Biology

Advanced Subsidiary
Unit 2
Topic 3: Cell Structure, Reproduction
and Development.

SAMDEVA / CHSE / 2021

 INTRODUCTION
• Ultra structure is the structure as seen with an electron
microscope.
• Resolution (Resolving power) is the ability to distinguish
two points that lie close together as two separate entities or
the degree of detail which can be seen using a microscope.
The limit of resolution of a light microscope is 200 nm,
which means that the objects smaller than 200 nm will be
invisible.
• Magnification is the ratio between the actual size and the
observed size or how many times larger an image is when
compared to the object.

Size of the Image (Drawing)

Magnification =
• Actual Size of the Object
 LIGHT MICROSCOPE
A light microscope (LM) is an instrument that uses
visible light and magnifying lenses to examine small
objects not visible to the naked eye, or in finer detail
than the naked eye allows
o Usually there are 3 or 4
objective lenses on a
microscope.
o They almost always consist
of 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x
powers.
o When coupled with a 10x
(most common) eyepiece
lens, we get total
magnification of 40x (4x
times 10x), 100x, 400x, and
1000x respectively.
ADVANTAGES OF A LIGHT MICROSCOPE
1. It can be used to study living tissues
and enables us to compare with
prepared slides.
2. Light microscopes are cheaper than
an electron microscopes so it can be
used in schools, hospitals,
universities, research labs and
industrial labs.
3. They are lighter and portable so
they can be carried for a field study.
DISADVANTAGES OF A LIGHT
MICROSCOPE
1. The procedure requires staining and
preserving and hence prone to
distortion of specimens which could
be mistaken as natural part of the
tissue. An artificial structure or
tissue alteration on a prepared
microscopic slide caused by some
extraneous factors is called artefact.
2. Light microscope has limited
magnification and resolution (The
shortest distance between two
points on a specimen that can still
be distinguished by the observer as
separate entities).
 ARTEFACTS
An artificial structure or tissue alteration on a prepared
microscopic slide caused by some extraneous factors is
called artefact
 13 1
12 IDENTIFY THE
PARTS OF THE
11 MICROSCOPE.

10 2

3
1. Eye-piece Lens (x10)
4 2. Arm
3. Coarse Adjustment / Focusing Knob
4. Fine Adjustment / Focusing Knob
8 5. Light Source / Illuminator / Mirror
6. Power switch
7. Foot / Base
8. Condenser / Iris Diaphragm
9. Mechanical Stage
10. Objective Lens ( x4, x 10, x40, x100)
11. Revolving Nose
7 12. Rotating Head
5 13. Body Tube
6
DESCRIBE HOW YOU WOULD USE A LIGHT
MICROSCOPE TO OBSEVE A SPECIMEN ON A
PREPARED SLIDE. (6marks)
• Place the microscope on a firm bench.
• Rotate the revolving nose and click the low power objective lens, x4, into
position.
• View through the eye-piece lens of x10 and switch on the light / adjust
the mirror to see a bright field of view.
• Keep the prepared slide on the stage of the microscope and clamp the
slide with the stage clips.
• Adjust the mechanical stage knob to bring the specimen into view.
• Adjust the diaphragm for optimum illumination.
• Rotate the coarse adjustment knob to focus the specimen.
• Use the fine adjustment knob to bring the specimen to a sharp focus.
 Place the microscope View through the
on a firm bench. eye-piece lens of x10
and switch on the
light / adjust the
mirror to see a
bright field of view.

Rotate the revolving

nose and click the low
power objective
lens, x4, into
position

Adjust the
mechanical
Stage knob to
bring the
Keep the prepared slide on specimen into view
the stage of the microscope
and clamp the slide with the
stage clips

View through the eye-piece lens of x10 and switch on the

light / adjust the mirror to see a bright field of view.

