2021-09-28

Momentum Equation

Newton’s 2nd law of motion:

d
𝑚𝑣 𝛴𝐹
d𝑡

For a particular set of fluid elements in Lagrangian form:

𝑑
𝜌 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝐹
𝑑𝑡

To obtain the momentum equation in Eulerian form, the Reynolds

Transport Theorem is utilized:
𝑑 𝜕𝜑
𝜑 𝑡 𝑑𝑉 ∇. 𝜑𝑣 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
𝜑 𝜌𝑣
then
𝑑 𝜕𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑉 ∇. 𝜌𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

or in index form:
𝑑 𝜕𝜌𝑣
𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑉 ∇. 𝜌𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡
or
𝑑 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑉 𝜌 𝑣 𝑣 𝜌𝑣 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥

In the above equation:

𝜕𝜌 𝜕 𝜌𝑣
𝑣 0 Continuity Equation
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥
and
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝐷𝑣
𝜌 𝜌𝑣 𝜌
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝐷𝑡

so the Newton’s 2nd law in the Eulerian form is:

𝐷𝑣
𝜌 𝑑𝑉 𝐹
𝐷𝑡

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Forces:

There are two types of force that can act on the system, body and surface forces:

F  Fb  Fs
The body Force: The body force acts directly on the whole mass of the
fluid element. This can be gravitational or electromagnetic (conducting
fluid). In this development we will only consider the gravitational body
force.
G  -  (g h)

Assume g constant (not a function of h) for practical fluid mechanics problems

h
G  -g  h or Gi  - g
 Xi
Thus, the body force can be expressed as:

Fb    G d V  -   g  h d V
V V

The surface force:

f f = surface force vector acting on the element

point P n n= outer-directed unit vector at point P

Area   A

Cauchy' s stress principle asserts that f /  A, tends towards a limit as  A  0.

This limit is called the stress vector.

 f  (n)
lim  t
 A 
 A 0

The orientation of the surface is specified by giving the vector n.

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t (-n)  - t (n)

FS   t (n) dA
A

x3 -t1(e1)
-e1
-t2(e2) n Consider the small tetrahedron. Sides 1,
t (n) 2, and 3 are perpendicular to the
-e2 P
x2 co - ordinate axes, while the fourth has an
area  A.

-e3
-t3(e3)
x1

The net surface force acting on this element is:

Fs  t n A  t1e A1  t2e A2  t3e A3

1 2 3

The minus signs are coming from:

ti e   tie 
i i

The areas can be expressed as: Ai  niA

Thus, we may write
Fs  t n   nitie  A i

If the tetrahedral fluid element shrink in volume toward a point P, then the
net surface force will approach 0 (principle of local equilibrium). Thus, the
above equation simplifies to n  ei 
t  niti
Thus, in order to describe completely the state of stress at a point in a
continuum, we must specify the components of the three stress vectors
(9 components). Therefore,
Fs  A ni tie dA i

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Defining the stress tensor () and using dyadic notation:

Fs   n   dA
A

 11  12  13
   21  22  23 symmetric tensor
 31  32  33
 ij
i indicates the coordinate axis that is normal to the face the stress acts on.
j indicates the direction in which the force is acting.

Using the divergence theorem of Gauss:

Fs   n   dA      dV
V

where
 ij
  
xi

CAUCHY’S EQUATION

Substituting Fs and FB in Newton’s second law written in a

Eulerian frame, we obtain:

DV
  dV     g h dV       dV
V Dt V V

 DV 
  
V
Dt
dV   g h      dV  0


DV
    g h     
Dt

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Rheological equations of state:

The continuity and the Cauchy’s equations are not sufficient to solve a boundary
value problem involving the motion of a deformable material.

We need an additional relationship that describes how the material deforms when
under stress.

These type of relations are called rheological equations of state.

Rheological constitutive equations are material dependent and must be determined

by experiment or from a valid molecular theory.

Newtonian fluid: an incompressible fluid that is inelastic, has no yield stress and
whose structure is time and deformation rate-independent.

The viscous stress:

For a fluid at rest, all the components of the stress tensor are not zero. For such
a fluid, the stress tensor is isotropic, and its components are:

-P 0 0
0 -P 0 or  -PI
0 0 -P

or

σ i j  - Pδi j where δi j is the Kronec ker delta

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There is a contribution to the stress tensor that is not related to the motion of
the fluid. This contribution is thus not relevant to the rheological constitutive
equation.

To account for this, we define a viscous stress (extra stress) as follows:

    PI
Therefore, in a fluid at rest the viscous stress, , is zero.

