Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118

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Journal of Archaeological Science

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/jas

Early Neolithic household behavior at Tell Seker al-Aheimar

(Upper Khabur, Syria): a comparison to ethnoarchaeological
study of phytoliths and dung spherulites
Marta Portillo a, *, Seiji Kadowaki b, Yoshihiro Nishiaki c, Rosa M. Albert d
a
Research Group for Palaeoecological and Geoarchaeological Studies, GEPEG, Department of Prehistory, Ancient History and Archaeology,
University of Barcelona, c/ Montalegre 6-8, 08001 Barcelona, Spain
b
University Museum, Nagoya University, Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8601, Japan
c
The University Museum, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
d
ICREA/GEPEG, Department of Prehistory, Ancient History and Archaeology, University of Barcelona, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Tell Seker al-Aheimar, located in the Upper Khabur, northeastern Syria, is an early Neolithic settlement
Received 22 May 2013 that chrono-culturally spans from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) to the Proto-Hassuna period
Received in revised form (Pottery Neolithic). The site is one of the largest and best documented Neolithic sites in this relatively
29 October 2013
poorly investigated region in Upper Mesopotamia. Among the occupation sequence of the site with well-
Accepted 30 October 2013
defined architectural phases, the Late PPNB settlement (late 8th to early 7th millennium cal. BC) is
characterized by an extensive mud-brick architecture, which comprises large multi-roomed rectangular
Keywords:
buildings and gypsum-plastered floors. Our research questions center on the identification of domestic
Levant
Pre-Pottery Neolithic B
activities and their spatial distributions in the site through integrated studies of phytoliths and dung
Archaeobotany spherulites using an ethnoarchaeological approach.
Phytoliths The ethnoarchaeological research included the study of agricultural and dung remains obtained from
Dung spherulites modern domestic structures from the top of the tell and the modern village of Seker al-Aheimar. The
Farming examined activity areas and materials comprised indoor storage and processing spaces, open areas,
Ethnoarchaeology fireplaces, building materials and livestock enclosures. We use the ethnoarchaeological results to
interpret the distributions of both phytolith and spherulite concentrations in archaeological contexts in
terms of domestic activities that took place both within and outside buildings. Building spaces and their
adjacent areas showed material accumulation resulting from household debris, including food remains,
construction materials, matting, hearth cleaning and fuel residues. Indoor activities included the use of
certain areas for storage, cereal-processing and cooking. The identification of livestock dung remains in
fireplaces suggests the use of dung as a fuel source. We compare these new results with our previous
studies of different phases and areas of the site to discuss diachronic and spatial trends in Neolithic
household behaviors at Tell Seker al-Aheimar.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The archaeological mound of Tell Seker al-Aheimar is located on
the flood plain of the Khabur River, a major tributary of the
Euphrates; about 45 km northwest of Hassake in northern Syria,
near the Turkish border (Fig. 1). The landscape adjacent to the site is
relatively flat, and can be regarded as a broad alluvial plain formed
by the Khabur. The climate is semi-arid with a low annual mean
precipitation of about 300 mm (Oguchi et al., 2008). Excavations at
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: mportillo@ub.edu, marta.portillo@hotmail.com (M. Portillo).
the site carried out by a team directed from the University of Tokyo,
have evidenced a continuous sequence of occupation spanning
from the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB) to the Proto-Hassuna
period (Pottery Neolithic) (Nishiaki and Le Mière, 2005; Nishiaki,
2007, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012; Nishiaki et al., 2013), which makes
of this site one of the few suitable for investigating cultural de-
velopments of early Neolithic farming communities in the Upper
Khabur region.
Our research aims to identifying domestic activities and their
spatial distributions in the Late PPNB settlement through inte-
grated phytolith and dung spherulite studies. Livestock dung is
commonly found in many settlements, especially after the
domestication of herd animals. We know from ethnographic and

