puntius dubius, Aorichthys
aor, Labeo calbasu and Channa
marulius, Fisheries management
(1964), Dorairaj & Pankajam (1956),
Menon & Chari (1959), Franklin
(1969), Ranganathan et al. (1962),
Ranganathan & Radha (1966),
Natarajan (1971), Devaraj (1973),
Natarajan et al. (1981)

Amaravathy Limnology and productivity Sreenivasan (1965)

Tamil Nadu Comparative limnology Sreenivasan (1970a,b, 1976, 1979)

reservoirs Pandian (1987)

Poondi reservoir Sounder Raj et al. (1971)

Aliyar, Fisheries management Selvaraj et al. (1997)

Tirumoorthy

Kerala

Idukki Fish fauna, water quailty, plankton, Gopinath & Jayakrishnan (1984),
Khatri (1985, 1987, 1988), Nair (1988)

Parappar Nair (1986), Sahib &Aziz (1989)

Neyyar Harikrishnan &Aziz (1989)

Kerala reservoirs Fisheries management Mathew & Mohan (1990)

Malampuzha, Stock assessment, fisheries management Taege et al. (1993)

Chulliar, Pothundy,
Vazhani and Peechi

Karnataka

Tungabhadra Limnology, plankton, benthos, Fisheries, David et al. (1969, 1975), Govind
fishing gear (1963, 1969), Krishnamoorthy (1966),
Subba Rao & Govind (1964), Banrerjee
& Ray (1979) Singit (1987), Singit et
al. (1987)

Hemavathy Limnology and fisheries Devaraj et al. (1987)

Krishnarajasagar Limnology and fisheries Sugunan (1995)

Nalliguda

Continued on p. 128
128
Table 1. contd.

Markonahalli Limnology and fisheries Anon. (1998)

Supa Preliminary observations Birasal et al. (1991)

Vanivilas Sagar Preliminary observations Ray (1969)

Kabini Preliminary observations Murthy et al. (1986), Srivastava et al.

(1985)

Byramangala Pollution, fish mortality Raghavan et al. (1977), Joshi (1990)

Andhra Pradesh

Hussainsagar Water quality, phytoplankton, heavy Srinivasan et al. (1965), Zafar (1966,
metal pollution, comparison with other 1986), Seenayya & Prahlad (1987),
reservoirs Prahlad & Seenyya (1988), Prasad,
(1993), Ghosh & George (1989)

Nagarjunasagar Water quality and primary productivity,
plankton, benthos and periphyton,
biological traits of various species of
fish
Anon (1982), Pathak (1979), Sugunan
(1980, 1991), Sugunan & Das (1983),
Sugunan & Pathak (1986), Sugunan &
Vinci (1981), Vinci (1984, 1986), Vinci
& Sugunan (1981)

Madhya Pradesh

Gandhisagar Pre-impoundment survey, post-impoundment Dubey & Mehra (1959), Dubey &
studies, trawling, Chatterjee (1976) Rao et al. (1990),
Kartha & Rao (1990)

Ravishankarsagar, Limnology and fisheries Sugunan, 1995

Govindgarh Limnology and fish productivity Mathew (1975)

Kulgarhi Limnology and fisheries Dwivedi et al. (1986), Karamchandani

& Mishra (1980)

Mansarovar Water quality, plankton and fish fauna Kulshreshtha et al. (1992)

Loni Fishery biology Gupta (1976)

Bergi,Tawa,Barna, Preliminary observations Unni (1993)

Sarni,Sukta,
Sampan,
Kolar,Halali, Dahod

Undasa Preliminary observations Singh (1986)

Yaswantnagar Preliminary observations Sharma & Diwan (1989)

Orissa & Maharashtra

Hirakud Water quality, productive potential and
the management, craft, gear and fishing
methods, ecology
Sugunan & Yadava (1992)
George(1979), Sulochanan et al. (1968),
Nair et al. (1981), Khan et al. (1992),
Varghese et al. (1993), Dash et al.
(1993)

Dhom Preliminary studies Trivedi (1993)

Continued on p. 129
 129
Table 1. contd.

Nathsagar Preliminary studies Desai (1980)

Bhandardara, Preliminary studies Valsangkar (1980, 1987, 1993)

Yaldari and Girna,

Bhatgar Fisheries management Anon. (1997)

Gujarat & Rajasthan

Ukai Ecology and fisheries Anon. (1980, 1983, 1984a)

Sayaji Sarovar Preliminary studies Ganapti & Pathak (1969)

Jaisamund Limnology and fisheries Durve & Kakkar (1982), Sharma

(1980)

Ramgarh and Water quality, fish production potential Jhingran (1989)

Chhapparwara

Himachal Pradesh

Gobindsagar Water and soil quality fish and fisheries, Sarkar et al. (1977) Kaushal & Rao
fish biology, gill netting (1982, 1990), Kaushal et al. (1980 a,b),
George et al. (1977)

Pong Limnology and fisheries CIFRI reports (Sugunan, 1995)

Pandoh Preliminary survey CIFRI reports (Sugunan, 1995)

Uttar Pradesh

Rihand Ecology and fisheries Natarajan et al. (1982)

Gularia Ecology and fisheries Jhingran et al. (1981)

Bachhra Ecology and fisheries Khan et al. (1990)

Baghla Ecology and fisheries Sugunan (1995)

Baigul Preliminary survey Khan (1986), Salim & Ahmed (1985)

Keetham Preliminary survey Dwivedi & Chonder (1980)

Bihar

Konar, Tilaiya, Limnology, fish productivity, fisheries Jhingran & Natarajan (1969), Natarajan
Maithon and management (1976), Ramakrishniah & Sarkar
Panchet (1982)

Getalsud Fisheries management, plankton, Anon (1984b), Singh (1984)

benthos

Bihar reservoirs Resource survey Ahmed & Singh (1992)

Badua & Nalkari Preliminary observations Verma & Munshi (1983), Sarkar,
(1982)

The northeast

Gumti Water quality, fish production trends Chaudhuri (1992), Anon. (1994)