Adjust the iros Rotate the coarse adjustment Use the fine adjustment knob
diaphragm for knob to focus the specimen to bring the specimen
optimum illumination to a sharp focus
DESCRIBE HOW YOU WOULD PREPARE A LEAF
TISSUE TO STUDY THE CELLS UNDER A LIGHT
MICROSCOPE
• Peel off the outer most layer of an onion carefully, using a pair of
forceps.
• Place the peeled layer in a watch glass containing water. Make certain
that the onion peel does not roll or fold.
• Using a scalpel or a thin blade, cut a square piece of the onion peel.
• Remove the thin transparent skin from the inside curve of a small piece
of raw onion and place it on a drop of iodine solution on a clean slide.
• Cover the peel with a coverslip ensuring that no bubbles are formed.
• Using a piece of tissue paper wipe off any excess iodine solution /
methylene blue remaining on the slide.
• Observe the onion skin under low power of the microscope and then
under high power.
• Draw a neat diagram of 5-10 cells of the typical cells you can see
ONION CELLS STAINED WITH METHYLENE BLUE.
 ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
• The EM uses a beam of electrons to form an image.
• The electrons are scattered by the specimen and
electromagnetic or electrostatic lenses focus the
electron beam to form an image.
• Since the wavelength gets smaller, the resolution
becomes bigger and specimens less than 1nm
(1x10-9m or 0.0001µm) could be seen clearly.
• The preparation of the specimen involves chemical
preservation, freeze-drying, freeze fracturing,
embedding, sectioning, and mounting on a metal
grid.
ADVANTAGES OF AN ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
1. Has huge powers magnification and
resolution.
DISADVANTAGES OF AN ELECTRON
MICROSCOPE
1. Living material can not be studied
since the specimens are examined
in a vacuum and electrons could be
scattered to produce a blurred
image of the specimen.
2. Preparation of specimen involves
skills and the treatment the
specimen undergoes could result in
artefacts.
3. Electron microscopes are very
expensive and a trained technician
is needed.
4. The instrument is very large and
must be kept at a constant
temperature and pressure with an
internal vacuum.
 The diagram shows
the silhouette of a
Golden Eagle reduced
16 times.

Calculate the actual

length of the wing
span of the Eagle.
Give your answer in
metres.

Length of the wing span is 10cm = 0.1m

Actual length of the wing span = 0.1 x 16 = 1.6m
 THE CELL THEORY
• In 1838 – 1840 Schleiden ( a botanist ) and Schwann (
a zoologist ) proposed the ‘cell theory’ which states
that the basic unit of structure and function in living
organisms is the cell.
• The living material of cells is called protoplasm and
is enclosed in a cell membrane.
• In plant cells a cell wall, mainly of cellulose
surrounds the cell membrane. Adjacent plant cells are
held together by a thin layer composed mainly of
calcium pectate and known as the middle lamella.
• The living material between the nucleus and the cell
surface membrane is known as the cytoplasm. The
cytoplasm contains a variety of organelles. An
organelle is a distinct part of cell which has a
particular structure and function.
 PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
• Pro means before (appeared about 3500 million
years ago), karyon means nucleus.
• Prokaryotic cells lack a true nucleus, i.e., their
genetic material is not enclosed by a nuclear
membrane and lies nakedly in the cytoplasm.
• eg: Bacteria, Cyanobacteria and Archaebacteria.
• Eukaryotic cells are much more complex and are
characterized by a true nucleus.
(Gk: eu means true).
eg: Animal cells, plant cells etc.
PROKARYOTES
AND
EUKARYOTES
 Cells Tissues Organs

Tissues into Organs:

• Squamous tissue– flat / squashed collection of cells
usually found lining surfaces.
• Fibrous connective tissue – helps to force air back out
of the lungs when exhaling.
• Blood Vessels – capillaries surround the alveoli
• Epithelium is a tissue that forms a lining or covering
of surfaces on both inside and outside of the cell
forming smooth surfaces.
• A TISSUE IS A GROUP OF CELLS HAVING THE SAME
STRUCTURE AND PERFORMING THE SAME
FUNCTION
TISSUES INTO ORGANS:THE LEAF
AN ORGAN IS MADE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF TISSUE
COLLECTIVELY PERFORMING A PARTICULAR FUNCTION
Structure Function
Lower epidermis Characterised by the presence of numerous pores called
stomata which provide an uninterrupted avenue for
exchange of gases
Spongy mesophyll Consists of intercellular spaces for gas exchange
Palisade mesophyll Most photosynthesis occurs
Xylem vessels Dead and lignified, transports water and mineral ions to the
leaf
Phloem sieve tubes Transports sugar from the source, leaf, to the sink, roots.
Upper epidermis Covered in a waterproof waxy cuticle to reduce water loss.
Parenchyma Packing tissue
Sclerenchyma Dead and lignified. Provides mechanical support
Collenchyma Living cells with lignified corners to provide mechanical
support
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
ULTRA STUCTURE OF
AN ANIMAL CELL
ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
ULTRA STURCTURE OF PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Draw large and clear diagrams with complete lines

drawn using a sharp HB pencil.
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
 Animal Cells
Do not contain plastids.
No cell wall.
Contain centrioles.
Animals do not have
plasmodesmata or pits.
Few vacuoles (if any).
Nucleus is generally found at
the centre of the cytoplasm.
No intercellular spaces found
between the cells.
Plant Cells
Almost all plants cells contain
plastids such chloroplasts,
chromoplasts and leucoplasts.
Have a rigid cellulose cell wall in
addition to the cell membrane.
Do not contain centrioles.
Contain plasmodesmata and pits.
Large central vacuole filled with
cell sap in mature cells.
Nucleus is found near the edge
of the cell.
Large intercellular air spaces
found between some cells.
 ULTRASTRUCTURE OF AN ANIMAL CELL
(EUKARYOTIC CELL)
• Eukaryotic cells contain membrane bound organelles such as
nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts (in plant cells) etc..
• The fluid around the organelles is a watery solution of
chemicals called cytoplasm (cytosol).
• The cytosol and organelles are contained with in a special
membrane, the plasma membrane.
• Various organelles present in animal cells are
1. Nucleus 5. Mitochondria
2. Endoplasmic reticulum 6. Lysosomes
3. Ribosomes. 7. Centrosome (Centrioles)
4. Golgi apparatus
CELL FRACTIONATION
 Cell Membrane
• Cell Membranes have a fluid mosaic structure.
• They are composed of lipids (mainly phospholipids – a lipids with a phosphate group
attached.) proteins & carbohydrates (usually attached to proteins or lipids)
• Phospholipid molecules have a double layer (bilayer) which is a fluid as phospholipids are
constantly moving.
• Protein molecules are scattered through a bilayer and can move with the phospholipid
bilayer.
• Proteins with a polysaccharide attached are called glycoproteins.
• Lipids with a polysaccharide attach are called glycolipids.
• Cholesterol (A type of lipid) is also present. It fits between the phospholipids, forming
bonds making the membrane more rigid.
• The membrane is partially permeable – small molecules can move through gaps. Big ones
and ion can only pass through special membrane proteins call channel proteins.
 CELL COMPONENTS
•CELL INCLUSIONS •CELL ORGANELLES
• Non living and temporary structures. • Single, double, non-membranous
• Starch grains, Glycogen granules, oil structures performing a specialised
droplets function
 SINGLE MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
• ROUGH & SMOOTH ER
A SYSTEM OF NETWORK OF TUBULAR
CAVITIES CALLED CISTERNAE
LYSOSOMES
SUICIDE BAGS
CONTAINING
HYDROLYTIC
ENZYMES
VACUOLE
CELL SAP
• GOLGI BODY SURROUNDED BY
TONOPLAST
CLOSELY PACKED,
INCLUDING
• PARALLELY CURVED WATER, SALTS,
• POCKETS CALLED SUGARS,
• CISTERNAE PIGMENTS AND
• CRYSTALS OF
EXCRETORY
SUBSTANCES
DOUBLE MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES
NUCLEUS CHLOROPLAST

AMYLOPLAST

MITOCHONDRION
PLASTIDS
Plastids are organelles found only in plants. There
are three different types:

1.Leucoplasts: White plastids found in roots.