0305-4403/$ e see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.10.038
108 M. Portillo et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118
Khabur
Seker
al-Aheimar
E
C
B
290m
A Modern
295m
Local path
0 50m
Fig. 1. General plan of the site showing the location of the excavation areas. The inset
shows the location of the site in northeastern Syria.
ethnoarchaeological studies that livestock dung is worldwide used
for various purposes, primarily manure, fuel source, temper and
building material (Miller, 1984, 1996; Reddy, 1998; Anderson and
Ertug-Yaras, 1998; Sillar, 2000; Simpson et al., 2003; Zapata et al.,
2003; Tsartsidou et al., 2008). The combined use of phytoliths,
microscopic bodies composed of pure amorphous silica present in
the tissues of many vegetal species (Pearsall, 1989; Piperno, 1988,
2006); dung spherulites, calcitic particles that form in animal
guts (Brochier et al., 1992; Canti, 1997, 1998, 1999); and/or other
micro-remains (Shahack-Gross, 2011 and references therein) in
several studies has demonstrated the advantages of using an inte-
grated ethnoarchaeological approach for recognizing the organi-
zation of the space in archeological sites (Shahack-Gross et al.,
2003, 2004; Harvey and Fuller, 2005; Tsartsidou et al., 2008,
2009). Dung assemblages have been delineated through such mi-
crofossils in varied contexts, including animal enclosures (Albert
and Henry, 2004; Matthews, 2005, 2010; Shahack-Gross et al.,
2005; Albert et al., 2008; Portillo et al., 2009) and midden deposits
(Matthews, 2005, 2010; Shillito, 2011a; Shillito et al., 2011), but also
in combustion structures such as hearths and ovens in many Near
Eastern sites (Albert and Henry, 2004; Matthews, 2005, 2010).
The presence of the modern village of Seker al-Aheimar and its
irrigated cotton and wheat fields, gardens, cemetery and other
associated domestic structures on the mound, has limited the
excavation area to the northern slope facing the river. Among the
five different excavation areas defined at this 4 ha archaeological
mound (designated as Sectors A to E), Sector C represents one of the
largest investigated. This excavation area comprises seven 10 m by
10 m squares (Squares E10 to E13 and portions of Squares D11 to
D13). Level 14 in Square E13 (Late PPNB, late 8th to early 7th
millennium cal. BC) has revealed two massive mud-brick building
complexes placed along an eastewest long axis (Fig. 2). The Late
PPNB architecture is defined by the presence of rectangular mud-
brick buildings with large rooms of about 9 by 6 m with gypsum-
plastered floors. These building complexes also present well-
defined architectural features, such as gypsum-lined bins and
channels running from indoor floors to open spaces. These archi-
tectural features are common in many Neolithic Near Eastern
settlements.
Previous phytolith and spherulite studies at the site (Portillo
et al., 2010) centered on Level 10 in Square E13, a residential area
village
nal
Can
Fig. 2. General plan of the excavation area, Sector C, Square E13, with indication of the
samples location.
characterized by two fragmentary rectangular buildings running
also in the eastewest direction, and Levels 17 and 18 in Squares D11,
D12 and E12, an open-air area defined by clusters of fireplaces
(Nishiaki, 2010, 2011, 2012; Nishiaki et al., 2013). The aim of this
previous research was to evaluate the potential use of plant and
dung microfossils for delineating room use and domestic activities
in living floors, open-air activity areas and grazing and foddering of
herds. Phytolith distributions in Level 10 floors were indicative of
the activities that took place on them, including cereal storage and
food-processing activities. Spherulite concentrations in certain
outdoor spaces and fills of oven-pit in Levels 17 and 18 suggested
the remains of dung fuels.
The research reported upon here enlarges these earlier studies
to include other building indoor and outdoor contexts. The Level 14
buildings in Square E13 examined here are much better preserved
than those of Level 10, therefore enabling a more accurate and
reliable functional reconstruction of room-use. The comparison of
these new domestic contexts (Level 14 of E13) to our previous
studies of similar building complexes (Level 10 of E13) and open-air
contexts (D11, D12 and E12) will provide the opportunity of char-
acterizing room-use patterns and household behaviors, and
therefore examining the continuity or change of the tradition in the
use of space and location of activities within rooms in this part of
the site.
In addition, we carried out ethnoarchaeological research in or-
der to better understand the manner in which both vegetal and
dung microfossils were embedded in the examined archeological
contexts and their implications to site formation processes. For this
purpose, the research included the study of selected materials ob-
tained from the top of the tell and the modern village of Seker al-
Aheimar. At present, Seker al-Aheimar comprises around thirty
households with an average family size of about eight members.
The economic production of the area is based on crops of cereals
and cotton, and on livestock farming. Despite a modern irrigation
system, which dominates the agricultural production of the region
in the present-day, the village still maintains a certain traditional
way of life in many aspects. Most of the neighborhoods are
 M. Portillo et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118 109

Table 1
Provenance, description of samples and main phytolith and spherulite results obtained from modern samples.