Kyrdemkulai & Limnology, productivity guidelines for Sugunan & Yadava (1991 a , b).
Nongmahir fisheries management
130
Table 2. Latitude-induced variations in availability of energy in
Indian reservoirs (from Jhingran, 1990)
Reservoir Area (ha) Latitude Available
at full (N) light energy chemical energy
reservoir level (cal m−2 yr−1 (cal m−2 yr−1
Bhavanisagar 7285 11◦ 250 213 × 04
Nagarjunasagar 28 474 16◦ 40 205 ×104
Rihand 46 538 24◦ 188 ×104
Ramgarh 1265 27◦ 120 183 ×104
Gobindsagar 16 867 31◦ 250 172 ×104 11 696 (0.68%)
Apart from influencing the prevailing climate of the
region, the latitudinal location is important in determ-
ining the quantum of solar radiation available at the
water surface for primary productivity. Natarajan &
Pathak (1983) estimated the amount solar radiation
available at four reservoirs within 11◦ 250 N and 31◦
250 N and the rate, at which the solar energy was
converted into chemical energy. Incident solar energy
available at four reservoirs varied from 213 × 104 cal
m−2 yr−1 in Bhavanisagar (11◦ 250 N) to 172 × 104
cal m−2 yr−1 in Gobindsagar (31◦ 250 N). Jhingran,
(1990) observed that 0.29–0.68% of the incident solar
energy was fixed as chemical energy by the primary
producers in five reservoirs, viz., Gobindsagar (Hi-
machal Pradesh), Ramgarh (Rajasthan), Rihand (Uttar
Pradesh), and Bhavanisagar (Tamil Nadu). It is often
the qualitative and quantitative abundance of the pro-
ducer communities that determines the photosynthetic
efficiency rather than the actual amount of solar en-
ergy available. For instance, Nagarjunasagar, despite
receiving solar energy at the rate of 205 × 104 cal m−2
yr−1 , fixes chemical energy to the extent of 0.29%,
whereas in Gobindsagar, 0.68% of the 172 × 104 cal
m−2 is fixed by the producers in an year (Table 2).
Seasonal variations in morphometry also play a vital
role in determining the rate of energy fixation and its
transformation. This aspect has been brought to focus
by Haniffa & Pandian (1978) through studies in a pond
ecosystem.
Air temperature, wind velocity and rainfall are
some predisposing factors in biological productivity of
reservoirs. In contrast to the northern reservoirs, their
peninsular counterparts are characterised by narrow
range of fluctuations in water and air temperature dur-
ing different seasons, a phenomenon, which prevents
the formation of thermal stratification. Nagarjunas-
agar is a classical example, where no thermocline is
formed, despite 40% of its capacity being dead stor-
age (Pathak, 1979). Besides, high water temperature
prevailing throughout the year, continuous drawdown
Available from deeper layers and wind-mediated turbulence fa-
cilitate mixing up of water column. This is equally
true to most of the reservoirs in the States of Andhra
8781 (0.41%) Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and
5959 (0.29%) Maharashtra. Thermocline is limnologically important
3970 (0.20%)
8236 (0.49%)
because in thermally stratified lakes, water at surface
and bottom does not mix up; hence rich nutrients get
locked up at the bottom layer. A warm bottom layer
also facilitates rapid decomposition of organic matter
and accelerates the nutrient release.
Seven reservoirs in the upper peninsula compris-
ing south Bihar, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh undergo
transient phases of thermal stratification during sum-
mer stagnation, depending upon other parameters such
as basin depth, water abstraction pattern and wind
(Sugunan,1995). Konar reservoir, situated above the
Tropic of Cancer, has distinct epi-and hypolimnion
during summer (Natarajan, 1976). Similarly, a well-
defined thermocline is reported from Gobindsagar
(Sarkar et al., 1977; Anon., 1989). In this reservoir,
apart from the solar warming of the top layer, which
remains as a separate thermal regime, the inflowing
Beas water that joins the reservoir at the lotic sector
does not mix, retains its cool character and remains as
a separate layer at the bottom.
Amount of rainfall plays a crucial role in renew-
ing water and enriching nutrients of reservoirs. More
often, rainfall in catchment of the river situated hun-
dreds of km away from the reservoir affects the inflow
rate. Another important climatic factor with implic-
ations on thermal and chemical regimes of reservoir
is the wind. It helps distribution of heat and equaliz-
ation of temperature in water column. Wind velocity
is high during monsoon and pre-monsoon in most
reservoirs of India (Natarajan, 1979a). Wind-induced
turbulence is important in churning of the reservoirs
and thereby facilitating availability of nutrients at
trophogenic zone.
Morphometric factors
Reservoir morphometry is a function of dam height
and topography of impounded areas. Nature of the ter-
rain, on which dam is constructed, plays a crucial role
in determining the reservoir morphometry. Design of
the dam and water use pattern also decide productivity
by affecting morphometric and hydrographic features.
Most hydel reservoirs on mountain slopes of the West-
ern Ghats, Himalayas and other highlands are deeper,

