ATPL

SUMMARIES

HUMAN
PERFORMANCE AND
LIMITATIONS

Alexandre Domínguez M.
2020

• Currently 1 accident per million movements
• This makes aviation the safest mode of
transport
• GPWS has been the biggest contributor to
safety so far
• Pilot error makes up 70% of accidents
through lack of good judgement
• 1 in 1000 times is a good human error rate
• Has the correct Knowledge, Skills and
Attitudes (KSA)
• Everyone is responsible for safety as
individuals, not just pilots
• Software – Non-physical aspects like
checklists/SOPs
• Hardware – All solid objects around the
liveware like the aircraft
• Environment – The varying factors through
which the aircraft is operated
• Liveware – The pilot and other people (x2)
• Fault – Good Action, Wrong Intention
• Slip – Wrong Action, Good Intention
• Omission – Forgetting to do something
• Commission – Doing something you
shouldn’t
• Substitution – Similar to a slip
• Is a subset of national culture
• Just - Genuine mistakes are not punished
• Reporting – Mistakes are reported
• Informed – Mistake reports are assessed
• Learning – Action is taken on gathered data
• Flexible – Must be flexible in implementing
solutions
• Open Culture – People can share their
knowledge/thoughts
• Closed Culture – No incentive/fear towards
sharing
• For an accident to happen, multiple active
and latent failures must line-up such that
layers of safety barriers (the cheese slices)
are ineffective
• Active – Errors with immediate consequence
• Latent – Caused by circumstance or
surroundings and not directly obvious
Threats → Errors → UAS
• Threat – External factor beyond flight crew
influence
• Error – Internal factors (action/inaction)
• Undesired Aircraft State – Unintended
situation causing reduced safety margins
• Environmental – Weather, ATC…
• Organizational – Operational Pressures,
Manual Error…
• Communication – Missed ATC call…
• Aircraft Handling – Incorrect Config…
• Procedural – Missed SOP/Wrong Callout…
• Ground Navigation – Wrong Taxiway…
• Aircraft Handling – Unstable Approach,
Outside Limits…
• Incorrect Config – Flight Controls, Mass and
Balance…
• Hard – Already in place
• Soft – Utilizes the KSA of the flight crew

• 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen and 1% Rare
Gases (0.03% Carbon Dioxide)
• Proportions constant until 100km
Key Pressures:
• 760 mmHg at Sea Level
• 380 mmHg at ½ Pressure (18,000ft)
• 190 mmHg at ¼ Pressure (34,000ft)
Key Lapse Rates:
• 27ft/hPa up to 18,000ft
• 50ft/hPa above this
• 2°C per 1,000ft up to 36,000ft (-56.5°C)
• Isothermal above this
• MSL-10,000ft – Physiological Zone
• 10-60,000ft – Physiological Deficient Zone
• 60,000ft+ - Space Equivalent Zone
• Henrys Law – Quantity of gas dissolved into
liquid is proportional to the partial pressure
• Pain will result from trapped gas –
‘Dysbarism’
• Occurs in the stomach, ears, sinuses and
teeth
• Caused by Boyles Law
• Occurs in the stomach
• Severe pain possible above 25,000ft
• Relieved by belching, passing flatus
(farting) and descending
• Occurs in the ear
• Eustachian tube balances pressure
• Harder to equalise pressure in the descent
• Relieved by yawning, swallowing, Valsalva
or Frenzel manoeuvre
• Can result in ear drum rupture
1.Nitrogen absorbed into blood
2.Pressure reduces
3.Nitrogen bubbles form
4.This creates blockages potentially leading to
tissue death
• Caused by Henrys Law
• Joints – “Bends” – Deep pain in large joints
▪ This is the primary symptom
• Skin Capillaries – “Creeps” – Intense itching
• Lungs – “Chokes” – Chest pain
• Brain – “Staggers” – Neurological problems
• These symptoms may not be immediate
• Unlikely below 14,000ft
• Most likely above 18,000ft (unpressurised)
• Significant increase in risk above 25,000ft
• Scuba diving, obesity and age are risk factors

• Charles Law – Volume ∝ Temperature • Shallow Dive – 12 Hour Flight Ban

(Constant Pressure)
• Boyles Law – Pressure ∝ 1/Temperature
(Constant Temperature)
• General Gas Law - PV⁄T = Constant
• Daltons Law – In a mixture, total pressure is
the sum of the partial pressures
• Ficks Law – Rate of diffusion depends on
Surface Area, Differential Pressure and
Membrane Thickness
• Can be blocked by infection/cold • >30ft – 24 Hour Flight Ban
• Prevents air equalization • Snorkeling presents no problem
• Climbing means the pressure can’t escape • Doing exercise does not prevent DCS
• Descending creates a vacuum
• This cannot be relieved
• Occurs in the teeth
• Trapped gas expands when climbing
• Relieved by descending

• Transports O2
• Removes CO2
• Fights infection and produces clots
• Made up of red/ blood cells, platelets
and plasmas
• 55% plasma and 45% cells
• Produced in the bone marrow
• Lifespan of 140 days
• Red blood cells contain haemoglobin that
carries oxygen
• Insufficient haemoglobin causes anaemia
• Arteries – Away from the heart
• Veins – Back to the heart
• Pulmonary Veins/Arteries – Connects heart
and lungs
▪ Only de-oxygenated artery in the body
• Systemic Veins/Arteries – Connects heart
and tissues
• Inadequate circulation of blood
• Leads to tissue death
• Caused by mass bleeding, heart problems,
blockage or anaphylactic shock
• Blood supply to the brain is cut-off
• Caused by clotted/blocked/ruptured vessels
• Not to be confused with fainting or a fit • High Blood Pressure (>140/90)
• Caused by stress, age, too much salt,
hereditary or obesity
• The high pressure causes a tear, fat builds
• Caused by a blood clot in a deep vein
up on the tear and a blood clot forms
• Causes painful aching
• Treated with medication, diet and exercise
• Risk factors include old age, inactivity and
• Can be disqualifying
obesity
• Low Blood Pressure
• Can cause dizziness/fainting
• Can also be disqualifying
• 4 Chambers (2 Atria and 2 Ventricles)
• 4 Valves
• Temporary situation where demand > supply
• Caused by coronary artery narrowing
• Measured by counting the pressure waves
• Symptoms are tiredness, breathlessness
• Affected by exercise, body temperature,
and crushing pain
eating, drugs and stress
• Treated with rest and medication
• Cardiac Output = HR x Stroke Output
• 70bpm x 75ml = 5.2 liters/minute (typical)
• Myocardial Infarction
• Caused by a blocked coronary artery
• Force exerted by blood on the artery walls
• Can cause tissue death
• Systolic (Contraction) – Blood leaves ventricle
• Family history is the biggest risk factor
▪ 120 mmHg (typical)
• Most common cause of death for men >40
• Diastolic (Relaxation) – Blood enters atrium
▪ 80 mmHg (typical) • ECGs can detect anomalies in advance
• Influenced by work, peripheral resistance,
elasticity and blood viscosity
• Measured in the body by pressoreceptors
• Ventricular Fibrillation
• Caused by breakdown in the electrical
stimulus (heart suddenly stops)
• Triggered by a heart attack, electrocution
or trauma

• Energy Production
• Temperature and Chemical Regulation
▪ This is known as homeostasis • Internal – O2 and CO2 exchanged in cells
▪ Body must remain between 7.2-7.6 pH • External – O2 and CO2 exchanged in lungs
• Achieved by breathing 16-18 times per
minute
• Regulated by amount of CO2

• O2 + Food = CO2, Energy + Water

• Respiration allows O2 in and CO2 out

• Tidal Volume (Normal Breath) – 500ml

• Expiratory Reserve (Extra Air Out) – 1,000ml
• Inspiratory Reserve (Extra Air In) – 3,300ml
• Residual – 1,200ml
• Total – 6 litres (male), 4.2 litres (female)
• >10,000ft – Hypoxia (O2 Related)
• <10,000ft – Hyperventilation (CO2 Related)
• Hypoxia – Condition of insufficient O2 in the
blood
• Hyperventilation – Excessive rate and
depth of respiration
• Inadequate diffusion of O2 into the blood
• Caused by altitude (Dalton’s Law)
▪ “Henry’s sick (DCS), Dalton’s hypoxic”
• <55mmHg partial pressure of O2 there is a
significant decrease in mental function
• This occurs at 10,000ft (normal and healthy
individuals)
• 33,700ft – 100% O2 simulates sea level
▪ Only effective up to 40,000ft where
positive pressure is required
• Reduced carrying capacity of the blood
• Caused by Anemia, CO Poisoning and
Smoking
• Inadequate circulation of blood
• Caused by heart attacks or positive G
• Cells can’t use O2 effectively
• Caused by cell poisoning (alcohol or drugs)
• 200x greater affinity than O2
• Prevents haemoglobin from absorbing O2
• Colourless, odourless and tasteless gas
• Caused by incomplete combustion
• Can take several days to recover from
• Signs – Perceptible to others
• Symptoms – Experienced by the individual
• Main Sign – Cyanosis (Blue Skin)
▪ Impaired judgement is the most
dangerous sign
▪ Also impaired mental ability, muscle
in-coordination and hyperventilation
• Main Symptom – Euphoria
▪ Also tingling, reduced visual acuity and
shortness of breath
▪ Joint pain/suffocation feelings are NOT
symptoms
• Tobacco
• Alcohol (1 ounce raises altitude by 2,000ft)
• Temperature
• Physical & Mental Activity
• Avoid unpressurised flight >10,000ft
• Never fly >14,000ft without O2
• Avoid risk factors
• Indifferent Stage – 0-10,000ft
▪ Night Vision affected from 5,000ft
• Compensatory Stage – 10-15,000ft
▪ Hypoxic effects after 10-15 mins
▪ Short-term memory affected from
12,000ft
• Disturbance Stage – 15-20,000ft
▪ Body can no longer compensate
• Critical Stage – 20,000ft+
• Time from interruption of O2 supply to loss
of ability to take corrective action
Altitude TUC
20,000ft 30 Minutes
25,000ft 2-3 Minutes
30,000ft 1-2 Minutes
35,000ft 30-90 Seconds
40,000ft 15-20 Seconds
• Times reduced with moderate activity
• Causes CO2 levels to decrease
• Body becomes too alkaline
• O2’s affinity to haemoglobin increases
• O2 then doesn’t diffuse into cells
• Symptoms include tingling, poor co-
ordination, shortness of breath and
deteriorated vision
• Signs are like hypoxia EXCEPT cyanosis
• May be Terrestrial, Artificial or Cosmic • Absolute Humidity – Amount of actual
(including Galactic + Solar) water vapour in the air in g/m3
• Becomes a risk above 49,000ft • Relative Humidity - % of water vapour in
• Risk factors include exposure time, high the air vs maximum (saturated)
altitude and high latitude (in that order) • Kept low on aircraft to avoid corrosion
• Cabin – 10%
• Ideal Minimum – 20%
• Flight crew are within recommended dose of • Optimum – 40-60%
20 millisieverts per year
• Cumulative and total instantaneous dose
must be recorded • Cabin altitude usually 6-8,000ft
• In event of a depressurization, oxygen
mask on FIRST!
• Toxic to humans • Then descend to 10,000ft/MSA
• Radiation causes O2 to form Ozone (O3)
• This creates a UV protective layer in the
atmosphere
• UV-A – Causes tanning (95% that reaches
Earth)
• UV-B – Causes skin cancer (filtered better)
• Negligible <40,000ft
• Peak at 115,000ft
• Reduced >140,000ft
• UV concentration is higher in Winter
• Ozone converters remove it from the cabin
• Antibiotics – Infections
• Antihistamines – Allergies
• Side effects include drowsiness, dry
mouth, headaches and nausea
• Analgesics – Pain Killers
• Nose sprays contract blood vessels to ease
congestion but this may destroy mucus
membrane, cause bleeding & drowziness
• Excessive aspirin use can cause gastric
bleeding
• Packaging guidance cannot be relied on for
pilots
• Local – Wait 12 hours
• General – Wait 48 hours
• Central Nervous System (CNS) Depressant
• Degrades judgement, G tolerance and
sleep quality, gives spatial disorientation
and blurry vision
• Also intensifies effects of drugs (synergistic)
• 1 unit = 15mg/100ml (½ pint or glass of wine)
• Damaging threshold is 28 units/week (male)
or 21 units/week (female)
• 20mg/100ml is the limit for flying but you
should never fly under the influence of
alcohol
• ‘8 Hours Bottle to Throttle’
• Body removes 1 unit per hour (0.015%)
• Alcohol Abuse – Excessive alcohol use that
damages physical, mental or social life
• Alcoholism – Dependency on alcohol
• Nicotine – Addictive
• Tar – Carcinogen
• 20 per day (1 pack) raises physiological
altitude to 4-5,000ft and reduces oxygen
capacity by 5-8%
• This is due to Carbon Monoxide poisoning
• CNS Stimulant and Vasodilator
• Improves alertness, thought and muscle
co-ordination
• If symptoms exceed 72 hours, seek help!
• Performance affected >250mg
• Cabins may be sprayed with insecticide 30
• This causes muscle tremors, rapid heart
minutes before landing
rate, excessive urination and irritability
• Can block the Eustachian tube
• On contact with skin, wash with copious
• See Atmosphere (Otic/Sinus Barotrauma)
amounts of water
• Other middle ear problems include pressure
• Should not initially use soap (except fuel)
vertigo, ringing in the ears and temporary
• Mercury is prohibited on aircraft as it is
hearing loss
highly reactive
• Gastrointestinal is the most common cause
• Breakfast provides 25% of daily caloric
• Subtle (Insidious) – Appears OK externally
intake
▪ Most dangerous type
• Hypoglycemia – Low Blood Sugar
• Obvious – Spotted immediately
▪ Can cause dizziness/fainting
• A partially incapacitated pilot should not fly
▪ Avoided by a balanced diet and small
• If possible, crew should eat different meals
snacks between meals
 Weight (kg) • Fit – Electrical disturbance in the brain
• BMI = ⁄ 2
Height (m) ▪ a.k.a Seizure
For females, subtract 1 ▪ Usually detected by an EEG
• <18.5 – Underweight • Faint – Reduction in blood sugar to part of
• 18.5-25 – Normal the brain
• 25-30 – Overweight ▪ a.k.a Syncope
• 30+ - Obese
• Caused by high caloric intake
• High fat levels cause poor circulation and
• Tension/Fatigue of Lower Back Muscles
subsequent coronary heart problems,
• Slipped Disc
reduced hypoxia/DCS tolerance, low G
• Different Lengths of Lower Extremities
tolerance and type 2 diabetes
• Lumbar support can prevent back pains by
• Extra weight also causes arthritis
allowing the spine to curve properly
• Prevented by reduced caloric intake
mainly, exercise can also help