2.Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids found in

plants and algae.
3.Chromoplasts: Contain red, orange or yellow
pigments and are common in ripening fruit, flowers
or autumn leaves.
NON-MEMBRANOUS ORGANELLES

CENTRIOLES. RIBOSOMES
TRIPLETS OF 9 BUNDLES MADE OF A SMALLER AND
WITH 2 AT THE CENTRE LARGER SUBUNIT CONSISTING
AND OCCUR IN PAIRS AT OF rRNA AND PROTEIN
RIGHT ANGLES TO EACH OTHER
 NUCLEUS
Description
• Organelle surrounded by
nuclear envelope containing
pores. Contains Chromatin and
a structure called the nucleolus
Function
• Chromatin is made from
proteins and DNA. The pores
allow substances (RNA) to
move between the nucleus and
cytoplasm. The nucleolus
makes ribosomes.
LYSOSOME
Description
• A round organelle surrounded
by a membrane. Described as
the ‘suicide bags’ since the
rupture of lysosome and
liberation of its contents could
digest its own cell. This is
called apoptosis, the
programmed cell death.
Function
• Contains digestive enzymes.
They are kept separated from
cytoplasm by the surrounded
membrane, but can be used
digest invading cells or to
break down worn out
components of the cell.
 VESICLE
Description Function
• A small fluid- filled sac in • Transports substances in and
cytoplasm, surrounded by a out of the cell (via the cell
membrane membrane) and between
organelles. Some are formed
by the Golgi apparatus or the
endoplasmic reticulum, while
others are formed at the cell
surface.
RIBOSOME
Description Function
• A very small organelle that • The site where proteins are
floats freely in the cytoplasm made.
or is attached to the rough • Clamps the mRNA in position
endoplasmic reticulum. for translation
• Made of rRNA and Protein.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Description
• Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum is a system of
membranous tubular cavities
called cisternae filled with
fluid.
• Rough endoplasmic reticulum
is similar but covered in
ribosomes
Function
• The smooth ER synthesis and
processes lipids.
• Rough ER folds the proteins
that have been made at the
ribosomes into 3D / Tertiary
structure by the formation of
Hydrogen, Ionic and
Disulphide bonds.
 POST TANSLATIONAL MODIFICATION
• Proteins are made at the Ribosomes.
Ribosomes of Rough ER make proteins and
are sexcreted by exocytosis or attached to the
cell membrane.
• Free Ribosomes in the cytoplasm make
proteins that stay in the cytoplasm.
• As the polypeptide chain produced moves
through cisternae of rER, it’s folded into 3D /
Tertiary structure by the formation of
Hydrogen, Ionic and Disulphide bonds.
• Then they’re transported from the ER to the
Golgi apparatus in transport vesicles.
• At the Golgi apparatus proteins may
undergoes further processing (sugar chains
trimmed or more added to make it
glycoprotein, addition of lipid makes it
lipoprotein)
• The proteins enter more vesicles to be
transported around the cell. e.g. extracellular
enzymes (like digestive enzymes) move to the
cell surface and are secreted. (Exocytosis)
MITOCHONDRION
Description
• They’re usually oval-shaped.
They have a double membrane
- the inner one is folded to
form structures called cristae.
Inside is the matrix which
contains enzymes for
respiration
Function
• The site of aerobic respiration
where ATP is produced. They
are found in large numbers in
the cells that are very active
and require a lot of energy.
GOLGI APPARATUS

Description
• A group of fluid filled, closely
packed, parallelly curved
flattened sacs called cisternae.
Vesicles are often seen at the
edges of the sacs.
Function
• It processes and packages
new lipids and proteins. It also
makes lysosomes.
 As the polypeptide chain moves
through the cisternae of RER,
the protein is folded into its
3D/tertiary structure by the
formation of hydrogen, ionic
and disulphide bonds.
The protein
is secreted
out by
In Golgi body, the polypeptide
exocytosis,
chain is modified into glycoprotein
as the
by the addition of
carbohydrate or vesicle fuses
lipoprotein by the with the
addition of lipids membrane
and bursts
open