Now Cauchy’s equation can be rewritten in terms of the viscous stresses as

follows:

Dv
  P      gh
Dt

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Analysis of Deformation:

Consider the system depicted in the figure below undergoing deformation. To

describe this deformation, we seek the motion of point P relative to C.

System at t C΄
y P΄

C System at t+Δt
P
r

The difference between the x-component of the velocity Vx at points P and C,

which are considered to be very close, is:

v x v v
dv x  dx  x dy  x dz
x y z

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Using index notation:

vi
dvi  dx j
x j
The motion of P relative to C depends on the nine components dvi/dxj
and may be written as:

 v x v x v x 
 
 x y z 
 v y v y v y 
dv     dr
 x y z 
 v z v z v z 
 x y z 

or
dv  V T  dr

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The relative motion described by the previous equations results from the
combined effects of rotation and deformation. Rotation is not a result of shear
stresses but is only due to the normal stresses. Since a relation is sought
between the stress tensor and the rate of deformation, the effect of rotation
should be eliminated from the above relation.

From rigid body theory, one may prove that the rotational velocity dVrot is given
by:
 0 12 13 
 
dvrot   21 0 23   dr
 
 31 32 0 
where
1  v v 
ij   i  j 
2  x j xi 

This is the rotation tensor (not symmetric) which describes the rotation of fluid
elements. Two times of this tensor gives the vorticity tensor:

  2

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 1  v x v y  1  vx v z  
 0      
 2  y x  2  z x  
 1  v v  1  v y v z  
    x      dr
y
dvrot 0 
 
2 x y  2  z y  
 1  v v  1  v z v y  
  z  x    0 
 2  x z 
 2  y z  


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Having calculated the rotation contribution to the motion of the fluid elements,
one may write:
dvdef  dv  dvrot
or
 v x 1  v x v y  1  v x v z  
      
 x 2  y x  2  z x  
 1  v v  v y 1  v y v z  
    x     dr
y
dvdef 
 2  x y  y 2  z y  
 1  v v  1  v z v y  v z 
  z  x    
 2  x z 
 2  y z  z 

The above tensor is called the rate of deformation tensor, , which is a symmetric
tensor as should be and can be put in the following form

 1  v v 
 ij   i  j 
2  x j xi 
or
1
V  V T 


2

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The Newtonian Fluid:

Newtonian fluid is defined as the one, which satisfies the following relationship


 ij  2 
or in index notation
 v v 
 ij    i  j 
 x j xi 

Which implies that the stress tensor in such a fluid is proportional to the rate-
of-deformation tensor with the coefficient  to be the viscosity of the fluids.
This is Newton’s law of viscosity.

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THE NAVIER-STOKES EQUATIONS

We start with Cauchy’s equation written in terms of various stresses, that is:
DV
    g  h-P    τ
Dt
Dv j h P τ ij
Using index notation this can be written as: ρ  ρ g  
Dt xi xi xi

The extra or viscous stress is given by the definition of an incompressible

Newtonian fluid is:
 v v 
 ij    i  j 
 x j xi 
Combining the last two equations to eliminate ij ,

Dv j h P    vi v j 
ρ  ρ g     
Dt x j x j xi   x j xi 

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Assuming constant viscosity, µ

Dv j h P   2 vi  2v j 
ρ  ρ g     
Dt x j x j  x x x x 
 i j i i 

The first term in the parenthesis can be written as:

  vi 
 
x j  xi 
But for an incompressible fluid, the continuity equation tells us that the
quantity in the parenthesis is zero.
Thus for a Newtonian fluid with constant density and
viscosity we can write:

Dv j h P   vi 
ρ  ρ g     j  1, 2, 3
Dt x j x j xi  xi 

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Using vector notation:

DV
ρ   ρ g  h -P  μ 2 V
Dt

or if the Laplacian is written in a standard vectorial form then

DV
ρ   ρ g  h -P  μ    V 
Dt

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Viscosity:

Viscosity is the most important property of flowing Newtonian fluids because it

completely characterizes their rheological behavior.

Gases in general do not offer any significant resistance to flow and therefore
may be treated as fluids of zero viscosity.

The viscosity of liquids is a function of composition, pressure, and temperature.

It increases with increase of the molecular weight.

The effect of pressure on the Viscosity:

 P   0 expP 

Under common processing pressure conditions, the viscosity changes very little.

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Temperature has a much stronger effect on the viscosity of fluids.

The viscosity of gases in general increases with increase of temperature while

that of liquids decreases.

For liquids (Arrhenius type equation):

T  E  1 1 
 exp    
T 0  R  T T0 

For gases (Sutherland correlation):

bT 1 / 2

1 S /T
The ratio of the viscosity to density is the kinematic viscosity:





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