• Should double the heartrate for 20

minutes, 3 times a week
• Could cause muscle and abdominal cramps
caused by dehydration in high temps

• Insulin – Hormone that enables cells to

absorb glucose
• Type 1 – “Insulin Dependent”
▪ Not enough insulin is produced
▪ Requires an epi-pen
▪ Disqualifying for pilots
• Type 2 – “Non-Insulin Dependent”
▪ Cells do not respond properly
▪ Obesity is the biggest cause
▪ Causes high blood sugar (hyperglycemia)
▪ Usually disqualifying
• Takes in light rays
• Focus rays on the retina
• Convert light into electrical signals
• Used for 70-80% of knowledge acquisition
• Cornea
▪ Protects the eye
▪ 70% of the focusing
▪ Fixed
• Lens
▪ 30% of the focusing (16-30 diopters)
▪ Adjustable
• Pupil – Controls amount of light entering
• Iris – Controls the size of the pupil
▪ Contained in the uvea
• Retina – Converts light to electrical signals
▪ Consists of rods and cones
• Optic Nerve – Sends signals to the brain
• Vitreous Humour – Tissue filling the eyeball
• Used for greyscale vision
• Scotopic Vision
• Provide vision in dim light
• Found round the edges of the eye
• Used for colour vision and visual acuity
• Red, green and blue
• Colour-blindness caused by imperfections
• Photopic Vision
• Provide vision in bright light (daytime)
• Found in the centre of the retina (fovea)
• Measure of clarity of vision
• Best acuity = 2-3° from the fovea
• Reduces rapidly toward the periphery
• Normal vision = 20/20
• Can discriminate between 2 different points
under an angle of 1 arc minute from 20ft
• Pupil widening – controlled by iris
▪ Pupil is wide in dark environments
• Rhodopsin (Visual Purple) aids night vision
▪ Takes 30-45 mins for rods to adapt
▪ light bleaches it
▪ Vitamin A produces it
• Hypoxia reduces night vision from 5,000ft
▪ Rods are therefore most susceptible
▪ Hypaemic hypoxia also causes this as a
result of smoking
• 10 secs needed to adapt to bright light
• Lens bending – effected by ciliary muscles
▪ Lens goes flat for distant objects
• May damage the lens or retina
• Higher energy than other light
• Day – No rods/nerves on the optic nerve
▪ Binocular vision/moving head fixes this
• Night – Inactive fovea due to low light
▪ 5-10° blindspot
▪ Therefore look to the sides of an object
• Eye naturally focuses to 1.5-2m away
• Makes it hard to detect traffic
• Try and focus on an objects beyond 6m
• Cones don’t function when the eye is
moving (a saccade)
• When scanning, wait 3-5 seconds to adjust
• Flash Blindness – From lightning/strobes
• Flicker Vertigo – From propellers/helicopter
rotors
• Polarized sunglasses not used for flying
• Photochromatic sunglasses are useless as
flight deck windows block the UV they need
• Uses both eyes for distance and depth
• Stereoscopic – Images are added together
• Convergence – Eye swivel gives cues
Vision with 1 eye achieved by:
• Size of retinal image – prior experience
• Obscuration
• Motion parallax – Close objects move faster
• Texture – Close objects have more detail
• Atmospheric Perspective - Distant objects
appear hazy
• Linear Perspective – Parallel lines converge
• “Shortsightedness”
• Can only see close objects
• Image forms in front of retina
• Corrected with a concave lens
• Caused by long eyeball/too much bending
• “Farsightedness”
• Can only see distant objects
• Image forms beyond retina
• Corrected with a convex lens
• Caused by short eyeball/not enough bending
• Wide Runway = Looks Low
▪ High, Steep Approach
▪ Early Flare
• Narrow Runway = Looks High
▪ Low, Flat Approach
▪ Late Flare
• Downslope = Looks Low
▪ Causes an approach that is too high
• Upslope = Looks High
▪ Causes an approach that is too shallow
• Bright Lights appear Closer = Low Approach
• Dim Lights appear Further = High Approach
• Rain on the windshield causes light to
refract making you appear high
• Rain/haze/mist has the same effect and
lights feel dimmer (higher approach)
• Shallow fog layers may make you think you
are high as distant lights disappear
• Static lights appear to move when stared at

• Unequal curvature of the cornea/lens
• Cannot focus on 2 planes at the same time
• Corrected with a cylindrical lens
• Hardening of the lens with age
• A form of hypermetropia
• Usually occurs when older than 40
• Pre-existing conditions may delay (myopia)
or accelerate (hypermetropia) onset
• Upsloping terrain makes you feel high
• Causes an approach that is too shallow • Half-Moon – Aid near vision only
• Downsloping terrain makes you feel low • Bifocal – Corrects near and far vision
▪ Causes an approach that is too high • Varifocal – Not advised due to peripheral
distortion
• Being high up makes you feel slower
• Other moving aircraft nearby will make
you feel like you are moving

• Rise of the internal pressure of the eye
• Causes visual field narrowing, pain &
eventually blindness
• Insidious onset (initially undetected)
• Clouding of the lens
• Leads to vision loss unless lens replaced
• Causes a temptation to fly a low approach
• Snowy ground & white clouds merge and
the horizon is obscured
• May cause Controlled Flight into Terrain
(CFIT)

• Hearing range is 20Hz – 20kHz
• Intensity measured in decibels (dB)
• Pain threshold is 140dB
• Uses a logarithmic scale
• Effects depends on loudness, length of
exposure and frequency
• Steady State – Continuous noise
• Impulse – Sudden noise
• Outer Ear – Auricle (Pinna), Auditory Canal
and Ear Drum (Tympanic Membrane)
• Middle Ear – Ossicles (tiny bones)
• Inner Ear – Cochlea and Eustachian Tube
and Semi-Circular Canals
• Listening Rate – 500 words per minute
• Speaking Rate – 125 words per minute
• Conductive Hearing Loss – Sound does not
reach inner ear
• Sensorineural Hearing Loss – Due to
cochlea damage (sensory hairs/nerve fibres)
▪ Treat with surgery, hearing aids & meds
• Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) results
from damage to the cochlea hair cells
▪ No pain occurs
▪ From high intensity or long duration
• Acoustic Trauma – Sudden exposure to
loud noise (>140 dB) • Acts for more than 1 second
• Gradual NIHL – Repeated exposure • 3.5G – Tunnel Vision/Grey Out
(>90dB) and usually insidious • 4.5G – Black Out
• Presbycusis – Hearing loss with age • Negative G is not well tolerated
▪ Causes loss of high tones first
▪ Either conductive or NIHL
• Experience/Training
• Anti-G Suit
• Duration of Exposure
• General Health
• Linear – In a straight line
• Seating Position (Supine)
▪ e.g Take Off/Crashes
• Best tolerance when distance between
• Angular – Changes in angular velocity
heart and brain is minimized
▪ e.g Aircraft Spin
• Radial – Toward the center of a circle
▪ e.g Loop
• 4 Point Harness – Danger of submarining
• 5 Point Harness – Prevents submarining
• +Gz – Positive G (Radial)
▪ e.g Loops/Spiral Dive Recoveries
▪ Most significant for pilots
• -Gz – Negative G (Radial)
▪ e.g Pushovers • 3x Semi-circular Canals and 2x Otoliths
• +Gx – Transverse Forwards • Located within the inner ear
▪ e.g Take-Off
• -Gx – Transverse Backwards
▪ e.g Braking • Senses angular acceleration
• Gy – Lateral (Rare in flight) (pitch/yaw/roll)
• If angular velocity is constant, no
acceleration is sensed
• Acts for less than 1 second
• Maximum +25G Vertical (Gz)
• Maximum ±45G Transverse (Gx)
• Senses linear acceleration and gravity
• Horizontal Plane – Utricles
• Vertical Plane – Saccules
• Chalk like crystals that sit on top of a jelly
• Acceleration causes them to move
• Senses the seat of the pants feeling
• Subcutaneous receptors sense pressure on
the skin
• Proprioceptors sense relative motion and
position of body parts
• Only useful flying in VMC
• 3D Illusions
• Within the semi-circular canals
• Includes the leans, graveyard spin and the
Coriolis illusion (vertigo)
• Leans – Perceiving the aircraft attitude as
being different from reality
▪ Caused by a movement below sensory
threshold
• Graveyard Spin – Spin recovery that results
in spin in original direction
• Graveyard Spiral – Normal rollout that
results in a tightening turn
• Coriolis (Vertigo) – Head tilted
upwards/downwards (especially whilst
turning) giving a tumbling sensation
• 2D Illusions (Take-Off and Landing)
• Within the otolith organs
• Includes pitch up/down illusion, elevator
illusion and inversion illusion
• Pitch up illusion – acceleration feels like a
climb
• Pitch down illusion – deceleration feels
like a descent
• These may also cause an oculogravic
illusion – apparent upward/downward
movement and displacement of object
• Elevator illusion is caused by turbulence
when…
▪ Aircraft goes up – climb is felt
▪ Aircraft goes down – descent is felt
▪ Temptation is then to overcorrect this
• Inversion illusion – Abrupt change from
climb to straight and level creates the
illusion of tumbling backwards
• Entering turn is sensed as a climb
• Exiting a turn is sensed as a descent
• ALWAYS TRUST YOUR INSTRUMENTS!
• Caused by disagreement between the
visual and vestibular system
• Vibration of 1-100Hz can cause resonance
in the vestibular system
• Symptoms include restlessness, increased
saliva, cold sweat, dizziness, nausea and
headache
• Treated by minimizing head movements
and fixing gaze on a stable horizon (or rest
head on back of seat with eyes closed)
• Supplemental Oxygen, opening air vents
and loosening clothing also helps
• Prevented with avoiding medication and
alcohol and continued exposure