POST TRANSLATIONAL
MODIFICATION
CENTRIOLE
Description Function
• Hollow cylinders containing a • Involved in the separation of
ring of microtubules (tiny chromosomes during cell
protein cylinders) division.
• Triplets of 9 bundles with 2 at
the centre and occur in pairs
at right angles to each other.
 THREE STRUCTURES THAT CHLOROPLASTS
AND MITOCHODRIA HAVE IN COMMON
• Both have a double membrane / envelope
• Both have 70s ribosomes
• Both have circular DNA 70s

Circular DNA

Presence of 70s ribosomes in both

Mitochondria and Chloroplasts had led to the
speculation that they could be bacteria like
organisms which invaded other cells and
began to live as endosymbionts. (1960)

Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles /

Prokaryotic cells do not have membrane bound organelles.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT CELL AND
ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

1. No centrioles present Two centrioles present.

2. Large liquid filled permanent No large permanent vacuole.

vacuole present.
3. Cells may contain chloroplast- the No chloroplasts present.
site of photosynthesis.
4. Carbohydrates are stored as Carbohydrates are stored as
starch, present in organelles glycogen granules, often present.
called amyloplasts.
5. Cell wall present composed of No cell wall present.
cellulose.
 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT CELL
AND ANIMAL CELL
Both plant cell and animal cell contains-
• Cytoplasm surrounded by plasma membrane.
• Nucleus surrounded by nuclear membrane and
contains chromatin and nucleolus.
• Cytoplasm contains cell organelles like
mitochondria, Golgi body, ribosomes, nucleus and
endoplasmic reticulum.
The following table refers to organelles found in eukaryotic cells.
Complete the table by writing the name of the organelle, two
features of its structure or one function of the organelle in each
of the empty boxes as appropriate. (6 marks)
Name of organelle Two features of the One Function
structure

1. Stack of curved
cisternae Modification of proteins
2. Surrounded by many
vesicles
Rough Endoplasmic 1.
Reticulum
2.

Chloroplast 1.
Site of photosynthesis
2.
The table below describes some structures found in eukaryotic
cells. Complete the table by writing the name of the structure
in the box next to its description. (4 marks)

Description Name of Structure

Cylindrical organelle made of

microtubules, involved in spindle
organisation.
Site where ribosomal RNA is made and
the subunits of ribosomes are assembled.
Organelles consisting of stacks of
cisternae and vesicles, concerned with the
modification of proteins.
Small spherical structures surrounded by
a single membrane, containing hydrolytic
enzymes.
IDENTIFY THE ORGANELLES FROM THE
PHOTOMICROGRAPHS
 PROKARYOTIC CELLS.
BACTERIA AND CYANOBACTERIA
Cyanobacteria were the first organisms on Earth to do
modern photosynthesis and they made the first oxygen in
the Earth's atmosphere.
CYANOBACTERIA, FORMERLY BLUE-GREEN ALGAE.
PROKARYOTIC CELL – A GENERALIZED STRUCTURE
e.g. Bacterial cell Plasma
membrane

Cytoplasm

Photosynthetic
Cell wall membrane
(murein/peptidoglycan)
Plasmids
Circular DNA/
Nucleoid Mesosomes-for
aerobic
respiration

70s ribosomes

Pilus

Flagellum
STRUCTURE OF A TYPICAL PROKARYOTE
1. NUCLEAR ZONE (NUCLEOID)
• The region of cytoplasm that contains the genetic
material (DNA).
• There is no nuclear envelope surrounding the DNA.
• DNA is circular in shape, contains about 5000 genes, the
bacterial genome, which codes for all structural and
functional proteins and enzymes.
• DNA is not associated with histone proteins ( DNA
associated with histone form chromosomes in
eukaryotic cells). So there is no true chromosomes in
prokaryotes.
 Muramic acid Acetylglucosamine

Peptide bond

Tetra-
petide
chain
CHRISTIAN GRAM 1884.