with steeper basin walls, compared to the irrigation
impoundments. An important morphometric consider-
ation is the mean depth, which is believed to determine
productivity of reservoirs. This is based on the well-
known dictum (Rawson, 1952; Hayes, 1957) that
shallower lakes have greater part of their water in eu-
photic zone, facilitating greater mixing and circulation
of heat and nutrients, and hence higher productivity. A
large portion of water in deep lakes serves as a nutrient
sink at the bottom, where organic matter accumulates
and becomes unavailable at photosynthetic zone.
Among large reservoirs, mean depth ranges from
5.2 m in Panchet to 58 m in Gobindsagar. Me-
dium reservoirs have mean depth ranging from 2.3
m (Poondi) to 24 m (Bhatghar). Small reservoirs
have mean depth range of 2.1 m (Vidur) to 14.6 m
(Badua). Hope lake in Tamil Nadu has an excep-
tionally deep basin of 37.7 m. Hydel reservoirs of
the mountain slopes invariably are deeper than the
irrigation reservoirs of the plains and plateaus. Incid-
entally, the two largest impoundments of the country
viz., Hirakud and Gandhisagar have very low mean
depths of 11.3 and 11.7 m, respectively. Idukki, a
hydel reservoir in the Western Ghats, which is one
tenth of Gandhisagar in area, has a mean depth of 32
m. This parameter, however, does not show any dir-
ect correlation with productivity, either at primary or
fish level. Despite being very shallow, Vidur does not
support a rich plankton community. Likewise Kulgarhi
and Gobindgarh reservoirs in Madhya Pradesh exhibit
oligotrophic propensities in spite of their shallowness.
On the other hand, Gobindsagar, the deepest reservoir
has the highest productivity among large reservoirs.
Medium reservoirs like Amaravathy (13.7 m), Aliyar
(16.8 m) and Thirumoorthy (11 m) develop regular
blooms of plankton.
Shoreline and volume development indices
An irregular shoreline encompasses more littoral
formations and areas of land and water interface. Thus,
a high value of shoreline development index is be-
lieved to be indicative of productive nature of the
water body. High shoreline indices of Hirakud (13.5),
Gobindsagar (12.26), Tilaiya (9.12), Konar (8.78),
Nagarjunasagar (7.89) and Rihand (7.04) are accom-
panied by a moderate to rich plankton community.
Ratio between the maximum depth and mean depth,
often described as volume development index, denotes
the depth of basin in relation to the nature of basin
wall. An index value less than 1 suggests basin wall
convex towards water. No perceptible relation exists
131
between this parameter and the productivity of Indian
reservoirs.
Hydrodynamics
Rate of inflow, outflow and water level have a dir-
ect bearing on productivity, as their sudden fluctu-
ations directly affect the biotic communities. Plank-
ton, benthos and periphyton pulses coincide with the
months of least level fluctuations and all these com-
munities are at their ebb during the months of max-
imum level fluctuations and water discharge (Sugunan,
1980; Sugunan & Das, 1983; Sugunan & Pathak,
1986). Percentage of shallow areas (littoral forma-
tion), which varies at different levels, depending on
contour, is also an indicator of productive nature of
the lakes. The requirements of irrigation, power gen-
eration and other primary purposes of the dam dictate
storage and release of water from dams, rather than
any considerations related to fisheries. The spillway
discharge, apart from dislodging the standing crop
of plankton, removes the oxygenated clear water at
the top layer, leaving the oxygen-deficient bottom
water. Conversely, the deep drawdown removes the
decomposing material including nutrients (Jhingran,
1975).
Hydro-edaphic factors
Low productive nature of some of the reservoirs can
be attributed to poor nutrient status. In most cases,
deficiencies in the catchment soil result in poor water
quality. Reservoirs in Kerala such as Idukki (Khatri,
1985, 1987, 1988), Neyyar (Harikrishnan & Aziz,
1989) and Parappar (Nair,1986) have low status in
terms of specific conductivity (< 50 µs) and total al-
kalinity (<50 mg l−1 ) with the attendant low primary
productivity and plankton. The rivers of Kerala drain
Western Ghats with lateritic and humus soils defi-
cient in N, P and Ca. In Tamil Nadu, Hope lake,
Manimuthar, Pechiparai and Peruchani are deficient in
ions, while Sathanur, Krishnagiri and Vidur reservoirs
receiving drainage passing predominantly through cul-
tivated area have higher levels of alkalinity and hard-
ness (Sreenivasan, 1970a,b, 1976, 1979). Limestone
and other calcareous rocks underlying the water course
in the Deccan plateau are responsible for the predom-
inantly hard water character of many of the reser-
voirs on the Krishna and Cauvery in Andhra Pradesh
and Tamil Nadu. In Madhya Pradesh, the water is
soft to medium soft with less mineral salts due to
132
geo-chemical reasons. The examples are Ravishankar-
sagar (Anon, 1984a), Mansarovar (Kulshreshtha et al.,
1992), Loni (Gupta, 1976), Bergi, Tawa, Barna, Sarni,
Sukta, Sampna, Halali, Kolar Dahod (Unni, 1993),
Undasa (Singh, 1986) and Yaswantnagar (Sharma &
Diwan, 1989). Catchment of Ravishankarsagar com-
prises rocky, denuded forests and upstream rivers
are intercepted by impoundments, which further de-
prive the water of suspended matter. Allochthonous
enrichment with minerals and nutrients of the reser-
voir is very low resulting in low standing crop of
plankton. Even small lakes with shallow bottoms like
Govindgarh (Mathew, 1975) do not show signs of
productivity due to poor chemical make up of the
catchment. Soils in Madhya Pradesh are normally
deep black, medium black, shallow black, mixed red
and skeletal, low in nitrogen and phosphorus. Acidic
nature of water of the northeastern reservoirs, Kyr-
demkulai, Nongmahir (Sugunan & Yadava, 1991a,b)
and Barapani is attributable to acidic soil of the reser-
voir bed and catchment.
Nutrient status
Low levels of phosphate and nitrate characterize most
of the Indian reservoirs. Phosphate very seldom ex-
ceeds 0.1 mg l−1 in reservoirs free from pollution.
However, the reservoirs of Rajasthan have particularly
high levels of phosphate ranging from traces to 0.929
mg l−1 (Sharma, 1980); they receive phosphate from
the rain washings derived from brown hills, red and
yellow and desert soils. In a highly eutrophic reservoir
of Mansarovar in Madhya Pradesh, phosphate levels
of 4–13 mg l−1 were recorded (Kulshreshtha et al.,
1992). Nitrate nitrogen in water is mostly in traces and
seldom exceeds 0.5 mg l−1 . Low nutrient level in wa-
ter, especially nitrate and phosphate does not indicate
low productivity. In many cases, despite their virtual
absence, production processes are not hampered. In
Amaravathy, Bhavanisagar, Gandhisagar, Ravishank-
arsagar and many other reservoirs, moderate to very
high primary productivity is reported, although phos-
phate in water is either absent or present in a very low
concentration. In tropical reservoirs, phosphate level
in water has limited scope as an indicator of product-
ive traits. This phenomenon is attributed to turn over
of nutrients (Ehrich, 1960; Abbot, 1967) and their
quick recycling, as seen from the high metabolic rates.
Phytoplankton is known to take up 95% of the phos-
phorus within 20 min, while some algae could convert
inorganic phosphate into organic state in less than one
minute (Hayes & Phillips, 1958).
A measure of total dissolved solids in the form
of total alkalinity or the specific conductivity is a
better indicator of production propensities of a reser-
voir in India. A possible exception is the Amaravathy
reservoir, which despite very low levels of specific
conductivity (38–63 µS), total alkalinity (7–84 mg
l−1 ) and total hardness (18–50 mg l−1 ), supports a
very rich plankton community and a good stock of
fish. The ranges of notable abiotic factors indicating
their productivity status of Indian reservoirs are given
in Table 3. A close examination of physical and chem-
ical data pertaining to more than 100 reservoirs of
India suggests that none of the morphometirc, edaphic
and water quality parameters can be used as a depend-
able yardstick to predict organic productivity to any
degree of accuracy. Production propensities of each
reservoir are determined by a variety of factors. Ver-
tical gradient of dissolved oxygen, however, conveys
the status with a higher level of accuracy.
Klinograde distribution of oxygen is a good indic-
ator of productivity, as oxygen is consumed during
the process of decomposition of organic matter at the
bottom. An increase in oxygen at the trophogenic up-
per zone indicates the high rate of photosynthesis.
Irrespective of their geographic location, almost all
productive reservoirs in India have a klinograde oxy-
gen curve. In most cases, the oxycline is accompanied
by a vertical stratification of other chemical para-
meters such as pH, carbon dioxide, total alkalinity
and specific conductivity. The tropholytic zone has
a steady supply of free carbon dioxide, which reacts
with carbonate to produce bicarbonates. This results in
an increase of bicarbonates towards the bottom. Sim-
ilarly, pH drops rapidly due to increase in hydrogen
ions. Thus, increase in total alkalinity, specific con-
ductivity and CO2 and decrease in pH values towards
the bottom layers act as useful indicators of productiv-
ity. Primary productivity in reservoirs is very high due
to warm conditions prevailing in most parts of India.
Many workers consider 1% of total carbon produc-
tion at the phytoplankton phase to represent relatively
higher potential fish production from a water body,
although almost all reservoirs produce much less fish
than their potential.
Biotic communities
Heavy discharge of water during the monsoon results
in high flushing rate in most reservoirs and it retards
 133

Figure 4. Dominant phytoplankton in reservoirs (state-wise).