• We sense stimuli as just raw data
• Perception involves interpreting raw data
to give it meaning
• Based on our mental models (past
experiences and learning)
• Stimuli stored in sensory memory
▪ Iconic Memory – Sight – 0.5-1 second
▪ Echoic Memory – Hearing – 2-8 seconds
• Gestalt Laws – govern how objects are
mentally organized/perceived
• Bottom Up – From sensory information
• Top Down – From experience/expectation
• Means perception varies between individuals
• When there is a difference between what is
perceived and what is reality
• Individuals and Groups are affected
• Treated as threats that should be managed
• Concentrating on a stimuli/thought
• Wickens’ Theory – Information perceived by
multiple senses more likely to get attention
• Guided by the level of autonomy,
expectations and salience of information
• Goal driven – Directed to what we feel is
most appropriate
• Stimulus driven – Physical properties of
stimuli attract attention
• Divided Attention – Execute several
activities at the same time • Episodic Memory – Specific Lifetime Events
• Selective Attention – Focusing on 1 ▪ Easily influenced
stimulus due to limited capacity • Semantic Memory – Facts
• Blinkered Attention – Concentrating on 1 ▪ Lasts longer than episodic memory
specific thing • Procedural Memory – Actions/Skills
• Can’t do 2 attentional tasks simultaneously ▪ Includes motor programmes
• Giving sustained attention to something
• a.k.a “Mental Schemes”
to notice a non-ordinary event
• Stored routines completed automatically
• Affected by task, motivation,
• Learnt by repetition in cognitive,
physiological and environmental factors
associative and automatic phases
• We naturally divert our attention as relief
• Errors include action slip and
• Hypovigilance – Reduction in vigilance
environmental capture
• Brought about by monotony, lack of
stimulation and fatigue
• Managed by aircraft interactions and in-
flight rest Conscious Processing
• Working memory used to make decisions
• Requires attentional resources
Automatic Processing
• a.k.a “Working Memory”
• Involved in the decision-making process • A motor program from long-term memory
• Finite capacity of 5 items ± 2 • a.k.a “Behavioural Sub-routine”
• Will be forgotten after 10-20 seconds • Does not require attentional resources
• Sensitive to disturbances
• Requires attention
• Improved by chunking/mnemonics • When perception = reality
• Levels of awareness include Monitor,
Evaluate, Anticipate
• Infinite capacity and permanent • Used in TEM as countermeasures
• Does not require attention
• Influenced by suggestion/expectation
• Degrades if information not regularly
retrieved or few associations
• Personality – Who We Are
▪ Stable characteristics
▪ Fixed by age 7
• Behaviour – What We Do
▪ Modifiable
▪ Controllable display of personality
▪ More important than personality
• Projective tests, handwriting analysis and
interviews all accepted methods
• Best method is personality tests
• Introvert or Extrovert
• Stable or Unstable (Anxious)
• Average Pilot is stable and extroverted
• Personality + Attitudes = Behaviour
• Influenced by social norms, faith & culture
• “The way we see ourselves”
• Ideal Self – how we want to see ourselves
• Motivation – From a difference between
self-concept and ideal self
• Anxiety – Ideal self seems unattainable
• Under-confidence leads to
aggression/assertiveness
• Ability to control our own behaviour
• Skill Based – Use of motor programmes
▪ Prone to action slips and
environmental capture
• Rule Based – Following learnt procedures
▪ Errors may be in the rule itself, the
application (error in technical
knowledge) or using the wrong rule
▪ Used if automated behaviour unsuitable
• Knowledge Based – Knowledge and
experience used to determine action
▪ Associated with problem solving
▪ Used if rule-based behaviour unsuitable
• Passive – Putting needs of others first
• Assertive – Active listening, assured
manner
• Aggressive – Putting own needs first
• Invulnerability – Accidents happen to
others
• Macho – Trying to prove they’re the best
• Other hazardous attitudes include anti-
authority, impulsivity and resignation
• Psychologists measure styles as either task
or relationship oriented
• Ideal leaders are both
• Paternalistic – Acts as a father figure
• Depends heavily on the sender
• Influenced by workload, noise and voice
• Feedback – Measured/corrected for meaning
• The words that are said/written
• 95% of the communication on the flight deck
• Body Language – Facial Expressions,
Gestures and Posture
• Paralanguage – Pitch, Tone and Pauses
• Explicit – Clear and unambiguous
• Implicit – Potentially ambiguous
• Metacommunication – Communication
about communication
• Makes up 80% of communication
• Professional language with precise words
and simplified grammar used in aviation
• Intrapersonal – Conflict within one’s self
• Interpersonal – Conflict between 2+ people
• Levels of Interpersonal Conflict:
1. Positive Resolution
2. Difference of Opinion
3. Confrontation
4. Fight/Flight
5. Combat
• Inquiry, Active Listening, Advocacy and
Metacommunication
• Open questions are preferred
• Higher level conflict dealt with through
negotiation and arbitration

• Central Nervous System (CNS) – Brain and
Spinal Cord
• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) –
Connects everything to CNS
• Neurons – Conducting elements
• Synapse – Connection between neurons
• Visual Cortex – Where vision information is
processed in the brain
• Cerebellum – Reflex center of co-ordination
• Signals travel electrically (charged molecules)
along the axon and chemically across the
synaptic gap
• Part of the PNS
• Unconsciously regulates bodily functions
• Homeostasis – Body’s state of equilibrium
• Maintained through the ANS
• External/internal stimulus causing stress • Body’s reaction to specific events
• Dependent on an individual’s subjective • Often trigger fight/flight response
evaluation of a situation & ability to cope
• Stress arising from company/organization
• Comfortable environment ≈ 20°C • e.g Career Development, Management etc.
• 30°C+ - Uncomfortable
• Adaptation to a hot country takes 14 days
• Noise, low humidity, vibrations and UV • Stress occurs when perceived demand
radiation are also factors outweighs perceived ability
• Model of the body’s ANS response to stress
• 39°C+ – Impaired mental/physical
performance
• 37°C - Normal core temperature
• Below this, reasoning problems start
• 35°C - Hypothermia starts
• 32°C - Shivering stops and apathy starts
• Apathy is the most dangerous symptom!
• Stress has more of a response on physical
than mental performance
• High Temperatures – Vasodilation and • Adrenaline - Causes glucose to be released
Sweating
• Cortisol - Converts fat to sugar
• Low Temperatures – Vasoconstriction
and Shivering

• Eustress – Good stress giving increased Effects include….

energy and ability to deal with it
• Distress – Bad stress giving a feeling of being
out of control and unable to cope
• Acute – Short term as a result of a sudden
unexpected event
• Chronic – Long term caused by something
continuing for a long period
• Events in everyday life
1. Death of a Spouse
2. Divorce
3. Death of a Close Family Member
• In order of the worst effects
• Somatic (Physiological) including frequent
illness, muscle tension and appetite changes
• Psychosomatic – Somatic (physiological) or
Psychosomatic (psychological stress)
• Psychological – Depression, anxiety etc.
• Overcome with counselling, fitness and
relaxation techniques
• Feeling of unease (from mild to severe)
• May cause stress but is never healthy
• Physiological effects include sweating, dry
mouth and fast breathing
• State of being alert/ready for action
• Influenced by fatigue, workload, stress,
motivation and vigilance
Inverted U Curve (Yerkes Dodson)
• Breakpoint – Where further arousal will
decrease performance
• Optimum Arousal – Ideal level of arousal
that gives the best performance
• Excessive arousal levels that reduce
performance
• Symptoms include increased errors, task
fixation, rushed actions and
communication reduction
• Significant overload symptoms are of
aggression, withdrawal & reversion to
type
• Confirmation Bias – Seeking out info that
confirms what we already think
• Satisficing – Picking the first good enough
option rather than the best
• Recency Bias – More weight is given to
recent information
• Expectation Bias – Believing that
something is happening based on an
expectation that it would be
• Detect – Recognize change has occurred
▪ Susceptible to confirmation bias
• Estimate – Estimating the need to react
• Choose – Choosing a desired outcome
• Identify – Identifying solutions to achieve
the objective
▪ Susceptible to satisficing
• Do – Doing what needs to be done
▪ Must ensure someone is flying!
• Evaluate – See if the decision that was
made was correct
• Primary Group – Close-knit and intimate
(e.g family)
• Secondary Group – Impersonal and
temporary (e.g cockpit crew)
• Role – Associated functions and behaviours
• Status – Hierarchical position
• Group performance is better than the
average individual
• Benefit from each-others KSA
• Cooperation – Working together towards a
common goal
• Cohesion – Team bond (team spirit)
• Co-action – Motivated by the presence of
others to perform better
Affected by….
• Group Think (Members agree with a leader)
• Ability
• Status and Role
• Persuasion and Conformity
• Obedience (compliance without question)
• Risky Shift (groups make riskier choices)
• Group Norms
• Assertiveness is considered the most
important attribute
• Other attributes include explaining
decisions, using open questions and
asking others first
• Reduces workload
• Improves minima
• Improves accuracy
• Saves fuel
• Reduced Situational Awareness
• Loss of Basic Flying Skills
• Hard to make Last Minute Changes
• Mode Awareness - Knowing what systems
are doing and what they should be doing
• Physiological state of reduced
mental/physical performance
• Caused by sleep loss, physical exercise,
duty time, poor health and jet lag
• Acute (short-term) or Chronic (long-term)
• Chronic fatigue is the most dangerous
• Symptoms include mood swings, slow
reactions, more errors, short term memory
problems and tunnel vision
• Prevented by good quality/quantity of sleep,
exercise, balanced diet and stress control
• 5 Stages – Stages 1-4 and REM Stage
• Cycles through all the stages in 90 mins
• Stages 1-4 – Orthodox (Body Restoration)
▪ Stage 2 – 50% of sleep
▪ Stage 3-4 – Slow Wave
• Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Stage –
Paradoxical (Memory Organization)
▪ Responsible for dreams
▪ Gets longer with each cycle
▪ 4-5 REM periods each night
▪ Degraded with alcohol

• Passive Monitoring – Watching the • Cycle that regulates physiological

processes (“Body Clock”) • 1hr sleep - +2 points
autopilot but not thinking about it
• Prevented by regarding the autopilot as an • Triggered mainly by daylight/darkness • 1hr awake - -1 point
additional crew member
• The “free-running” rhythm (no triggers) is • Maximum credits = 16
closer to 25 hours
• Also serves to regulate body temperature

• Automation requires an increased amount • Circadian Dysrhythmia/Trans-meridian

of monitoring Desynchronization
• Caused when body clock is out of sync
• Body synchronizes 1-1.5hrs per day
••Excessive
Aural/visual arousal
alertslevels
reducethat reduce
communication • For stopovers <24hrs, stay on home time
•performance
Still just as important! • Eastbound – Harder to adjust
• Symptoms include increased errors, task • Westbound – Easier to adjust
fixation, rushed actions and
• Lowest Body Temp – 5am
communication reduction
• Window of Circadian Low (WOCL) – 2-5am
• Significant overload symptoms are of
aggression, withdrawal & reversion to
type
• No flying within 12hrs of taking melatonin
• Alcohol reduces sleep quality
• Optimum nap length is 20 mins • Operant Conditioning – Connection
• Nap recovery is up to 20 mins between behaviour and the consequence
• Microsleep – Uncontrolled nodding-off • Classical Conditioning – Stimulus triggers a
• Does not increase sleep credit behavioural response
• These are behaviouristic approaches
• Observation/Imitation – Learning
behaviour through watching others
• Narcolepsy – Keep falling asleep
▪ A modelling approach
• Sleep Apnea – Temporarily stop breathing
• Insight – Seeing and understanding
• Insomnia – Difficulty sleeping
▪ A cognitive approach
• Somniloquism – Sleep talking
• Somnabulism – Sleep walking

• Most important factor on ability to learn

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs describes
that to reach full potential basic needs
(safety and security) must first be met
• Herzberg’s Theory says motivation is based
on proper hygiene needs being met and
proper motivators being in place
• Job satisfaction may be achieved by
enlargement (more roles/responsibilities)
or enrichment (involvement in decision
making)

1. Cognitive Phase – Understanding the theory

▪ “Declarative Knowledge"
2. Associative Phase – Practicing the skill
▪ “Knowledge Compilation”
3. Automatic Phase – No conscious thought
▪ “Procedural Knowledge”
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

MEDICAL& ERRORS& 2.&FAULTS&AND&SLIPS&

&
• Fault&
DISPOSITION& FACTS& o&Intention!T!Wrong!but!satisfied&
& & o!EG/! Incorrectly! identifying! the! bad!
• Fit!/!Unfit!/!Referred& • GPWS! is! the! main! contributor! to! aviation! engine!and!shutting!it!down.&
safety!in!recent!years.& &
& • Slip&
SEEK&AME&ADVICE& • 70%! of!accidents! have!some!human! factors! o&Intention!–!Correct!but!not!satisfied&
& involved.& o!EG/! Selecting! flap! lever! instead! of!
• Hospital!>!12!Hrs& landing!gear!lever&
• Surgical!Operation!/!Invasive!Procedure&
SAFETY&CULTURE&
• Regular!use!of!medication& & 3.&OMISSION,&COMMISSION&&&
• Regular!use!of!correcting!lenses& • Safety! culture! is! a! subset& (influenced)& by& SUBSTITUTION&
national&culture.& &
MUST&ADVISE&AUTHORITY&IN&WRITING& • Error&of&omission&
& o&Missing!item!on!checklist&
ERROR&TOLERANCE& &
• Significant!Personal!Injury& & • Error&of&commission&
• Illness!>!21!Days! • When!no!single&error&can!cause!a!failure.& o&Wrong!decision&
• Pregnant!
o!EG/!Takeoff!without!clearance&
&
DONATION&&&NO&FLY& ERROR&CLASSIFICATION&SYSTEMS&
• Error&of&substitution&
& o!Wrong!action!taken!instead&
• Blood!=!24!Hrs! 1.&DESIGN&&&OPERATOR&INDUCED& o!EG/!Slip&
o Increases!susceptibility!to!hypoxia! &
! • Design!–!EG/!Poor!Cockpit!Ergonomics&
• Bone!=!48!Hrs! • Operator& –! Inadequate! performance! from!
an!individual&
&
• Both!can! be!further!subTdivided!into!active&
(immediate! effect)! or! latent& errors!
(inherent!within!the!system)!
!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

4.&RASMUSSEN&&&REASON’S& TEM& ATMOSPHERE&

&
• Accidental&
• Anticipation& THREATS&/&ERRORS& COMPOSITION&
• Compensation& & &
• Transposition& • Threats& –&External,!beyond!the!influence!of! • Nitrogen!–!78%!
& the!flight!crew.& • Oxygen!–!21%!
• Sporadic&Error&(Outlier)& & • Other!Gases!–!0.95%!
• Random&Error& • Error& –! Actions! /! intentions! by! the! flight! • Carbon!Dioxide!–!0.03%!
• Systematic&Error& crew.&