▪ The Gram stain, which divides most clinically

significant bacteria into two main groups, is the
first step in bacterial identification.

▪ Bacteria stained purple are Gram + - their cell walls

have thick petidoglycan and teichoic acid.

▪ Bacteria stained pink are Gram – their cell walls

have thin peptidoglycan and lipopolysaccharides
with no teichoic acid.
Gram Positive Bacteria
Streptococcus pneumoniae,
Streptococcus mutans,
Staphylococcus aureus.

Gram Negative Bacteria

Escherichia coli,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa,
Neisseria gonorrhoeae.
 FORMS OF BACTERIA

Diplococcus
• Cocci (ball-shaped)
• Streptococcus mutans
Streptococcus
• Bacillus (rod-shaped)
• Clostridium botulinum

• Spirilli (spiral-shaped) Styphylo-

• Treponema palladium coccus
Structures of a Bacterial Cell

•Capsule
•Cell wall
•Ribosomes
•Nucleoid
•Plasmid
•Flagella
•Pili
Flagellum

•Cytoplasm 65
 Slime layer / Capsule
➢ Slime layer, a loose
soluble covering,
prevents the cell
from desiccation and
helps it stick to food
or other cells
➢Capsule is more
structured and
compact, prevents
phagocytes engulfing
Flagellum
them. Both found in
pathogenic bacteria. 66
 Cell wall

➢Thick outer
covering that
maintains the overall
shape of the
bacterial cell
➢Made of
peptidoglycan /
murien.
Flagellum

67
 Ribosomes

➢ Non-membranous
organelle where
proteins are made

➢ Ribosomes give the

cytoplasm of bacteria a
granular appearance in
electron micrographs

Flagellum

68
 Nucleoid

➢ A ring
made up of
DNA containing
5000 genes

➢ About 1000 genes

have been
sequenced in E. coli.

Flagellum

69
 Structure of a Bacterial Cell

Plasmid
➢ Small circular DNA Plasmid
capable of
autonomous
replication.
➢An ideal candidate in
gene technology as a
vector
➢Carries very few
genes such as that for
antibiotic resistance,
Flagellum
ability to utilize certain
nutrients. 70
 Ribosomes
Plasmid
➢ Non-membranous
organelle where
proteins are made

➢ Ribosomes give the

cytoplasm of bacteria a
granular appearance in
electron micrographs

Flagellum

71
 Structure of a Bacterial Cell
Flagella
➢A whip-like tail that
Plasmid
some bacteria have for
locomotion
➢Aerobic bacteria
move towards a source
of oxygen showing a
positive aerotactic
movement,
photosynthetic bacteria
move towards light
showing a positive Flagellum

phototactic movement. 72
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND
EUKARYOTIC CELLS

PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKAROYOTIC CELL

FEATURE COMPARED
Circular DNA, Not enveloped Linear DNA, Enveloped by a
1. DNA by a nuclear membrane nuclear membrane and hence
called a ‘true nucleus’
2. Ribosome
Have 70s ribosomes
Have 80s ribosomes
3. Membrane bound Do not have any membrane Membrane bound organelles
organelles bound organelles. such as ER, Mitochondria,
Nucleus, Chloroplasts, Lysosomes
are present.
4. 9+2 Microfibrillar If flagella present, they do not The cilia of epithelial cells and
arrangement have the 9+2 microfibrils. flagella of sperm have
The cytoplasm lacks microtubules. The cytoskeleton is
microtubules. made of microtubules
The table below refers to structures that may be found in
bacterial cells or liver cells. (4 marks)
Place a tick ( in the box if the structure is found in the cell
and a cross ( if it is not.

Structure Bacterial Cell Liver Cell

Ribosomes

Centrioles

Starch grains

Nucleus