134
Table 3. Physical-chemical features of Inidan reservoirs (range of values) (from Jhingran, 1990)

Parameter Overall range Productivity rating

Low Medium High

(A) Water
pH value 6.5–9.2 <6.0 6.0–8.5 >8.5
Alkalinity (mg l−1 ) 40–240 <40.0 40.90 >90.0
Nitrates (mg l−1 ) tr.-0.93 negligible up to 0.2 0.2–0.5
Phosphates (mg l−1 ) tr.-0.36 negligible up to 0.1 0.1–0.2
Specific conductivity (µS) 76–474 up to 200 >200
Temperature (◦ C) 12.0–31.0 18 18–22 >22
(with minimal stratification)

(B) Soil
pH 6.0–8.8 <6.5 6.5–7.5 >7.5
Available P (mg kg−1 ) 0.05–0.62 <0.3 0.3–0.6 >0.6
Available N (mg kg−1 ) 1.3–6.5 <2.5 2.5–6.0 >6.0
Organic Carbon (%) 0.6–3.2 <0.5 0.5–1.5 1.5–2.5

colonization by macrophytic communities. Similarly,
inadequate availability of suitable substrata also re-
tards periphyton growth. By virtue of drifting habit
and short turnover period, plankton, constitutes the
main link in the trophic structure of the reservoir eco-
system. A rich plankton community with well-marked
seral succession is the hallmark of Indian reservoirs.
Blue-green algae form the mainstay of plankton com-
munity in vast majority of the man-made lakes. The
overwhelming presence of Microcystis aeruginosa in
Indian reservoirs is remarkable. The productive wa-
ters of Gangetic plains, Deccan plateau, south Tamil
Nadu and Orissa invariably have good standing crop
of Microcystis aeruginosa. A common feature of all
these reservoirs is the bright sunshine, isothermal wa-
ter column, klinograde oxygen curve and an extensive
catchment area, draining forested or cultivated land
rich in calcium. The examples are Rihand (Natarajan
et al., 1982), Nagarjunasagar (Natarajan & Pathak,
1983), Amravathy (Sreenivasan, 1970a) and Hirakud
(Sugunan & Yadava, 1992). However, the reservoirs
of Karnataka and Kerala tend to be oligotrophic and
have poor plankton count with desmids and other
green algae, as the main constituents. Reservoirs of
Rajasthan with scanty rainfall and poor flushing rate
favour macrophytes; despite being productive, they do
not harbour blooms of Microcystis. Oligotrophic lakes
of the northeast have a desmid-dominated plankton
community (Figure 4).
Three distinct plankton pulses are reported from
many of the reservoirs, which coincide with post-
southwest monsoon (September–November), winter
(December–February) and summer (March–May).
The southwest monsoon (June–August) flushing dis-
turbs and often dislodges the standing crop of plank-
ton. However, no sooner the destabilizing effects wean
away (as the dam outlets are closed), the allochthon-
ous nutrient input favours an accelerated plankton
growth. As post-monsoon merges into winter, the
turbulence decreases and water becomes clean, the
plankton community progresses through a series of
seral successions to culminate in a peak. The summer
maxima coincide with the drastic drawdown, bringing
the deep, nutrient-rich areas into the fold of troph-
olytic zone. High temperature, bright sunlight and
rapid tropholytic activities also accelerate the multi-
plication of plankton during summer. In some cases,
only two pulses (i.e. post-monsoon and summer) are
seen. However, the shallow, nutrient rich reservoirs in
the southern tip of the peninsula, by virtue of the fast
turnover of nutrients and availability of sunshine and
warmth, sustain a permanent bloom of plankton.
Microcystis multiplies rapidly in peninsular reser-
voirs, often reaching blooming proportions. This is
an example of a lacustrine biocoenose giving way
to fluviatile ones as a consequence of the impound-
ment. Studies have indicated that Chlorophyceae and
Bacillariophyceae constituted the main components
of riverine plankton (Sugunan, 1991). On reservoir