Altitude& Pressure& PP&O2&

MSL! 760!mmHg! 103!mmHg!
ERROR&MODELS& 10,000!ft! 500!mmHg! 55!mmHg!
18,000!ft! 380!mmHg! T!
ERROR&CHAIN& 33,700!ft! 190!mmHg! 103!mmHg!*!
UAS&
& & 40,000!ft! 140!mmHg! 55!mmHg!*!
• 4&U>&7!links!typically!lead!to!an!accident.& • Undesired&Aircraft&State& !
*!Obtained!by!breathing!100%!O2!
>!40,000!ft!O2!required!under!+ve!pressure!
1.&SWISS&CHEESE& !
&
• Successive! layers! protect! against! those!
hazards! which! have! slipped! through!
COUNTERMEASURE&
previous!levels.&
&
• Hard& –! Part! of! system! which! is! present!
2.&SHEL(L)&MODEL& before!the!crew!report!for!duty.&
& &
• Soft&–!Human!contribution!during!flight.&

!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

ZONES&OF&THE&ATMOSPHERE& TRAPPED&GAS&DISORDERS& DCS&EFFECTS&

& &
• Physiological&Zone& • Effects! can! occur! upto! 12& Hrs! after!
o 0!–!10,000!ft! TRAPPED&GAS&DISORDER& decompression&
o Oxygen!level!sufficient! & &
! • Known!as!Dsybarism! • Bends!–!Nitrogen!bubbles!in!skin&
• Physiological&Deficient&Zone&& ! • Creeps&–!Gas!bubbles!under!skin&
o 10,000!ft!–!60,000!ft! • Prominent!above!25,000!ft! • Chokes&–&Shortness!of!breath&
o Oxygen!deficiencies!begin! ! • Staggers& –! Bubbles! affecting! nervous!
! • Occurs!within:! system&
• Space&Equivalent&Zone&& o Sinus’s!
o 60,000!ft!!+! o Joints!
o Abdomen! DIVING&
o 100%! O2! under! pressure! no! longer!
o Teeth! &
sufficient!
o Oxygen!deficiencies!begin! o Ears! • Snorkeling:!No!Wait&
! • Up&to&30&ft:&12!Hrs!–!18!Hrs!(multiple!dives)&
• More&than&30&ft:&At!least!24!Hrs&
EUSTACHIAN&TUBE&
&
• Allows!middle!ear!to!equalise!with!ambient! TREATMENT&
pressure!during!descent.! &
• Urgent!medical!advice!
• Breathe!100%!Oxygen!
EVLOVED&GAS&DISORDERS&U&DCS& • Hyperbaric!chamber!

GAS&LAWS& CAUSE&
& &
• Boyles&Law&(Trapped!gas!expansion)& • Nitrogen! released! too! quickly! during! rapid!
o&P!X!V!=!C& ascent!and!body!becomes!super!saturated.!
&
• Charles&Law&
o&V!/!T!=!C&
&
• !
Henry&–!Gas!under!pressure!|!DCS&
• Dalton&–!Partial!Pressure!|!Hypoxia&
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

RESPIRATORY& HEAT&BALANCE& INTERNAL&VS&EXTERNAL&

& &
• Optimum!36.9 C!
0
BREATHING&RATE&
&
• Breathing!is!regulated!by!amount& of& CO2!in! BODY&CHEMICAL&BALANCE&
the!blood.& &
& • 7.2!!!7.6!pH!
• Too!much!CO2!=!Increased!breathing& !
• Too!little!CO2!=!Decreased!breathing!& • Changes!are!sensed!by!respiratory!centre!of!
the!brain!
LUNG&VOLUME&
&
RESPIRATORY&COMPONENTS&
• Average&Male&–!5.5!Litres& &
• Average&Female&–!4.5!Litres& • Nose&–!Moistens,!filters!and!warms&
• Larynx&–!Voice!box&
BREATING&RATE& • Pharynx&–!Back!of!the!throat,!humidifies!air&
& • Trachea&–!Windpipe&
• 16&U&18&times&per&min& • Bronchi&
• Alveoli& PULMONARY&ALVEOLI&
&
LUNG&VOLUME&COMPONENTS&
• Alveoli&are!tiny!air!sacks!within!the!lungs&
& FICKS&LAW& • Where! the! exchange! of! O2! and! CO2! take!
• TV&–&Tidal&Volume& & place!in!external!respiration.&
o Air!breathed!in!/!out!(!~!500!ml)& • Rate! of! diffusion! across! a! permeable! !
& membrane! is! directly! proportional! to! the! • Within!the!alveoli,!partial!pressures!are:&
• IRV&–&Inspiratory&Reserve&Volume& difference!in!partial!pressures!of!the!gas.! o Water&Vapour:!47!mmHg&
o &Amount!that!be!forcefully!inhaled&
o Oxygen:!102!mmHg!
&
o CO2&:&40!mmHg&
• ERV&–&External&Reserve&Volume&
o &Amount!that!be!forcefully!exhaled&
&
• RV&–&Residual&Volume&(~!1200!ml)&
& !
Total!Volume!=!TV!+!IRV!+!ERV!+!RV!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

&CIRCULATORY&SYSTEM& COMPONENTS&OF&BLOOD& CIRCULATORY&DISORDERS&

! &
• Plasma& • Hypertension!
CIRCULATORY&SYSTEM& o High!blood!pressure!
o Transports! CO2,! nutrients,! hormones!
& and!waste!products.& o Increases!heart!attack!risk!
• Veins!–!Carry!blood!TO!heart.! & !
• Arteries!!T!Carry!blood!FROM!heart.! • Red&Blood&Cells& • Hypotension!
! o Carry!oxygen& o Low!blood!pressure!
• Oxygen! deficient! blood! from! heart! is! & !
transported!to!right!side!of!heart!via!veins.! • White&Blood&Cells& • Angina!
• Then! pumped! to! the! lungs! via! arteries! o Fight!infections& o Narrowing!of!the!coronary!artery!
where!it!picks!up!oxygen.! & o Results! in! reduced! oxygen! supply! to!
• Transported! back! to! left! side! of! heart! via! • Platelets& some!part!of!the!heart!muscle.!
veins.! o Clot!blood& !
• Pumped! from! left! side! of! heart! to! body! via! • Infarct!
arteries.! o Blockage!of!the!coronary!artery!
! HEART& o Normally!leads!to!heart!attack!
• Coronary& Arteries& supply! blood! to! the! !
heart!to!keep!it!functioning.! CARDIAC&OUTPUT& • Heart&Attack!
& o Sudden!inability!of!the!heart!to!function!
Cardiac!Output!=!Stroke!Volume!x!Heart!Rate! !
! • Anemia!
• Stroke!Volume!=!70!ml! o Reduction!in!number!of!red!blood!cells!/!
• Heart!Rate!=!70!times/min! haemoglobin!
• Average!Output!=!4.9!litres!/!min! !
• Faint&/&Syncope!
o Reduction! in! supply! of! blood! to! the!
BLOOD&PRESSURE&RATIO& brain!
! !
• Systolic& Pressure! –! Highest! pressure! • Stroke!
obtained!when!the!heart!beats.! o Blood! supply! to! part! of! the! brain! is! cut!
! off.!
• Diastolic& Pressure! –! Lowest! pressure! o Ischemic!–!Blockage!
obtained!when!the!heart!rests.! o Hemorrhagic!–!Burst!blood!vessel!
!
! !
• Average&Ratio&=&120/80&mm&Hg& • Fit!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

PRESSORECEPTORS& STAGES& CO&POISONING&

& & &
• Essentially!a!blood&pressure&sensor! • Indifferent&–&SFC!to!10,000!ft! • Haemoglobin! within! red! blood! cells!
! o Night!vision!deteriorates!above!4000’! normally!carries!oxygen!around!the!body.&
• Located! in! the! carotid! and! aortic! arterial! o Cognitive!deteriorates!above!8000’! &
vessels! ! • Haemoglobin! has! a! greater! affinity! to! CO!
! • Compensating&–!10,000!ft!to!15,000!ft! over!Oxygen!by!200&times.&
• When!blood!pressure!is!too!low!it:! • Disturbance&–!15,000!ft!to!20,000!ft!
o Constricts!vessels! • Critical&–!20,000!ft!to!25,000!ft!
o Increase!heart!rate! HYPERVENTILATION&
o Increase!cardiac!output!
TUC&
CAUSE&
&
&
HYPOXIA& • 25,000&ft:&2!T3!mins&
• Breathing!too&rapid!
• 30,000&ft:!1!–!2!mins&
• Exhale&too&much&CO2&&
• 35,000&ft:&30!–!90!seconds&
TYPES&OF&HYPOXIA& • Blood!PH!rises!and!becomes!too&alkaline&
• 40,000&ft:!15!–!20!seconds!
& • Less& oxygen&can&be& diffused!into!cells!and!
• Hypoxic! they!don’t!get!the!required!level!of!oxygen&
o Not!enough!oxygen! SIGNS&&&SYMPTOMS&&
! & SIGNS&&&SYMPTOMS&
• Hypaemic! • Sign&–&Can!be!seen!by!others! &
o Reduced! oxygen! carrying! capacity! of! • Symptoms&–!Felt!by!individual! • Similar!to!hypoxia!however…!
blood!(can!be!caused!by!smoking)! ! o Tingling!sensation!in!extremities!
! • Bad!things!! o Clamy! skin! rather! than! blue! with!
• Stagnant! • Not!aches!/!pains!(DCS)! hypoxia!
o Inadequate!blood!circulation! • Hyperventilation! !
! • Cyanosis!(Blue!skin)! • Below! 10,000! ft! suspect! hyperventilation!
• Histotoxic! rather!than!hypoxia.!
!
o Body!not!able!to!use!oxygen!effectively!
TREATMENT&
&
• Steady!breathing!
• Breathe!into!paper!bag!
!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

RADIATION& ABSORBPTION& ANASTHETICS&

! &
• Absorbs!99%!of!UV!light!which!is!potentially! • Local:!12!Hrs!NoTFly&
TYPES& damaging!to!life!on!earth.& • General:!48!Hrs!NoTFly&
& &
• 1.&Galactic& • Absorbs! UVTB! better! than! UVTA! (not! as!
o Majority!of!radiation& harmful)& ALCOHOL&
o Steady!with!little!variation&
• 2.&Solar& LIMITS&
& DESTROYING&OZONE& &
• Crew! receive! roughly! double! amount! of! ! • Pilots:&20&mg&/&100&ml&&
background!radiation!over!a!year.& • Destroyed!by!heat& • Weekly&Max:&28&Units&(M)&/&21&Units&(F)&
• Total!destruction!at!4000C& • Absolute&Min:&8!Hrs!bottle!to!throttle&
CHANGES&WITH&ALTITUDE& &
& • 1!ounce!=!physiological!altitude!of!2,000!ft!
REALATIVE&HUMIDITY&
• Both!increase&with&altitude& !
• Records!kept!operating!above!49,000&ft& • 1!unit! (15! mg/100ml)! processed! each!hour!
VALUES& by!the!liver!
&
GEOMAGNETIC&SHIELDING&
• Optimum:&50%&
! PROCESS&
• Minimum:&20%&
• Weakest&at&poles!as!flux!lines!point!straight! &
• Certification:&30%&
downwards!rather!than!parallel!to!surface.& • Absorbed! through! stomach! wall! into!
&
bloodstream&
• Cockpit&can!be!as!low!5&–&15%&
• Brain!/!CNS!initially!affected&
OZONE& • Speech!/!muscular!activity!affected!next&
• 0.05%!blood!alcohol!=!Lack!of!coordination&
MEDICINE&
COMPOSITION&
& SMOKING&
DRUG&TYPES&
• High&concentrations&of&O3&&
&
• Highly&toxic!gas!
!! • Antibiotics&–!Fight!bacterial!infections! SMOKING&
• Created! by! action! of! UV& light& on& O2! which! &
• Antihistamines&–!Fight!allergies!
then!protects!us!from!UV!
• AntiThypertensives!–!High!Blood!Pressure! • Tar&!!Cancer!&!Heart!Disease&
• Negligible&below&40,000&ft&
!
• Analgesics&–&Pain!Killers& • Nicotine&!!Addictive&
• Peak&level&115,000&ft&–&140,000&ft&
• 1!pack!a!day!=!5&–&8%!O2!capacity!reduction!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

CAFFEINE& GENERAL&HEALTH& STROKE&VS&FIT&VS&FAINT&

&
• Stroke& –! Interruption! of! blood! supply! to!
LIMITS& DIET& brain&
& & &
• 250&–&300&mg/day&(Aircrew)& • Carbohydrates&–!Energy& • Fit&–Electrical!disturbance!in!brain&
• As!little!as!200!mg!may!reduce!performance& • Protein&–!Muscle!(Energy)& &
• 1!cup!~!75!mg& • Fats&–&Energy!storage& • Faint& –! Reduced! oxygen! supply! to! brain!
o ADEK!–!Fat!soluble!T!Stored& (caused!by!too!low!blood!pressure)&
o BC!–!Water!soluble!–!needed!every!day&
INCAPACITATION& • Vitamins&
• Minerals& EXERCISE&
& &
TYPES&
• Vegetables!produce!gas!in!the!body! • Double! resting! heart! rate! for! 20! mins,! 3!
&
times!a!week!
• Obvious&
o&Silent& DIABETES&
o!Overt& & !!!
& • Insulin&Dependent&T!Permanent&
• Insidious&(Subtle)& • NonUInsulin&Dependent&T!Temporary&

BMI&
INCAPACITATION& &
& !"#$%&!(!")
• Incidious&most!dangerous& !"# = ! &
!"#$%&! !(!)
&
&
• Takeover&if:&
• Underweight:!<!18.5&
o 2!failures!to!respond&
• Normal:!18.5!–!25&
o 1!failure!to!respond!with!SOP!deviation&
• Overweight:!25!–!30&
• Obese:!>!30&

!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

VISION& NIGHT&VISION&ADAPTATION& EMPTY&FIELD&MYOPIA&

& &
• Rods!–!40!Mins! • Without! an! object! to! focus! on,! the! eye!
PARTS&OF&THE&EYE& • Cones!–!7!Mins! relaxes!and!focuses!1.5!–!2!metres!ahead.&
& &
• During!lookout,!pick!an!object!6m& or& more&
ACCOMODATION& away! to!focus! on.!Beyond!this! distance,!the!
& eye!focuses!on!infinity.&
• Ability!of!lens!to!change!shape&
&
SACCADIC&EYE&MOVEMENT&
• Focus!on!near&object&
&
o&Iris!–!Narrows&
o!Lens!–!Fattens!(More!spherical)& • Eye! essentially! switches! off! whilst! it’s!
& moving&
!
• Focus!on!far&away&object&
RODS&VS&CONES& o&Iris!–!Widens& • Saccade!lasts!0.3!seconds&
& &
o!Lens!–!Flattens!(Less!spherical)&
• Rods&–!Peripheral!&!Monochrome!T!Scotopic& • Lookout! requires! keeping! the! head! and! eye!
& still!for!a!second!in!each!lookout!segment.&
• Cones&–!Visual!Acuity!&!Colour!T!Photopic& VISION&PROBLEMS&
o Best!acuity!therefore!2!–!30!of!fovea&
!! CONSTANT&BEARING&
o Decrease!rapidly!towards!periphery&
&
o 3!classes!T!Red,!Green,!Blue& DAY&BLIND&SPOT&
& • Aircraft! on! a! collision! course! appear! as! a!
& constant!bearing&
• Day&–!Rods!&!Cones& • Due!to!blind!spot!at!optic!nerve&
• Night&T!Rods& • Occurs!when!one&eye&is&covered&
• Can!be!caused!by!a!pillar&
ADAPTATION&
& NIGHT&BLIND&SPOT&
• Bright!Light!–!10!seconds! &
! • Cones! which! are! not! good! for! night! vision!
• Night!Vision!–!30!minutes! are!mainly!present!within!5!–!100!&
o Allows! visual! purple! to! build! up! &
! (bleached!by!bright!light)! • Look&to&the&sides!to!make!use!of!rods&
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

DISTANCE&/&DEPTH&PERCEPTION& VISUAL&DEFECTS& HYPOGLYCAEMIA&

&
BINOCULAR&METHODS&(CLOSE&/&MEDIUM)& HIGH&LIGHT&LEVELS& • Vitamin!A!deficiency&
& & • Required!to!produce!visual!purple&
• Stereoscopic&Vision& • Flicker&Vertigo!–!Propellers!&!Strobe!Lights& • Impairs!night!vision!
o Two!picture!produce!3D!image& • Flash&Blindness&T!Lightning&
& GLAUCOMA&
• Convergence& &
o Angle!of!‘eye!swivel’& MYOPIA& • Rise!in!internal!pressure!of!eye!
&
• Severe!pain!and!ultimately!blindness!
• Short&sighted&(image!in!front!of!retina)&
• Tested!with!the!puff!test!
MONOCULAR&METHODS& • Due!to!long&eyeball&
& • Corrected!with!concave&lens&
• Geometric&Perspective& CATARACTS&
o Shape!of!object!depends!on!distance& &
& HYPERMETROPIA& • Clouding!in!the!lens!
• Motion&Parallax& & • Obstructs!passage!of!light!
o Relative!motion!of!objects& • Long&sighted&(image!behind!retina)&
& • Due!to!short&eyeball& ASTIGMATISM&
• Known&size&of&objects& • Corrected!with!convex&lens& &
& • Unequal!curvature!of!cornea!/!lens!
• Terrestrial&Association& • Difficultly! focusing! on! vertical! and!
o Comparison!of!objects& PRESBYOPIA& horizontal!at!the!same!time!
&
!!! • Gradual&hardening!of!the!lens!with!age&
• Decreases&accommodation&
• Results!in!long&sightedness&

RETINAL&RIVALRY&
&
• Dominant!eye!overrides!other!eye&
• Some!visual!items!may!be!missed&
! • Can!also!result!in!eye!pain&
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

RAIN& !!!
VISUAL&CORRECTIONS&
&
• Between&aircraft&and&runway&(+&FOG)&
CONTACTS&&&SPECTACLES& o Lights!appear!dimmer!
& o Appears!further!away!
• Spectacles& o Pilots!makes!too!high!an!approach!
o Bifocal! !
o Trifocal! • Rain&on&windshield&
o Varifocal!not!recommended! o Runway!appears!magnified!
! o Appears!closer!
• Contacts&
o Bifocal!
o Trifocal!
! BLACK&HOLE&EFFECT&
• Reactolite!not!allowed!in!either! &
• Landing! into! a! runway! at! night! with! no!
cultural!lighting!around!
!
VISUAL&ILLUSIONS&
• Tendency! to! think& you& are& too& high& and!
are!likely!to!fly!below!the!glideslope!
APPEAR&TOO&HIGH&
&
AUTOKINESIS&
• Narrow!runway!
&
• Upslope!
• Static! light! (EG/! Runway! light)! appears! to!
move!when!stared!at!during!night.!
APPEARS&TOO&LOW&
&
COUNTERMEASURES&
• Wide!runway! &
• Downslope! • PAPIs!
• ILS!
SHALLOW&FOG&
&
• Creates!a!pitch&up&illusion&
!
• Tendency&to&pitch&down&results!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

THE&EAR& NERVOUS&SYSTEM& BRAIN&

&
• Centre!of!the!nervous!system!
!!! CNS& !
& • Cerebrum!–!Memory,!perception!etc!
• Central!Nervous!System! !
! • Cerebellum!–!Coordination!of!movement!
• Brain!+!Spinal!Cord!
!
• Deals! with! the! reception! of! stimuli! and! NEURONS&
HEARING&RANGE&
activation!of!muscles!mechanisms! &
&
• 20!Hz!–!20!kHz& • Electrically! excitable! cells! in! the! nervous!
system!
PNS& !
& • Process!and!transmit!information!
NOISE& • Peripheral!Nervous!System! !
& ! • Communicate!via!synapses!
• Pain!–!140!dB& • Nervous!structures!that!do!not!lie!in!CNS!
!
• Contains!receptors!that!feed!CNS!!
HEARING&LOSS&
ANS&
PRESBYCUSIS& &
& • Automatic!Nervous!System!
• Loss!of!hearing!with!age& !
• Usually!occurs!first!in!the!higher!frequencies& • Occurs!subTconsciously!
!
• Controls! respiration,! sweating,! general!
CONDUCTIVE&HEARING&LOSS& adaptation!syndrome!etc!!
&
• Blockage!between!outer!and!inner!ear!&
• Does! not! include! damage! of! the! auditory!
nerve&
!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

VESTIBULAR&SYSTEM& GRAVEYARD&SPIN& ACCELERATIONS&

&
• Vestibular!system!gets!used!to!spin&
VESTIBULAR&SYSTEM&(INNER&EAR)& & GULOADING&
& • Corrective! action! is! sensed! as! entering! &
• Otoliths& another!spin& • GZ&:&Up&/&Down&Acceleration&
o Gravity!&!Linear!Accelerations& & o GreyUout:!+!3!Gs&
o Small!sacs!in!the!vestibule& • Pilot! likely! to! reTenter! the! original! spin! o BlackUout:&+4.5!Gs&
& direction& o GULOC:&+!5!Gs&
&
• Semicircular&Canals&
o 3!in!total& • GX&:&Linear&Acceleration&
o Angular!accelerations& GRAVEYARD&SPIRAL& o Create!sensory!illusions!
& &
!!!! • Like! leans! but! follows! an! intentional! • GY&:&Lateral&/&Transverse&Acceleration&
METHOD&OF&OPERATION& prolonged!banked!turn.& o Not!normally!present!
&
• Senses!rate&of&change&rather!than!sustained!
HEADUUP&ILLUSION&
change.& CORIOLIS&ILLUSION&
&
&
• Result!of!sudden!linear!acceleration!
• Caused!by!sudden!head!movement!during!a!
LEANS& turn& • Can!result!in!pilot!pitching!down!
& &
• Caused!by!sudden!return!to!level!flight!after! • Stimulation! of! multiple! semicircular! canals! HEADUDOWN&ILLUSION&
an!undetected!gradual!turn.& at!the!same!time! &
! ! • Result!of!sudden!linear!deceleration!
• Leveling!of! wings!is!interpreted! as! entering! • Most!dangerous!of!vestibular!illusions! • Can!result!in!pilot!pitching!up!
a! turn! and! pilot! may! enter! a! turn! in! the!
original!direction.&
VERTIGO&
&
• Mismatch! between! information! from! visual!
and!vestibular!system!

!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

VIBRATIONS& SLEEP& BODY&TEMPERATURE&

&
• Lowest!–!0500!
AFFECTED&RANGE& CREDIT&/&DEBIT&SYSTEM& • Highest!T!1800!
& &
• 1&–&100&Hz& • Each!hour!of!sleep!=!2!credits!(hours)!
• Max!16!credits! DISEASES&
&
RESONANT&FREQUENCIES& • Hepatitis&A!&&Cholera!T!Contaminated!food!
& NATURAL&CIRCADIAN&RHYTHM& /!water!
• Vestibular&–!0.1!to!2!Hz& & • Tetanus&–!Puncture!in!skin!
• Respiratory&–!1!to!4!Hz& • 25&Hours& • Yellow&Fever&T!Mosquito!
• Spine&&&Abdomen&–!4!to!10!Hz&
• Heart&–!7!Hz& ACCLIMATISATION&
• Head&–!10!to!30!Hz& BODY&TEMPERATURE&
&
• Westbound!T!!1!day!/!1.5!Hrs!time!shift!
!!!!! • Eastbound!–!1!day!/!1!Hr!time!shift! HYPERTHERMIA&
&
• 37&–&35 C&:&Mild!to!strong!shivering!|!Apathy!
0
SLEEP&STAGES& • 35&–&320C&:&Violent!shivering!|!Paleness!
& • 32&–&240C&:&Shivering!stops!|!Amnesia!
1. Light!Sleep!
2. Sleep!Spindles!
3. Transition!to!deep!sleep!
4. Deep!sleep!
5. REM!(Paradoxical)!
!
• Stages!1!–!4:!Refresh!Body!
• Stage!5!–!Refreshes!Mind!

ALCOHOL&
&
! • Degrades!REM!sleep!
 HUMAN&PERFORMANCE&
!

!!!!!!!!
PHYSCHOLOGY&

OPERATION&MODES&
&
• Skill&Based&
• Rule&Based&
• Knowledge&Based&

!
Basics:
Latent threat: Cockpit design error
Conceptual aspects of systems mismatch: Liveware – software
James reason: Gathering information from accidents & investigations is informed

Atmosphere:
Heart muscles: Blood supply from coronary arteries
Blood: Is lacking in oxygen & rich on CO 2
Pressoreceptors: Located in carotid & aortic arterial vessels
Angina: Symptom of reduced oxygen to heart muscle, caused by narrowing/obstruction of coronary artery
Circulation: O 2 & CO 2 transportation
Gas exchange: Partial pressure of CO 2 in the alveoli is lower than in the blood
Respiratory system: Oral nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi & alveoli
Anaemia: Not enough functioning haemoglobin

Hypoxia:
- Histotoxic hypoxia: Alcohol increases physiological altitude, 1 ounce 2000ft
- Hypoxic hypoxia: Short term memory impairment starts at 12000ft
- Hypaemic hypoxia: Smoking
- Stagnant hypoxia: Excessive G-forces
- Can be experienced at 6000ft
- Night vision reduced at compensatory stage
- Dalton’s death

Hyperventilation:
- Causes CO 2 to be removed from the blood
- Lack/shortage of CO 2 in the blood
- Blood circulation to brain slowed down
- Jogging does NOT cause hyperventilation
- Running is voluntary hyperventilation

Decompression sickness:
- Primary symptom: The bends
- Nitrogen gas bubbles released
- Wait 12 hours before next flight
- Henry’s hole

Rate of depth of breathing:

- Controlled by pressure of CO 2 in the blood
- Increased rate = high level of waste CO 2 in the lungs
- Increased CO 2 causes shortness of breath
- Controlled by receptor cells in the brain

Respiratory control centre: Sensitive to carbon dioxide

Hypertension: Physiological condition involving increased pressure on the arterial walls

Hypothermia: Demand for oxygen initially increased

Low blood pressure:

- Arterioles constrict, cardiac output increase, heart rate rises
- Increased risk of low blood pressure when donating blood due to loss of blood volume