formation and consequent transformation of lotic en-
vironment into lentic system, saprophobes disappear,
giving room for the rapid multiplication of saproxenes.
In the new but favourable environment, Microcystis
aeruginosa bursts into blooms, outnumbering all other
forms into insignificance. In many reservoirs, orienta-
tion of lacustrine and fluviatile plankton can be clearly
discerned from the composition of plankton in lotic,
lentic and the cove sectors. The fluviatile lotic sec-
tor, although recording a lower plankton density, often
shows better diversity and evenness indices, compared
to the lentic and bay sectors (Sugunan, 1991).
In most reservoirs, aquatic macrophytes are totally
absent or their population is too insignificant to be
taken into account, barring some exceptional circum-
stances, such as low water renewal, ageing of reservoir
and pollution stress. They are mostly restricted to isol-
ated patches of Vallisneria maxima, Hydrilla spiralis
and mats of Spirogyra vericellata in protected bays
and coves. Yerrakalava in Andhra Pradesh (Sugunan,
1995), Ramgarh in Rajasthan (Jhingran,1989a) and
Sayajisarovar in Gujarat (Ganapati & Pathak, 1969)
are examples of macrophytic growth due to low flush-
ing rate. Small irrigation reservoirs in Uttar Pradesh,
viz., Bachhra (Khan et al., 1990) and Baghla (Sug-
unan, 1995) are also known for luxuriant growth of
macrophytes. Hussainsagar in Andhra Pradesh (Rao,
1990) and Mansarovar in Madhya Pradesh (Kulshresh-
tha et al., 1992) harbour thick vegetation, which
thrives due to hyper-eutrophication. These reservoirs
are well-advanced on their way to swampification.
Age of reservoir seems to have an influence on mac-
rophyte community. Vanivilas Sagar (Ray, 1969) and
Markonahalli reservoir (Anon, 1998) in Karnataka
formed in 1901 and 1939, respectively, have lux-
uriant growth of macrophytes. Similar age-related
macrophyte growth can be observed in Yerrakalava
(Sugunan, 1995), Ramgarh (Jhingran, 1989a), Hus-
sainsagar (Zafar, 1966) Jaisamund and Fatehsagar
(Sharma, 1980) reservoirs. Reservoirs of Rajasthan
exhibit a seasonal rhythm in aquatic weeds, their
population peaking in summer and declining during
monsoon.
In small irrigation reservoirs of Karnataka, variety
and biomass of macrovegetation depend, to a large ex-
tent, on physiographic divisions and soil types. Thick
vegetation, comprising littoral, submerged and emer-
gent types, is characteristic feature of the tanks of
coastal plains and the Malnad region. In the trans-
itional zone, between plateau and hills, marked by the
presence of laterite and red soil, the tanks are fertile
135
and plankton-rich. Weeds are scarce and, whenever
present, do not choke the water. In the tanks of black
soil zones, the weeds are mostly submerged and emer-
gent types such as Hydrilla sp., Chara sp. and Nitella
sp. In most of the tanks in the seasonal, red soil area,
the vegetation is limited to littoral areas (David et al.,
1974).
By providing substrata for a number of insects,
molluscs and other invertebrate fauna, macrophytes
augment species diversity of reservoirs. Nevertheless,
presence of weeds can be considered as undesirable
from fisheries point of view. They accumulate large
quantities of inorganic nutrients early in the season,
depriving the phytoplankton of their share of nutri-
ents (Jhingran, 1988). The floating vegetation utilizes
the incident solar radiation for its photosynthesis and
makes it unavailable to the phytoplankton communit-
ies. Submerged weeds provide shelter for minnows
and weed fishes which compete with major carps for
food. Excessive growth of macrophytes causes high
rate of decomposition of dead plants at the bottom,
creating anaerobic conditions. Problems are further
compounded, if water surface is matted by floating ve-
getation, which prevents light penetration. Instances of
fish mortality in summer under such circumstances are
reported from Hussainsagar (Hingorani et al., 1977)
and the reservoirs of Karnataka (Raghavan et al.,
1977) and Uttar Pradesh (Jhingan, 1988). A major
deleterious effect of weeds is the physical obstruction
they cause to a variety of fishing gear.
The main factors adversely affecting benthic com-
munity in reservoirs are the rocky bottom, frequent
water level fluctuations and loss of substrata due to
rapid deposition of silt and other suspended particles.
In spite of this, some reservoirs harbour rich com-
munities of benthic invertebrates. Sequence of dom-
inance of benthic communities closely follows soil
fertility pattern, pre-impoundment debris often provid-
ing suitable habitats. Benthic community succession,
especially that of chironomids, is sometimes used to
characterize habitat changes. High shoreline develop-
ment, variable slopes and vegetation act as favourable
factors for the development of a rich assemblage of
benthic organisms
Small irrigation reservoirs of the Gangetic basin,
such as Bacchra and Baghla, are particularly rich
in benthic fauna mainly due to rich organic mat-
ter in soil and absence of swift changes in water
level. In Bacchra, standing crop of benthos registered
a steady growth from 490 to 1894 no m−2 during
a 10-year-period (Khan et al., 1990). Baghla has
136
a population of benthic invertebrates represented by
Chironomus sp., annelids and molluscs. The deep Ri-
hand reservoir in the Ganga basin has a poor benthic
community. Reservoirs of Karnataka such as Tun-
gabhadra, Markonahalli, Hemavathy, Vanivilas Sagar
and Krishnarajasagar have impressive populations of
benthic organisms, so are the reservoirs of Himachal
Pradesh and Rajasthan. Trends in Tamil Nadu and
Madhya Pradesh are erratic. Local conditions rather
than a general geo-climatic feature of the area de-
termine benthic population density in reservoirs of
India. Being a saprophobic, chironomid larvae quickly
fill the niches vacated by the saproxenes during hab-
itat transformations. They form the most important
constituent of benthos from all soil types and geo-
graphic locations. Gastropods and annelids form the
next important groups. Viviparus bengalensis enjoys
country-wide distribution.
Literature on periphyton of the reservoir ecosystem
is meager. This community constitutes an important
component of food for the browsing fishes, which
contribute substantially to total fish biomass of the
tropical reservoirs. Apart from the limited littoral re-
gion in reservoirs, it is the frequent level fluctuation
that prevents periphyton growth on natural substrata.
Significantly, rich periphyton, whenever reported, co-
incides with relatively stable reservoir levels. There
are reports of rich periphyton deposits on anchored
boats and rafts; the fixed substrata either are totally
exposed, when water level decreases or submerged too
deep for the communities to survive, when level goes
up. Propensities for rich settling rates of periphyton
have been established through experiments with artifi-
cial substrata such as glass slides (David et al., 1975;
Jha, 1979; Sugunan & Pathak, 1986).
Ichthyofauna
Although ichthyofauna of a reservoir basically repres-
ent the fauna of the parent river system, fish species
diversity usually suffers a setback on impoundment.
Indian reservoirs, however, preserve a relatively rich
variety of fish species (Table 4). Large reservoirs, on
an average, harbour 60 species of fishes, of which
at least 40 contribute to commercial fisheries (Jhin-
gran, 1990, 1991). The fast-growing Gangetic carps,
viz., catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita) and
mrigal (Cirrhinus mrigala), popularly known as In-
dian major carps, occupy a prominent place among the
commercially important fishes. More recently, num-
ber of exotic species have contributed substantially to
commercial fisheries.
The groups enjoying country-wide distribution are
the catfishes, featherbacks, air breathing fishes, mur-
rels and minnows. Distribution of Indian major carps,
minor carps and mahseers varies according to river
basins. Fish faunistic diversity of a reservoir at a given
time is the result of the impact of a series of man-made
and natural changes on native fauna of the parent river.
Riverine fish fauna are subjected to a series of habitat
changes such as water current, turbidity levels, fishing
pressure, loss of breeding grounds and changes in fish
food organisms due to lake formation. Species, which
are sensitive to habitat variables, perish, and the hardy
ones take advantage of the vacant niches. Formation of
reservoirs has affected a number of riverine fish stocks
in India (Table 5).
In many reservoirs, transplantation of fishes from
other basins and introduction of exotic species have
led to further radical changes in species assemblage.
Indian major carps are being stocked in reservoirs
all over the country for the last three decades and
in some instances, they have established themselves
in water bodies far away from their original habitat.
Sathanur reservoir in Tamil Nadu has naturalized pop-
ulation of catla that contributes 80–90% of the total
catch. It has eclipsed all indigenous fish fauna includ-
ing Labeo fimbriatus, which dominated the scene by
contributing 36% of the catch during the mid-1960s.
Similarly, introductions of silver carp in Gobindsagar,
common carp in Krishnarajasagar and tilapia (Oreo-
chromis mossambicus) in Amaravathy are examples of
man-made changes in fish assemblage.
Some species of fish are known to adapt them-
selves to reservoir ecosystem and flourish there tak-
ing advantage of the increased biomass of plankton
and benthos during the early stages of impoundment.
However, most fishes that manage to multiply in the
reservoir system are not very high in priority from
commercial and ecological point of view. Stock of
the small clupeid Salmostoma phulo and Osteobrama
vigorsii, which support a flourishing dry fish trade
in Nagarjunasagar and Tungabhadra reservoir (Sug-
unan, 1995), multiply in much higher scale than they
do in the riverine ecosystem. The catfish, Pangasius
pangasius, which was believed to be a catadromous
migrant, has not only adapted itself to become a res-
ident population Nagarjunasagar but also become a
very important component of commercial catch. Ra-
makrishniah (1994) described many instances, where
reservoirs acted as sanctuaries by citing examples of
 137
Table 4. Common fish species found in reservoirs of India

Group Species

Indian major carps Labeo rohita, L. calbasu, L. fimbriatus, Cirrhinus mrigala, Catla catla

The mahseers Tor tor, T. putitora, T. khudree, Acrossocheilus hexagonolepis,

Minor carps Cirrhinus cirrhosa, C. reba, Labeo kontius, L. bata, L. dero, L. dussumeri,
Puntius sarana, P. dubius, P. carnaticus, P. kolus, P. dobsoni, P. chagunio, P.
pulchellus, P. jerdoni P. curumuca, Thynnichythys sandhkhol, Osteobrama
vigorsii

Snow trouts Schizothorax sp., S. plagiostomus

Large catfishes Wallago attu, Aorichthys aor, A. seenghala, Mystus punctatus, M. gulio,
Pangasius pangasius, Silonia childrenii,

Featherbacks Notopterus notopterus, N. chitala

Air breathing catfishes Heteropneustes fossilis, Clarias batrachus

Murrels Channa marulius, C. striatus, C. punctaus, C. gachua

Minnows Ambassis nama, Esomus dandricus, Aspidoparia morar, Amblypharyngodon

mola, Puntius sophore, P. ticto, Oxygaster bacilla, Laubuca laubuca, Barilius
barilia, B. bola, Osteobrama cotio, Gadusia chapra

Exotic fishes Oreochromis mossambicus, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Cyprinus carpio

specularis, C. carpio communis, Gambusia affinis, Ctenopharyngodon idella

Table 5. Fish species affected by dam construction in India

River basin Affected species

Indus Mahseers, snow trouts, Labeo dero, L. dyocheilus, freshwater prawns

Mahanadi Tenualosa ilisha, Puntius sarana, Tor tor, T. mosal, Labeo fimbriatus, L. calbasu,
Rhinomugil corsula, freshwater prawns

Cauveri Puntius dubius, P. carnaticus, Cirrhinus cirrhosa, C. reba, Labeo kontius, L. fimbriatus,
freshwater prawns

Krishna Tenualosa ilisha, Puntius sarana, P. kolus, P. porcellus, P. potail, L. pangusia, L. fimbriatus,
L. calbasu, freshwater prawns

Barilius bola, in Tilaiya, (Damodar), Mystus krishnen- and Tor putitora in Pong (Beas) and Vallabhsagar
sis, Osteobrama vigorsii, and Pseudeutrpius taakree (Tapti).
in Nagarjunasagar (Krishna), Thynnichthys sandkhol
in Nizamsagar (Godavari) Tor khudree and T. mussal-
lah in Shivajisagar (Krishna), Aorichthys seenghala
138
Fisheries management of reservoirs in India
Phytoplankton is the major primary producer in the
reservoir ecosystem and fish productivity depends on
the efficiency of the water body to transform solar
energy into chemical energy. Transformation rate of
this chemical energy by consumers at different trophic
levels differs considerably from one reservoir to an-
other depending on the qualitative and quantitative
variations in the biotic communities. Conversion rate
of above 1% from primary producers to fish can be
considered as good. In an ideal situation, commer-
cial species share the ecological niches in such a way
that trophic resources are utilized to optimum. At the
same time, the fishes should belong to a short food
chain to maximize the efficiency of converting the
primary food resources into harvestable materials. But
in reservoirs, such conditions seldom exist.
The major food niches of the Indian reservoirs
are the biotic communities comprising phytoplank-
ton (Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Dinophyceae and
Bacillariophyceae), zooplankton (copepods, clado-
cerans, rotifers and protozoans) and benthos (insect
larvae and nymphs, oligochaetes, nematodes and mol-
luscs). Significantly, many of the above niches with
the exception of insects, Cyanophyceae and molluscs
are shared between Indian major carps and uneco-
nomic species, focussing need for controlling the
latter. The ecosystem-oriented management policy
places due emphasis on trophic strata in terms of
shared, unshared and vacant niches. Two main path-
ways, through which primary energy finds its way
to fish, are the grazing and detritus chains (Nata-
rajan & Pathak, 1983). Contribution through these
chains leading to transfer of energy to fish level needs
to be assessed for determining the species combina-
tion, most suited to an ecosystem. Scientific fisheries
management implies utilization of the available food
chain in reservoir by employing the right kinds of
species, fish stock monitoring through adjusting the
quantum of fishing effort and mesh size, and adopting
conservation measures.
Assessment of yield potential
Several methods are in vogue to assess the fishery po-
tential of reservoirs by deriving equations based on
area, depth, catchment area and the chemical paramet-
ers of soil and water. Morpho-edaphic index (MEI) is a
methods that uses simple, easily available parameters
reflecting morphometric as well as chemical charac-
Table 6. Estimated fish yield (using MEI method) and actual
yield in seven reservoirs in India
Reservoir Estimated yield Actual yield
(kg ha−1 ) (kg ha−1 )
Pong (Himachal Pradesh) 33 32
Ukai (Gujarat) 67 46
Stanley (Tamil Nadu) 51 12
Nagarjunasagar (Andhra Pradesh) 48 06
Rihand (Uttar Pradesh) 27 05
Gandhisagar (Madhya Pradesh) 52 08
Getalsud (Bihar) 68 02
ters. Relationships between MEI and catch are based
on some common characteristics for sets of lakes that
possess a certain number of limnological conditions.
These are (1) ionic composition (dominated by the
carbonate-bicarbonate system), (2) water body (not
dystrophic), (3) volume (not noticeably fluctuating)
and (4) similar thermal regime. Indian reservoirs, by
and large, fulfil all these conditions except the one
on fluctuations in volume. Henderson & Welcomme
(1974) have calculated morpho-edaphic index and fish
yield potential for the African lakes as:
Specific conductivity (µS)
MEI = and
Mean depth (m)
Fish yield (kg ha−1 ) = 14.3136 MEI 0.4681 .
Although the Asian reservoirs are known to have a
lower yield potential, till an Indian model is derived,
this formula can be applied to the Indian reservoirs to
obtain a rough indication of productivity. However, the
actual fish yields from most of the reservoirs are much
lower than the potential estimated using the formula
(Table 6).
Capture fisheries, culture-based fisheries and
enhancement
Classification of reservoirs into small, medium and
large, based on size, has limitations in setting manage-
ment guidelines. The major consideration in choosing
a particular management option is the degree, at which
the environmental parameters and fish stock can be
manipulated to increase the yield rate. A very useful
criterion to distinguish the norms of capture fisher-
ies from those of culture fisheries is the level of
human intervention in ecosystem management. In in-
tensive aquaculture, the manager exercises a certain
level of freedom in modifying the ecosystem both in