General gas law: Volume of a gas multiplied by pressure divide by its absolute temperature is constant
Law of diffusion:
- Transfer of CO 2 to the alveoli
- Adjacent gases of different concentration mix until concentration is balanced
Charles’ law: Volume of gas at constant pressure is proportional to absolute temperature
Boyle’s law: Volume of a gas is inversely proportional to its pressure with temperature constant
Henry’s law: Quantity of gas dissolved in a liquid is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas
Dalton’s law:
 - Partial pressure of gas is proportional to its fractional concentration in a gas mixture
- Total pressure = sum of partial pressures of the gas in the mixture

G-forces:
- Factors: Low blood sugar, obesity & hypoxia
- +Gz: Blood flow to brain decrease

Heart attack:
- Common for people above 40
- Total blockage of a coronary artery leading to the death of a piece of heart muscle

Random knowledge:
Alpha radiation: Absorbed by thin sheet of paper or 0.2cm of water
Cosmic radiation: Increases at higher latitudes
Temperature increase RH decrease
Ozone absorbs UVB better than UVA

Man environment & sensory systems

Eye:
Iris: Control the size/diameter of pupils
Pupil: Controls amount of light that strikes the eye
Accommodation:
- Controlled by cilliary muscle around the lens
- Ability of the lens to change its shape
Optic system: Cornea, lens, vitreous humour
3 coats of the eye: Sclera, uvea, retina
Crystalline lens: Enables a clear image to be obtained
Cornea: Part of the eye that bends the light the most
Cornea & crystalline lens: Causes the convergence of light rays onto the retina
Central vision: Enables details & colours to be seen, represents a zone where 150 000 cones/mm are located to give high
resolution capacity
Fovea: Area of best day vision & no night vision at all
Foveal area is the only area where resolution is good enough to see clearly
Retina: Rods in peripheral zone
Central zone: Cones
Optic nerve: Has no rods & cones

Vibrations cause blurred vision due to resonance of eyeballs

When focusing shape of lens gets more spherical
Glaucoma: Increase in pressure of the liquid within eye
Eyes move in short jerky movements called saccades; smooth vision is achieved in visual cortex
Reading alphanumeric information limited to foveal area of the retina
Refractive power: Variable from 16 – 30D
Monocular depth cue: Linear perspective
Sunglasses: Can have disadvantages
Visual acuity: 1 minute of arc
Visual acuity affected by: hypoxia, age & angular distance from the fovea

Presbyopia:
- Far sightedness due to age
- Common over the age of 50
- Decrease of accommodation

Short or near sightedness/myopia:

- Defective vision in the form of optical image in front of the retina
- Person will start experiencing problems at a later age with presbyopia than usual

Astigmatism: Misshaped cornea

Accelerations:
- Forward linear acceleration: Somatogravic/oculogravic
- Forward acceleration: Illusion of backward tilt it results in backward displacement of the otolithic membranes
Sound:
Threshold for pain: 140db
Presbyacusis: Gradual loss of hearing with age
13% of knowledge acquired through hearing
Conductive hearing loss: Not caused by damage of auditory nerve
Sound waves transferred from outer ear to inner ear by ossicles
NIHL: Governed by intensity & duration of noise in excess of 90db
Cochlea: Responsible for sound

Vibrations:
Cochlea: Transfers vibrations to nerve impulses in the ear
Vibrations upset the vestibular apparatus

Nervous systems:
Connection between neurons: Synapse
Neuronal signals travel electrically along the axon & chemically along synaptic gap
Reflex centre for co-ordination of equilibrium: Cerebellum
Neurons: Conducting elements of the nervous system cell

Seat of the pants:

- Muscles, tendons & joints sensitive to the position & movement of body parts
- Proprioceptors inform of relative motion & relative position of his body parts

Spatial orientation:
- Measuring linear & radial accelerations in inner ear
- Sacculus & utriculus: Gravity & linear acceleration
- Semi-circular canals: Angular accelerations, during a roll, hair in canals senses fluid motion by roll, vestibular nerve is
simulated & nerve impulses transmitted to brain. (Roll, pitch & yaw)

Illusions:
- Dangerous: Somatogravic, somatogyral, neurological & colour illusion
- Somatogyral/leans caused by reducing bank following a prolonged turn
- Coriolis effect: Simultaneous stimulation of several semi-circular canals
- Graveyard spin: Pilot on recovery tends to re-enter spin due to somatogyral illusion
- Bottom up: Flying over tall trees then suddenly seeing short trees
- Top - down: Smaller objects perceived as further away than larger objects
- Top – down: Reduced visibility such as dust/haze objects of equal size & distance may be perceived as larger/smaller

Fog/mist: Objects appear further away, lead to steep approaches & long landings

Runways:
Upsloping: Believes/feels to be high, approaches steeper, landing short
Downsloping: Approach higher than normal, may result in long landing
Narrow:
- Believes to be high, tendency to land short
- Flatter than normal approach with tendency to undershoot
- Low approach with undershoot
- Initiate flare too late
Larger/wider:
- Believes to be low, you think you are low
- high approach with overshoot
- Early or high “round-out” flare
Approaches at night with no landing aids: Pilot thinks he is higher than actual & risks landing short
Black hole effect:
- Flying over water at night on the approach to an airfield creating an illusion that the aircraft is at a higher altitude than
it is, leading to a low approach being flown
- Being too high & too far away, dropping low & landing short

Motion sickness:
- Systems involved: Vestibular, vision, proprioceptive & gastro-intestinal
Health & hygiene
Sleep:
- Orthodox – Deep sleep, physical recovery, refreshes body
- Paradox (REM) – Increases during night, regenerate mental functions (4-5 cycles)
- Time zone adjustment: 3-4 zones with 24 hour layover – keep in swing/rhythm of departure country as long as possible,
maintain regular living patterns
- Duration depends on the point within your circadian rhythm at which you try to sleep
Barotrauma:
- Reduction of hearing ability & feeling of increased pressure
- Affects facial sinuses, middle ear & dental cavities
- Pressure differentials between gases in hollow cavities of the body & the ambient pressure
- Causes pressure pains & flatulence
Dysbarism:
- Refers to various medical problems caused by gas expansion induced by decreased barometric pressure
Aerodontalgia/barodontalgia:
- Doesn’t occur at desert
- Arises especially with irritation of the sensitive tissues close to the root of a tooth
Smoking:
- Lifts smoker physiological altitude
- Flying at 10000ft, oxygen content in blood equal to altitude above 10000ft
- Causes hypaemic hypoxia
Alcohol:
- No alcohol should be consumed 8 hours prior for flight duty period or period of standby
- Does not promote barotrauma
- Degrades paradoxical sleep
Hypoglycaemia/low blood pressure:
- Headache & lack of concentration
Eustachian tube:
- Blocked = equalization of pressure is limited
Cold:
- Pain & damage can occur to ear drum, particularly during fast descents
- Increased risk of barotrauma during climbs & descents
Metabolic cell waste:
- Water & carbon dioxide
Diabetes:
- Type 2: Caused by genetics & obesity (Low physical activity?)
Hyperthermia:
- Adjustment to hot country takes 14 days
Tetanus:
- Bacteria in the form of spores via punctures

Others:
Rasmussen’s model:
- Errors in rule-based control mode are errors of technical knowledge
- Skill, rule & knowledge based models are associated with problem solving

Anderson model:
- Cognitive, associative & automatic

Rule allows situation to be resolved: Actions return to automatic mode

Attention:
- Detecting relevant information which is not presented in an actively monitored input channel = Attention
- Depends on level of automation of behaviour, salience of information, expectations
st
1 stage of information process = sensory stimulation

Long term memory:

- Affected by expectation & suggestion, where motor programs are kept
- It is helpful to mentally rehearse information before it is needed
Short term memory: 20 seconds
Mental training, rehearsal & cognitive pre- training is most important to acquire complex motor skills

Working memory: 5 – 9 items without rehearsing (About 7 maximum)

Experience & repetition may be beneficial & negative

Environmental capture:
Tendency of a skill to be executed in an environment in which it is frequently exercised
Tendency for a skill acquired in another aircraft executed in a new aircraft type even if it is inappropriate

Errors:
- Error tolerance: Error tolerance means minimizing the effects of errors by making a system as tolerant as possible
towards errors
- Error results in cognitive sequence which makes it possible to modify behaviour with a view to adaptation
- Humans are fallible & system & procedures should be designed to minimize human error
- Error of commission: Taxiing to wrong runway

Decision making:
- Assertiveness makes crew decision making most effective
- Amount of time available has a large influence on analysis of the situation
- Pilot should take as much time as he needs & is available to make up his mind
- Intention of being integrated, to be recognized as leader or avoid conflicts: Attempt to agree on decisions made by
other crew members

Time constraints: Preparation of the action & the prioritisation of tasks

Confirmation bias:
- Tendency to look for information that confirms the validity of the decision
- To avoid: Search for information that will falsify hypothesis

Groupthink: More or less unconscious support of a solution from group members

Professional language:
- Uses limited vocabulary & context provides meaning
- Quick comprehension & simplified grammar

Communications:
- Relies heavily on the sender
- TO make effective: Send information in line with receivers decoding abilities
- Loss of words & packaging more important as: Body language is lost

Information: Intended to reduce uncertainty, measured in bits

Coordination: Allows synergy between pilot & co-pilot, in this mode has the function of synchronizing actions & distributing
responsibilities

Very high ambition & need for achievement disturbs climate of co-operation

Paralanguage: Pilots speak to a person which is outside aircraft

Democratic & co-operative style: Trying to clarify reasons & causes of the conflict with all persons involved

Co-action: Working parallel to achieve one common objective

CRM: Improves quality of crew performance

Invulnerability:
- Accidents can only happen to others
- “It will not happen to me”

“Personality”: Refers to unique psychological characteristics

Stress:
- Non-specific response of the body to every demand placed on a person
- Increases vigilance but may focus attention inappropriately
- Psychosomatic: Mental in nature (Not physical)
- Physical stress: Strains on HOMEOSTATIC mechanisms on the body
- Stressor: External/internal stimulus which is interpreted by an individual as being stressful
- Acute stress: Mobilization of resources required to cope with the stressor
- Chronic stress: Address the physical causes of stress

Acute fatigue: Does NOT has psychological roots

Stress reactions:
- Alarm phase: Increased arousal, release of glucose, decrease in stress resistance
- Resistance phase: Allows fats to be converted into sugars prolonging the mobilization of energy in the body,
appearance of psychosomatic disorders when lasting over a prolonged period

High levels of arousal narrows span of attention

Automation errors: Capture of a poor subprogram, an action mode error

Complacency: Unjustified self confidence

Reliability & good detectability: Sum of automatic monitoring, detection & warning facilities, alerting capabilities of the man-
machine interface

Automation: Attention of cockpit crew will become reduced with the consequence of being out of the loop

Figures:
Human factors causes 70 – 80% of accidents
Rate of accidents: 1 accident per million airport moveme9nts

Healthy adult:
- Pulse: 60 – 80 beats/min
- Breathing rate: 10 -15 breaths/min
- Breathing rate: 16 cycles/min
- Breathing rate at rest: 12 – 20 cycles/min
- Arterial blood pressure: 120/80 mmHg
- Cardiac output (Blood quantity /min): 5 litres/min

Proportion of atmosphere constant up to 100km (Oxygen 21%, Nitrogen 78% ...)

18000ft – ½
27000ft – 1/3
34000ft – ¼
45000ft – 1/8

Oxygen breathing:
- Percentage of oxygen breathing at 25000ft: 62%
- 100% at 33700ft: Equivalent to SEA LEVEL
- 100% at 38000ft: Equivalent to 8000ft
- 100% at 40000ft: Equivalent to 10000ft

100% oxygen physiological altitude: 40000ft

Exhaled air contains: 15% oxygen & 4% carbon dioxide
Barometric pressure difference (decrease of pressure) greatest at 0ft – 5000ft
Cardiac output = Volume pumped x beats per minute
Blood: Contains 45% blood cells & 55% plasma
Blood oxygen saturation affects pilot >10000ft
Above 10000ft partial pressure is below critical value of 55mmHg
Partial pressure in alveoli: 40 CO 2 , 47 H 2 O, 100 O 2 (mmHg pp )
Carbon monoxide affinity to haemoglobin: 210 – 250 times

Breathing cycle volume (Tidal volume): 500ml of air

Inspiratory volume: 3300ml
Expiratory volume: 1000ml
Residual volume: 1200ml

TUC:
- 25000ft: 3 – 5 minutes
- 30000ft: 45 seconds to 1 min 30 seconds
- 35000ft: 30 – 60 seconds (45 seconds)
- 43000ft: 30 – 45 seconds

Reaction threshold/compensatory reactions: 7000ft (Human organism starts remarkable measures)

Disturbance threshold: 10000 – 12000ft
Critical threshold: 22000ft (Non-pressurized 20000ft)

Hypoxia:
- Does not occur below 3000m
- Occurs at 38000 – 40000ft 100% oxygen without pressure
- Affects night vision at approximately 5000ft

Records of radiation kept above 29000ft

After scuba diving wait 24 hours

Sight:
70 - 75% of knowledge from sight, 13% hearing
Night vision: Degradation of night vision occurs from 1500m (5000ft)
Visual acuity: Best within 2-3 degrees of the fovea & reduces rapidly towards periphery vision

Hearing:
Frequencies: 20 – 20000Hz
Hear/listen to 500 & speak 125

Alcohol:
Slight lack of coordination starts at 0.05% blood alcohol
No alcohol 8 hours before
EASA blood/alcohol limit: 20 mg per 100mm of blood
Rate of metabolism or digestion of alcohol: 0.01 – 0.015g/100g per hour (15mg/100ml/hour)

Smoking:
One pack of cigarettes gives away 5 – 8% of total oxygen transportation

Time zone:
Resynchronization time at a rate of 1 – 1.5 hours a day

Sleep:
5 stages of sleep
REM sleep 4-5 bouts in 8 hours,
Free running circadian rhythms: 25 hours
Credit/debit system: 12 hours
Normal sleep cycle every 90 minutes
Human adults require 8 hours of sleep per night

BMI:
2
- Mass ÷ Height
- Normal 18 to 25 (Females just -1)
- Obese >30/29

Breakfast = 25%

Caffeine in excess of 250mg/day is a problem

Errors:
Simple repetitive tasks occur about 1 in 100 times
Good & realistic error rates: 1 in 1000 times
Communications:
80% of communications is metacommunications
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________

BASIC CONCEPTS

SHELL H
S L E
L
Software: procedure,checklist
Liveware: human
Environmental: environment
Hardware: equipments
Swiss cheese Model (J.R)
Accidents can be traced, align on “cheese slices”= accident opportunity
-Organisational influences
-Unsafe supervision
-Preconditions for unsafe acts
-Unsafe acts themselves

Safety culture (J.R)

Promote safety culture: upper levels of management provide required resources
Informed Culture: Safety-related data are actively collected analysed, important information spreaded
ASAP
Learned culture: learns from mistakes committed by others
Reporting Culture: everyone has to be ensure that committed errors and theoretical concerns can be
voiced without risking negative consequences for oneself
Just Culture: not sanction inadvertent violation of safety-related procedures and appreciates the com
of errors observed in oneself or others, protects of punishment for those who inadvertently
endangered flight, don’t confuse with “non punitive culture”
Flexible Culture: able to adapt to changes in operational environment, as far as they affect flight safety
Open culture: term associated with national culture, good safety culture; superiors are usually more
willing to listen.
Close Culture: unlikely to question made by captain.

TEM: threat error management:

2 basic groups: Environmental and organisational:
Error: action or inaction leads to deviations from organizational or operational
person intentions or expectations
Errors:
A/C handling errors
Procedural errors
Comm errors
 Undesired A/C States:
A/C handling
Ground Nav
Incorrect A/C config

Threats:
Environmental: weather/ATC/Airp/Terrain
Organisational: op press, maintenance…
Latent threat: not directly obvious/observable

JUST LEARN
Pilot is skilled: trains/practices regularly, know how to manage itself, knows how to keep resources in
reserve for coping with the unexpected.
Responsible of safety: safety manager and safety review board
Civil aviation: Open field Knowledge and Culture
80’s more accidents: GPWS
Human Factor: 70/80% accidents
Most accidents caused by: lack of good judgement
High power distance culture is: generally avoided
Safety culture is a subset of national culture
ICAO annex: combination of skills knowledge and attitudes required to perform a task..
Risk should be decreased as commercially possible
Most toxic fumes: cabin furnishing and trimming, wiring
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ATMOSPHERE
Atmosphere:
N2 - 78.1%
O2 - 20.95%
CO2 - 0.03%
other - 0.92%
General law: P.V/T
Henry: Bubbles, decompression sickness, gases dissolve liquids
Dalton: Total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the gases
in mixtures
Charles: Volume of a gas at constant pressure is proportional to its absolute temperature.
Boyle: V/T= constant while Temp is constant (balloon to illustrate)
Gas diffusion: oxygen transfer to alveoli, mix until the concentration is balanced
Decompresion Sickness (DCS)
-According to Henrys law
Symtoms: (appear 10min to 12h)
-Pain in the joints (bends)
 -The creeps: gas bubbles under skin
-The chokes: accompanied by pain in the lungs
-The staggers symptoms of DCS bubbles affecting nervous system
Highest risk:
-18.000ft and above // VS >500ft/min

Hypoxia: (starts 6.000ft)

Dalton law
Condition which the body is deprived of adequate oxygen supply (insufficient O2)
Can also be caused due to a lack of red blood cells in the blood decreasing the ability of the
haemoglobin of carrying O2
Symptoms: fatigue, lassitude, somnolence, dizziness, headache, breathlessness, euphoria,
impaired visual acuity, weakness, incr HR, loss of touch, loss of consciousness,
Cyanosis: blue lips and nails
Phases:
-Indiferrent: 0 to 6.000ft
-Compensatory: 6.000 to 15.000ft
-Disturbance: 15.000 to 20.000ft
-Critical: 20.000 to 23.000ft
Types of hypoxia:
-Hypoxic Hypoxia: insufficient O2, most encountered with altitude
-Hypaemic/Anaemic Hypoxia: caused by reduction in the oxygen carrying capacity
-Stagnant Hypoxia: inadecuate oxygen circulation
-Histotoxic Hypoxia: interference with oxygen, alcohol, narcotics (1oz alcohol=
2.000ft)
CO poisoning
-Breathing CO leads on CO poisoning and hypoxia
-CO affects O2 by binding to the haemoglobin before O2 does
-Symptoms: headaches, dizziness, nausea, rapid heartbeat
-Several days are needed to recuperate from CO poisoning
-Presents an extremely dangerous situation as the the blood may not be able to carry
sufficient oxygen
Oxygen percentages
MSL - 10.000ft= outside air only 8.000ft
= 3/4 SL
10.000ft - 34.000ft= mixture 100% oxygen and outside air 18.000ft= 1/2 SL
34.000ft - 40.000ft= pure 100% oxygen equal to 10.000ft 36.000ft= 1/4 SL
>40.000ft= 100% oxygen positive pressure
oxygen % in troposphere indepent altitude
Oxygen saturation
partial pressure decrease= decreasing pressure and increasing altitude and interference with
CO
Radiation
 Galactic(cosmic): Records=49.000ft
-Is steady and has variations (reasonably predictably)
-Caused by galactic particles
-Average = amount of background radiation
-Factors: Exposure time, altitude, latitude, solar flares
Solar:
-Increases and decreases in cycles of 11 years
-Caused by solar flares
Time of Useful Consciousness (TUC)
20.000ft - 30/5min Thresholds
25.000ft - 2/3min // 3/5min Reaction:
7000ft
30.000ft - 1/2min Disturbance:
10/12.000ft (compensatory actions)
35.000ft - 30/90s // 30/60s Critical:
22.000ft
40.000ft - 15/20s
43.000ft - 5/15s
Respiration
External: Alveoli and blood capillaries of lungs
Internal: Blood capillaries of the body and the tissue fluid
Ozone (O3)
Ozone layer (15km to 40km height) absorbs more UVB than UVA
Modular ionic oxygen
Concentration increase above 40.000ft (Tropopause)
Ozone in cabin can be eliminated by: ozone-converters
Cold (Hypothermia)
Normal Adult Temp: 36.5/37.5 Face cold: intense vasoconstriction
Mild - 37-35 (moderate shivering)
Moderate 35-32 (shivering violent, muscle misscoord)
Severe 32-24 (shivering stop, difficult speaking, sluggish thinking)
Hypothermia most significant features: apathy
*Danger of extreme cold: sleepiness occurs with a feeling of contentment or apathy
Blood //Pressure (mmHg)
*Normal range 60-100bpm //
Blood pressure (systolic/diastolic) 120/80 mmHg
Depends of: Work of the heart, peripheral resistance, elasticity of arterial walls, blood volume
and viscosity
Arteria: In // Vein: out
Muscle is supplied with blood from: coronary arteries
Heart: two atria, two ventricles and four valves
Make up about 7% of weight, density of 1060kg/m3
Pressoreceptors located: carotid and aortic arterial vessels
Plasma: (54.3%) = transports CO2, nutrients, hormones (part without cell)
Red Blood Cells (45%) = transport oxygen
White Blood Cells (0.7%) = fight infection
Platelets = clot blood
Acceleration G’S
+Gz= grey out, tunnel vision,black out, G-lock Z= vertical axis radial acceleration
+3Gz= tunnel vision Y= lateral axis
-Gz= red vision X= longitudinal axis
+-Gy= not common commercial
+-Gx= climb/descent sensation, slight physiological consequences
*Long duration acceleration more than: 1s
*Physiological tests depend of: duration, onset, magnitude and direction of the G
forces.
*ability to withstand G: low blood sugar, obesity and hypoxia
Humidity
Absolute humidity: actual content of water vapor in a parcel of given air
Specific humidity: “mixing ratio” ratio of mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air
Relative humidity(RH): ratio between the actual content of water vapor and the max water
vapor allowable
RH(%)= (Actual water vapor / Maximum water vapor) x 100
Respiration
Respiratory system components: Oral-nasal passage, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and alveoli
CO2 regulates the rate of depth breath
Lungs: 5L each breathing cycle: 500ml
Volume of breathing is controlled by receptor cells in the brain
Alveoli: Water vapour 47mmHg // O2 103mmHg // CO2 40mmHg
Exhaled air: 15% O2 4% CO2
During gas exchange, partial pressure of CO2 In the alveoli is: lower than in the blood
Pulmonary artery O2 poor, rich CO2 heart - lungs
Total gas volume= tidal + inspiratory reserve + expiratory reserve + residual
healthy young residual volume of 1.2l
JUST LEARN

Breathing rate adult: 10/15 breaths/min

Pulse healthy adult: 60 to 80 bpm
CO attraction 200 times greater than
Small levels of CO have same effect as increase 8000 to 10000ft
Hyperventilation: consequence of CO2 level in blood rises
As altitude increases, the haemoglobin oxygen saturation decreases
Increase heart attack: Smoking, high colesterol, diet or high blood pressure
Stroke: occurs when blood supply to a certain part of the brain is cut off
Radiation variation 100mSv annual
Maximum dose radiation: 20mSv
Cabin humidity varies between 5 and 15%
Not fly after blood donation: blood rate too low // not donate before flight: more susceptible hypoxia
//susceptible fainting
Cabin pressure: not exceed 6000ft to 8000ft
Exercise: 3 times a week
Breath faster= blood turns more alkaline
Gas or fluid extremely corrosive and corrosive: Mercury
Thin sheet of paper or 0.2cm of water can absorb: Alpha radiation
Healty people usually compensate for lack of oxygen up to 10.000-12.000ft
After scuba diving: 24h
Rapid decompression, wait till next flight: 12h
Heart attack: total blockage of coronary artery = death
Angina: symptom of reduced oxygen supply to heart, narrowing or obstruction of coronary artery
Hypertension: physiological condition involving increased pressure on the arteria walls
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SENSORY SYSTEM
Vision (sight) RGB
-Processed at cortex
Myopia: shortsigness (front image)
Empty field Myopia: lack of distant focal points
Eye coats: Optic system:
Hypermetropia: longsigness (reverse image)
-Sclera -Cornea
Astigmatism: Inability to focus different meridians simultaneously.(Cornea Shape) -Uvea
-Lens
Presbyopia: rigid crystalline
-Retina -Vitreous humour
-Accomodation decrease

- >50 years
-Farsightness
-lens harden (crystalline)
Presbyacusis: loss of high tones with age
Visual acuity: hypoxia, age, angular distance from fovea
-allow discrimination of: 1 minute of arc
-is best within 2-3 degrees of the fovea and reduces rapidly towards the periphery
Cataract: clouding of the lens
Night vision: affected by hypoxia, directly related with smoking
Glaucome
-Disturbed light adaption
-Progressive narrow visual field
 -Insidious onset
-increase intraocular pressure
-detected pressure testing
Cones
-Center of retina (fovea more center)
-Color sensitive
-Day vision (10s)
-Photophobic vision
Fovea:
-best day vision, no night vision at all
-located in the middle of the cones
-responsible of the ability of reading alphanumeric information
Rods (more sensitive) Effect of hypoxia
-Periphery of retina (peripheral vision)
-Black and white
-Night vision (30min)
-Scotopic vision
-Vitamin A “visual purple”
*when use both is called: Mesopic vision
*Dayblind spot: where no rods/cones are
Lens:
-Reduce bank after prolongated turns (gives appearance of turning to opposite side)
-Refractive power: 16-30 D
-
Contact lens: are better than glasses except if they got dry or hypoxia, they damage
the cornea
-Accomodation: change shape - focusing objects Near object: lens more spherical
Is controlled by the functioning of the cilidiary muscle around the lens
-Adaption: change diameter - adjusting to light
-Binocular vision: perception of depth, loom relief
Perception
Vestibular apparatus: semi-circular canals and otoliths
Vertical acc: semi-circular canals
Endolymph: with in the semi circular canals lag behind the accelerated canal walls
Vibrations cause blurred vision: eyeballs
Monocular depth cue: linear perspective
App to RWY
Upslope: higher feel (shallower) short LDG
Downslope: lower feel (steeper) long LDG
Seat-on-the-pants: proprioceptive system, muscles, tendons and joints gives info of relative
motion/position
Short-long: high
Long-short: low
Narrow: flare too late
Turns: start turn: feels like climb, later on like descend
Illusions
-Vestibular/somatogravic: Linear acceleration, sacculus/utriculus (+up,-down)
-Nystagmus: eyes make a slow movement in one direction and then fast jump in to the other