terms of environment and biotic communities. On the
other hand, in capture fisheries, wild untended popu-
lations are harvested with little option to modify the
environment.
Management of medium and large reservoirs in In-
dia can be considered as more akin to capture fisheries.
Although most medium and large reservoirs in various
states are regularly stocked, their fishery depends, to a
large extent, on the wild or naturalized fish stock. Fish-
eries of the reservoirs like Bhavanisagar, Sathanur,
Krishnagiri, Malampuzha, Hirakud, Nagarjunasagar,
Rihand and Tungabhadra are dependent on natural
recruitment (Sugunan, 1995). Thus, management of
these reservoirs are basically on capture fisheries lines
with some modes of stock and species enhancement.
Conversely, small reservoirs in India depicts a totally
different picture, where the impact of stocking is more
discernible. Since it is essentially a stock and recapture
system, the small reservoir fishery management are
culture-based fisheries. However, there is no thumb
rule to differentiate the two systems based on reser-
voir size. Fishing conditions, shallowness of reservoir
and natural recruitment are the major factors that de-
termine whether capture or culture-based fisheries is
followed.
The key management parameters of culture-based
fishery are stocking density, size at stocking, size at
capture and growout period. Fisheries enhancement
is a process, by which qualitative improvement is
achieved from water bodies through exercising spe-
cific management options. The common modes of
enhancement, which are relevant to inland water bod-
ies of India, are stock enhancement (increasing the
stock), species enhancement (inducting new species
to broaden the catch structure) and environmental
enhancement (enriching the water quality through ar-
tificial eutrophication).
Stock enhancement
Stocking of reservoirs with fingerlings of economic-
ally important, fast growing species to colonize all the
diverse niches of the biotope has become one of the
necessary prerequisites in reservoir fishery manage-
ment. The basic principles that should be followed in
selecting a species to be stocked are (Jhingran, 1988):
1. The planted species should find the environment
suitable for survival and growth.
139
2. It should be a quick growing, highly productive
herbivorous fish with shorter food chain and higher
efficiency of food utilization.
3. Number of them to be planted should be such that
food resources of the ecosystem are fully utilized
and densest population maintained consistent with
normal growth.
4 Stock should be readily available without major
shift in the cost involved in its transportation.
5. Cost of stocking and managing the species must
be less than the benefits derived from stocking and
management.
However, evaluation of an array of factors like the
biogenic capacity of the environment, growth rate
of the desired species and the population density as
regulated by predatory and competitive pressures are
needed to be evaluated before stocking. The policies
and guidelines currently available on the subject are
still erratic and even arbitrary.
Stocking rate
A large country like India, with too many water bod-
ies to be stocked, has inadequate state machinery to
meet the stocking requirements of all its reservoirs.
This has resulted in under-stocking of the reservoirs.
Stocking densities need to be fixed for individual water
bodies or a group of them sharing common character-
istics such as size, presence of natural fish populations,
predation pressure, fishing effort, minimum market-
able size, amenability to fertilizing and multiplicity
of water use. The main considerations in determin-
ing the stocking rate are growth rate of individual
species stocked, mortality rate, size at stocking and
growing time. Based on the National Consultation on
Reservoir Fisheries (Sugunan, 1997a), Government of
India has recently adapted the following formula (Wel-
comme, 1976) to calculate the stocking rate for small
reservoirs:
 
q ·P tc −t0 )
S= e−z(
W
where S is the number of fish to be stocked (in no
ha−1 ), P is the natural annual potential yield of the
water body (kg ha−1 ), q is the proportion of the yield
that can come from the species in question, W is the
mean weight at capture, tc is the age at capture, t0 is
the age at stocking and −z is the total mortality rate.
P can be estimated through MEI method (men-
tioned above) and the range of mortality rates can be
found out from the estimated survival rate. Table 7
140
Table 7. Calculated stocking density at dif-
ferent levels of mortality (from Welcomme,
The basic tenets of stocking policy (Sugunan, 1995)
1976) are:

Annual survival −z Estimated stocking 1. Selection of the right species, depending on the
(% ) density (no, ha−1 ) fish food resources available in the system.
2. Determination of a stocking density on the basis of
50 0.7 805 production potential, growth and mortality rates.
37 1.0 1087
3. Proper stocking and harvesting schedule including
22 1.5 1792
staggered stocking and harvesting, allowing max-
13 2.0 2955
imum grow out period, taking into account the
critical water levels.
4. In small irrigation reservoirs with open sluices, the
Table 8. High yields obtained in some small reservoirs due to stock season of overflow and the possibilities of water
enhancement (from Sugunan, 1995) level falling too low or completely drying up are
also taken into consideration.
Reservoir State Stocking rate Yield
(no. ha−1 ) (kg ha−1 )

Aliyar Tamil Nadu 353 194 Some success stories of stocking in small reservoirs
Meenkara Kerala 1226 107 are listed in Table 8.
Chulliar Kerala 937 316
Markonahalli Karnataka 922 63 Environmental enhancement
Gularia Uttar Pradesh 517 150
Bachhra Uttar Pradesh 763 140 The improvement of nutrient status of water body
Baghla Uttar Pradesh – 102 by selective input of fertilizers is a very common
Bundh Beratha Rajasthan 164 94 management option adopted in intensive aquaculture.
If similar environmental enhancement is adopted in
small reservoirs, stocks can be maintained at levels
higher than the natural carrying capacity of the ecosys-
tem. However, a careful consideration of the possible
illustrates calculation of stocking rates using the for- impact on the environment is needed before this option
mula given above, when P = 200 kg ha−1 , q = 1, W = is resorted. Scientific knowledge to guide the safe ap-
0.5 kg and tc −t0 is 1. The model assumes insignificant plication of this type of enhancement and the methods
breeding by stocked population and therefore applies to reverse the environmental degradation, if any, are
mainly to total cropping situations i.e. those in which still inadequate. On account of all these, this is not
fish are caught below their minimum size for maturity, a very common management tool. China is known to
those whose natural reproduction does not take place have used this instrument in a big way to augment
and those where water body is not permanent. It shows production from small reservoirs. Taking cue from
that stocking density, which depends on natural condi- China, Cuba has manured small reservoirs using both
tions of productivity, growth and mortality, are very organic and inorganic fertilizers. This is also practiced
sensitive to Z. Because of the very large numbers of selectively in the community water bodies of Thailand
fry needed, this formula may have very limited utility (Sugunan, 1997b).
in large reservoirs. Sreenivasan & Pillai (1979) attempted to improve
plankton productivity of Vidur reservoir by applying
Impact of stocking in small reservoirs super-phosphate with highly encouraging results. As
Despite the lack of any national policy and sound an immediate result of fertilization, phosphate con-
scientific advice, stocking efforts made in India have tent of water increased from nil to 1.8 mg−1 and
been very effective in improving the yield from small that of soil from 0.242 to 0.328%. Experiments were
reservoirs. This is because of the fact that success in also conducted with urea in the same reservoir. After
management of small reservoirs depends more on re- two successive applications, significant limnological
capturing the stocked fish rather than building up a changes took place including the presence of free car-
breeding population. The smaller water bodies have bon dioxide and decrease in pH and dissolved oxygen
the advantage of easy recapture and stock monitoring. at bottom. As a direct benefit from fertilization, a 50%