-Flicker vertigo: related with light, strobes in clouds, propeller with sun
-Graveyard spin: after finishing the turning to a side gives sensation turning to the other
-Coriollis illusion/pilot’s vertigo: turning head while making turn with A/C (stimulation of both
semicicular) (instrument-panel tumble)
-Black hole: night with no lights, or beyond rwy, gives appearance being low = crash
-Autokinetic: stationary light gives appearance of movement (6s to 12s)
-Fog and reduced visibility: looks further than real are
-White out: black out but oposite way, very clear a lot of light
-Illusion of relative movement: train perception, looks like the other is moving but you’re
actually in movement.
Hearing (Sound)
-Hearing Range: 20Hz to 20kHz
-Sound threshold pain: 120-140dB
NIHL: (Noise-Induced Hearing Loss) Noise level and duration
Exposure to high frequencies around 4.000Hz
Excessive exposure to noise can damage: the sensitive membrane I the cochlea
Conductive hearing loss:
Damage to the ossicles in the middle ear
Obstruction in the outer ear
Ruptures tympanic membrane
*Sound perception sequence
Pinna - External auditory - ear drum - ossicles - oval window - cochlea - auditory nerve
Nervous System
*Nervous cells are capable of: slow generalised activity and efficient and rapid activity
ANS: part of PNS that acts as a control system below level of consciousness, and controls vital
functions.
Affects: HR, arterial pressure, body temp, digestion, respiration, salivation, sweating, diameter
pupils…
-General Adaption Syndrome (GAS): reaction to a change environment, stress
PNS:(Peripherical) sensory inputs to the CNS through sensory and motor nerves
Neuronal signals travel: electrical axon, chemical synaptic gap
Knowledge Brain
Eyes(see): 70-80% Brain stem
Ears(hear): 10-15% Cerebellum
Nose(smell): 2-4% Cerebrum
Skin (touch): 2%
Tongue(taste) 1-2%
Listen: 500 and Speak 125
Air Sickness/kinetosis
Sensory conflict within the vestibular system companied by nausea, vomiting and fear, cold
sweat (mareo de toda la vida de dios)

Just Learn
Scan for traffic during daylight: systematically focus on different segments
Cornea: clear portion of the eye where the light passes through
Illusion while taxiing: relative movement and cockpit height above ground
Eustachian tube: equalise pressure // connects middle ear and the throath
Small sacs located in vestibule are: chalk-like crystals called otoliths
Factors affected by night vision: age, cabin alt >8.000ft/5.000ft, smoking, alcohol // Hypoxia
Cues for height during flare: apparent speed and texture of ground objects
Empty field myopia: attempting to scan for traffic in a featureless sky
Body resonance: 1 to 100Hz
Indifferent zone: approx 1.500m
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HEALTH &
HYGIENE
Antihistamines
-Drowziness/Diziness
-Headache
-Blurred vision
-Constipation
-Dry mouth
-Difficult passing urine
-Confussion
Body Mass Index (BMI) Normal: 18.5 to 25
BMI= mass/height^2 Overweight: 25 to 30
Obese 30 to 40 (each 5, one class)
Energy: proteins, hydrates(carbs) and fat
Body loses water via: skin and lungs, kidneys
Sleep
*Sleep stage is associated with body temperature
Stage 1: slow eye moves (easily awakened)
Stage 2: “sleep spindles” 45-55% sleep
Stage 3/4: “deep sleep” no REM, physical recover fatigue, orthodox REM becomes
longer with repeated se
Stage 5: “paradoxial sleep” 70 to 90min
*Sleep drugs have effect: on reaction time and perceptional
awareness

Jet-lag
stop-over less than 24h, maintain home based cycle
 stop-over more than 24h, move to new time ASAP
1-1.5h a day
Credit debit system:
1h sleep 2h credit awake
max 16h awake
once credit reaches 0 need to sleep and will get debit
Circadian rhythms: 24/25h
Alcohol 0.01-0.15/h
Calculate alcohol absorption(h)= Alcohol (mg) /15
EASA max alcohol: 0,20mg/100ml
No alcohol 8h prior duty
Smoke
Smoking: hypaemic hypoxia
Tar: carcinogen substance
One pack of cigarettes reduces oxygen capacity transport by 5-8%
Diseases
Malaria: night mosquitoes
Others: day mosquitoes
Contaminated water: typhoid, cholera, dysenteria
Hepatitis A: food/water prevent: vaccine
Dysbarism: medical problem
Diabetes II: Genetic, overweight, low physic level
Barodontalgia/Aerodontalgia: tooth pain when climbing due to release of air trapped in toots
Eustachian tube // Hearing
Flying with cold: the tissue around the nasal end of the Eustachian tube is likely to be swollen
Connects throat and middle ear
Aerotitis: hearing difficulties // Vansalva
Hyperthermia:
Complete adaptation to the heat in a hot country takes 14 days
39ºC Impairment of physical and mental performance
Body lowest temp: 05:00 body lowest: 18:00
Performance:
loss after 20’ nap
Intellectual: better late morning
Phychomotor: better afternoon

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Excessive caffein 250g/dry
Barotrauma: cold and rapid descend
Lumbar support: produce disc allowing natural
Trace elements: obtained by balance diet
Rate desincroncronisation: best west
Two-day stay hospital: seek advice AME
Disinsecting: 30’ prior landing
Exercise in high temp: painful muscle and abdominal cramps
Hypoglycaemia: (low blood sugar) headache, lack of concentration, sweating, hunger
Calories Breakfast: 25% daily calories
Most dangerous type of incapacitation in flight is: develops slowly and gradually (insidious)
Dysbarism: fancy term for traped gas problems
Gastrointestinal upsets: Vomiting, nausea, pain in the stomach
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Human info processing

Memory
-Episodic: events, experience, suggestion
-Semantic: good knowledge, longer time
(Both together deductive memory)
-Working: 5 to 9 items (7 items) 30s without rehearsing
-Short term memory: sensitive to interruptions
-Long term memory: rehearsal, complex perceptual motor skills (unlimited)
Attention
-Selective: ability to focus on one stimulus without being distracted
-Divided: highest level of attention it refers to the multitasking

Motor programs
-Skills are learn by practice and repetition
Cognitive-Associative-Automatic
Behaviour (Jens Rasmussen)
SRK model
Skills Rules Knowledge
Skill-based:
-Action slip: involve selection of an incorrect action or situation (lowering gear when
you’re intention was flaps)
-Environmental capture: error made in associating an specific action to same
environment (you hear clear to land, and think you’re cleared to)
Rule-based:
-Standard procedures
-Error of commission: incorrect identification of an error (horn due to
despressurization, they think was due to incorrect config, so they dismiss it)
Knowledge-based:
-Decisions require pilot to evaluate situation and all available info and then use
they’re knowledge to make a decision (LDG Hudson, Cpt Sully)
Maslow pyramid:
Self actualisation -“born to do”
your passion
 Esteem needs -
looking for stability
Social needs -
Needs of love and belongingness
Safety needs -
safety and security
Physiological needs - biological
needs (sleep, sex, food)
Wickens theory: human operator does not have one single information processing resource, sequently
Just learn
Main adverse effect of expectation mechanism: confirmation bias (interprete new info in order to
confirm the precondition)
Inexperienced pilots refer to info more than experts when carrying out the same task
Lasting change of behaviour due to: practice and experience
Capacity of concentration is limited
Facilitate and reduce time to long term memory: mentally rehearse info before needed
Learning: ability to gather knowledge or skill
Human info processing system is compared with computers because: flexibility
*Cocktail party: ability to pick up relevant info unintentionally (hear name/callsign/break-break)
Hypovigilance: is a state which individuals need higher levels of sensory stimulation to stay awake (it
may occur at any moment of the flight)
Modelling: learning task by imitation
Top-down illusion: larger or smaller than reality (Haze)
Vigilance: monitoring without lapses of attention, sustained attention
Environmental capture: skill to be executed in an environment in which it is frequently exercised, skill
adquired in one a/c switched to another
Gestalt law: how objects are mentally organised
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Human Error

Faults: action perform, but intent was incorrect

Slips: action not perform, but intent was correct
Omissions: action perform, missing procedure
Violations: action perform, deliberately violating rules
Errors

Active error: L-H

Commission error: “hurry up”
Approach to human error: human fallible and minimise human error
Error chain: when multiple factors lead in an accident
Social: pilot error
ergonomic: design
economic: money
 knowledge: experience
Error code:
-simplex: 1-100
-duplex: 1-1000
Tolerance: minimise effects of errors, system tolerant to errors

Decision making: choose between alternatives

Vulnerable: error is allowed to affect a whole system
Situational awareness: pilots perception equals reality
Human errors: considered as being inevitable
Improvement of human reliability should entail: an effort to understand the causes and find means to
recovery
Mental models from: past experience and learning
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Decision
Making
D-etect (necessary action)
E-stimate (the significance of action)
C-hoose (desirable outcome)
I-dentify (actions needed to achieve the option)
D-o (the necessary action)
E-valuate (the effects of action)
*(Generic model most likely to come up with solution)

Adapting to time constraints: preparation of action and prioritisation of tasks

Dangerous characteristic to perception: is extremely resistant to correction
Decision making process: amount of time available has influence on the analysis
“Laissez-faire”: let them do, not MCC
Representation errors: pilot doesnt have proper info about the environment/situation
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Cockpit Management
Non verbal comm: supports comm (70% of comm)
Groupthink: more or less unconscious support of a solution from group member

Increase in WL leads in shorter and less frequent exchange info

Model of “transactional analysis”:

Adult: rational person, talking reasonably and degree of assertiveness
Parent: controlling (do what child wants) nurturing (caring and concerned)
Children: free child (un-self-aware, vulnerable) rebel (ratkid)
*Best cockpit com: adult-adult
Synergy: clarification of responsabilities, build up from start of the mission and maintained till
debriefing

Role: function and behaviour associated with the particular role

Peer pressure: self-imposed pressure by trying to live up to others expectations
Ground accidents: listening errors
Leadership behavioural: Blake and Mouton
Relationship: first consideration, others feelings, rank high in decision making progress
Task: first consideration, achieve a goal
High relationship Low task = nurturing
Low relationship High task = aggresive
Types of authority gradient cockpit:
Autocratic: authoritarian
“Laissez-faire”: let them do
Synergistic: teamwork
Followership: ability or capacity to actively follow a leader
Active listening: Listening and expressing understanding of what person has said, understand another
persons perception and sensitivity
Intra-personal conflict: conflict within oneself
Procedural consistency: development of procedure make pilot more effective and reliable
Role - Behaviour // Status - Hierarchy
Metacommunication: 80%
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Human Behaviour
Hazardous attitudes:
Antidote:
Anti-authority: Don’t tell me what to do Follow
rules. They’re usually right
Impulsivity: Do something….. quickly! Think
first
Invulnerability: It won’t happen to me It
could happen to me
Macho: Don’t worry ill do it
Taking chances is foolish
Resignation: What is the use? Im not
helpless, ill make difference

Personality: refers to unique physiological characteristics

Human behaviour determined by: biological characteristics, social environment and cultural influences
Phobic: may require successful treatment
Personality: develops on the first few years
*Behaviour is the outward result of personality and attitude is adaptable
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Human
Overload & Underload

Stress: unresolved press/strain/force getting on individual psychological or mental and human

response.
may include psycho and physic elements and are able to evaluate and cope with it
-Positive: Eutress
-Negative: Distress

Factors:
Symptoms
Noise Rate of response (+) Pupil
dilate dry mouth
Radiation Heart Rate (+)
inhabit digestive breathing difficulties
Acceleration Sweating
inhabit proteins
Extreme temp
Cognitive coping: rationalise the stress factor
Beyond Break Point: Arousal and stress increase // Before break point: best place to cope with a
difficult task
Stress Exposure Training (SET): totally unexpected situation cannot be created (because is part of the
training)
Workload: depend of expertise, is measured in crew resources (60% resources)
Cognitive coping: ignoring or rationalising stress factor
Anxiety: affects judgement attention, memory and concentration
Regression: correct actions being forgotten and substituted for procedures learnt in the past
Reversion/regression: cognitive resources are not focus in a task // “negative automatisation”
Fatigue: Tiredness
Motor Skills (-)
Long term memory (+)
Acute: SHORT Therm (psychological roots)
Chronic: LONG Therm

General Adapt Syndrome (GAS) -Alarm: Adrenaline (+)

Acts in ANS* -Resist: Cortisol (+) (Fats
transformed in to sugar)
*(autonomic nerv sys) -Exhaust: Adrenaline (-) Cortisol (-)
Performance:
Degraded by high and low arousal
establish strategies for planning, automating and managing resources (real time)
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Cockpit
Automation
Complacency: self confidence, disconnect
Mode error: automatisation
Blinkered attention: concentrated on a particular aspect instead of the whole
Passive monitoring: pilot watching what’s going on rather than analysing and constant checking
Disadvantage to communication: that autopilot resolves problem without pilot notice it
Man over Machine: Creativity, innovation, adaptability
Slip: routine error