increase in fish production, and a three-fold increase
in the size of catla, rohu, mrigal, L. fimbriatus and L.
calbasu were achieved.
Application of lime was tried in some upland
lakes for amelioration of excessive carbon dioxide
and acidity at the bottom (Sreenivasan, 1971). This
measure, together with application of super-phosphate
in Yercaud lake, raised the pH from 6.2 to 7.3 and
decreased carbon dioxide from 38 to 6.5 mg l−1
at the bottom. There were corresponding increases
in species number and biomass of plankton. Sim-
ilar experiments are reported from Kyrdemkulai and
Nongmahir in Meghalaya (Sugunan & Yadava, 1991
a,b) from Natkara reservoir in Madhya Pradesh (Su-
gunan, 1995). Chinese experience in fertilizing the
small water bodies to increase productivity, especially
the Shishantou reservoir has been very encouraging
(Yang et al., 1990).
Modeling approach in culture-based fisheries
Available models on culture-based fisheries of small
reservoirs have clearly confirmed that production is
a function of fishing mortality and stocking density.
If some standard variables on population parameters,
such as the density-dependent growth, size dependent
mortality and weight–length relationship are known,
optimum stocking density and fishing mortality can be
arrived at. Thus, a desired balance between stocking
rate, population density and growth can be maintained.
Lorensen (1995). Illustrated a model on culture-based
fisheries of Thailand (Figure 5). This tool has been
effectively used in many countries (Sugunan, 1997b)
to make necessary adjustments in fishing effort.
Management of medium and large reservoirs
Since large and medium reservoirs are to be developed
on the principles of capture fisheries, the main ac-
cent of management is on conservation of habitat in
order to allow natural recruitment and growth of the
target species. Stock monitoring is achieved through
maneuvering of fishing effort and following mesh size
regulations. Introduction is resorted to correct im-
balances in species spectrum, and stocking is done
as a temporary measure to compensate for recruit-
ment failure. Stocking attempts in medium and large
reservoirs are successful only when the stocked fishes
breed and propagate themselves. Catla stocked in
Sathanur, Gandhisagar and Ukai also led to increase
141
in yield, primarily because of its breeding success
(Sreenivasan, 1984). In sharp contrast, in a number of
reservoirs like Nagarjunasagar, Bhavanisagar, Krish-
nagiri, Malampuzha and Peechi, the fish did not make
an impact, as it failed to breed. In Nagarjunasagar, an-
nual stocking at the rate of 50 000–833 000 fingerlings
of catla, rohu and mrigal during 1970s had little impact
on the catch structure, as none of the stocked fishes
could breed and contribute to recruitment (Sugunan,
1995).
Species enhancement
Species enhancement aims at augmenting the species
range by adding fish species from outside with a view
to colonize all the diverse niches of the biotope for
harvesting maximum sustainable crop. It can be just
stocking of a new species or introductions (which
means one time or repeated stocking of a species out-
side its range of natural distribution). In India, there
are no restrictions on fish transplantation on trans-
basin basis. Catla, rohu and mrigal are being stocked
in the peninsular reservoirs for the last five decades.
This is despite the fact that the peninsular rivers have
habitats, distinctly different from those of Ganga and
Brahmaputra to which these fishes are indigenous. In
some of the south Indian reservoirs, they have es-
tablished breeding populations. The hallmark of the
Indian policy on stocking (actually introductions in
case of peninsular reservoirs) is the heavy dependence
on Indian major carps. There is evidence that the Gan-
getic major carps have affected the species diversity of
peninsular cyprinids (Sugunan, 1995).
Introduction of exotics
In spite of an already rich and diverse fish genetic re-
source of India, more than 300 species have already
been introduced into the country (Jhingran, 1989b).
While a vast majority of them are ornamental fishes
confined to aquaria, some like tilapia (Oreochromis
mossambicus), silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys mo-
litrix), grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and three
varieties of common carp (scale carp Cyprinus car-
pio communis, mirror carp C. carpio specularis and
leather carp C. carpio nudus) have been brought
for aquaculture purposes. In recent years, the big-
head carp (Aristichthys nobilis), Nile tilapia (Oreco-
chromis niloticus) and African catfish (Clarias gar-
iepinus) have become popular among aquaculturists.
The tilapia, O. mossambicus was stocked in reservoirs
142
Figure 5. Production as a function of fishing mortality and stocking density for a gear selection length of 30 cm (After Lorenzen, 1995).
of south India during the 1960s. Jhingran (1991) repor-
ted a gradual decline in size of tilapia in reservoirs of
Tamil Nadu and Kerala over the years. Barring Kerala,
the fish has low consumer preference. Today, fishery
managers in India do not prefer O. mossambicus as a
candidate for stocking (Sugunan, 1995).
An experimental consignment of 239 fingerlings of
silver carp was stocked in Kulgarhi reservoir (Mad-
hya Pradesh) in 1969, 10 years after its introduction.
Based on the recapture of 8 specimens, growth rates
ranging from 597 mm in 783 days and 404 mm in 293
days have been reported (Rao & Dwivedi, 1972). Sim-
ilar trials in Getalsud reservoir (Bihar) showed growth
rate of 2.2–5.79 g, d−1 . In Gobindsagar reservoir
(Himachal Pradesh), the fish, after an accidental in-
troduction, formed a breeding population and brought
about a sharp increase from 160 t in 1970–71 to more
than 1000 t at present. Jhingran & Natarajan (1978)
pointed out that silver carp, being cold water fish in-
troduced in India, consumed food much in excess and
grew faster as expected of a true poikilotherm. A sim-
ilar latitude-induced change was noticed, as it matured
in one year, compared to 5 years in China. While
evaluating the co-existence of silver carp and catla,
Karamchandani & Mishra (1980) established that the
two fishes shared a common niche and competed with
each other for food in the reservoir ecosystem. Jhin-
gran & Natarajan (1978) cautioned against introducing
the fish in Indian reservoirs connected to major river
systems, as it might adversely affect catla and other
precious indigenous carps of the country. However, it
is significant to note that despite its entry into a num-
ber of reservoirs, by accident or otherwise, silver carp
failed to breed anywhere except in Gobindsagar.
While the Bangkok strain of common carp is
stocked in reservoirs of the plains, the European strain
is preferred in the temperate zones and at high alti-
tudes. But their performance in reservoirs was erratic,
despite heavy stocking. Being a sluggish fish, its
chances of survival in predator-dominated reservoirs
are very poor. They are not frequently caught in a
passive fishing gear like gill net due to its slow move-

ment and bottom dwelling habit. In Nagarjunasagar,
despite regular stocking for 13 years, common carp
did not form a part of the fishery (Sugunan, 1995).
A more important disqualification of common carp
is its propensity to compete with some indigenous
carps like Cirrhinus mrigala, C. cirrhosa and C. reba,
with which it shares a food niche. Instances of com-
mon carp causing the decline of Cirrhinus spp. are
Girna (Valsankar, 1987) and Krishnarajasagar (Sug-
unan, 1995) reservoirs. Detailed accounts of mirror
carp affecting the survival of native fish species in
Gobindsagar reservoir, upland lakes of Kashmir and
Kumaon Himalayas (Schizothorax spp.), and Loktak
lake in the northeast (Osteobrama belangiri) are given
by Sugunan (1995).
Removal of predators and minnows
Checking these unwanted populations is a very diffi-
cult management problem, especially in large reser-
voirs. Repeated use of gill nets of appropriate mesh
size, use of long lines and traps are suggested for
control of the uneconomic and undesirable popula-
tions. David & Rajagopal (1969) reported that the
giant shore seine, alivi, helped in reducing the cat-
fish population in Tungabhadra reservoir by 76–81%.
Alivi also removes minnows in large numbers. Re-
cent findings of Kartha & Rao (1990) with regard to
the efficacy of trawling in checking predators and un-
economic fishes are of interest. Bottom trawling in
Gandhisagar caught 64–91% of unwanted fishes and
this has been recommended as a method to crop the
predators and carp minnows. Natarajan (1979b) sug-
gested biological control of trash fishes by stocking
two euryhaline species viz., Megalops cyprinoides and
Lates calcarifier. Since these predatory fishes do not
breed in freshwater, they cannot go out of control.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the Director, Central Inland
Capture Fisheries Research Institute (ICAR), Barrack-
pore, India, for providing facilities for the preparation
of this paper.
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