Sample description % AIF Phytoliths 1 g % Grass % Phytoliths % Multicelled Spherulites 1 g of ashed

of AIF phytoliths weathering phytoliths material/sediment

Sheep/goat fresh dung pellet from fallow wheat field 63.5 141,000,000 91.1 4.8 15.8 249,000,000
Cattle fresh dung pellet from fallow wheat field 66.9 133,000,000 89.8 6.9 18.1 145,000,000
Sheep/goat fresh dung pellet from livestock penning 50.1 145,000,000 93.9 2.6 12.3 400,000,000
Hen fresh dung pellet from corral 31.1 12,000,000 91.9 4.7 13.9 48,000
Dog fresh dung pellet 26.9 8,000,000 89.8 3.5 11.8 15,000,000
Mice fresh dung pellet from open-air storage area 33.6 1,400,000 88.3 4.6 17.4 0
Sheep/goat burned dung from tannur oven 41.9 41,000,000 79.4 12 10.6 467,000
Soil from fallow wheat field 60.3 460,000 85.7 7.2 2.8 32,000
Soil from sheep/goat penning 32.1 10,000,000 88.3 5.4 12.4 5,000,000
Soil from hen corral 40.7 4,000,000 83 7.6 7.6 115,000
Soil from storage open area 50.6 4,000,000 91 2.7 1 254,000
Mud brick 52 630,000 80.7 7.1 3.7 49,000
Soil from mud brick preparation area 55.1 1,060,000 85.2 7.4 4.8 13,000
Fuel residues from tannur oven 44.1 12,000,000 68.7 17.4 14.7 75,000

arranged along the riverbank, and two of the households are placed
on the top of the archaeological mound. Households comprise a
main building and a backyard where fruits and vegetables are
cultivated for daily intake. Few traditional houses are still built from
mud bricks, and animal dung can be a component of building
material (i.e. roofing, floors, wall plasters). Open enclosures, pens
and storage structures in most of the households are generally built
from mud and vegetal materials (primarily straw and cotton
branches). Ground floors are commonly used as stables for animals,
such as cows. Few families own sheep and goats that may be kept,
either in the ground floors or in open enclosures, providing milk,
yogurt, cheese, wool, manure and meat to the family, whereas the
surplus is sold to the market. Livestock diet depends mainly on
purchased concentrated feed and irrigation crop by-products. In
summertime herds graze the cereal stubble, which remains after
the harvest in the fields. Despite herds are a source of dung material
for a varied range of purposes, such as fuel, its use could be
regarded as relatively residual in this area. Dung is only used as fuel
in mud baking cylindrical installations among traditional house-
holds possessing sheep and goats. Otherwise, cotton production
provides abundant raw material with excellent combustion prop-
erties, being clearly the main source of fuel in the research area.
We compared and contrasted then the results obtained from the
study of selected activity areas and materials from the modern
village of Seker al-Aheimar (i.e. agricultural by-products, building
materials, dung and dung-products). Sampling of modern mate-
rials, as well as laboratory extraction procedures, was conducted in
a manner similar to that of archaeological contexts.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
other remains derived from dung-products (i.e. fuel). This study
involves primarily ruminants (sheep, goat and cattle), which are
abundant spherulite producers (Canti, 1999), but also other animals
commonly present in households (dog, hen and rodents). The
examined samples comprised as well mud construction material,
which is made from alluvial sediments and agricultural by-
products and also livestock dung, in domestic areas of the mod-
ern village. Dung-products also included burned dung pellets used
as fuel from a tannur cylindrical baking oven (Haaland, 2007),
which is still in use in the modern village and surrounding areas.
Burning temperatures were measured in order to evaluate phyto-
lith and spherulite preservation in ovicaprine dung pellets used in
the same oven installation. Temperature was recorded using a
portable digital thermometer (Yokogawa M&C Corporation, TM20).
This study includes as well a modern plant reference collection
from the Institute of Archaeology e University College London
herbarium (UCL), which comprises several wild and domestic Near
Eastern species from the Pooid subfamily e wheat and the closely
related Aegilops genus, barley, oat and rye. The selected species
include the “founder crops” that started food production in the
region (Zohary and Hopf, 2001). Thirty-four cereal species were
analyzed according to their different parts (Table 2).
Thirty archaeological samples from Level 14 of Square E13 were
selected for phytolith and spherulite studies (Table 3). Level 14 is
characterized by two well-preserved rectangular mud-brick
Table 2
Modern plants analyzed according to their different parts and main phytolith
quantitative results.
Species Wild/ Part of the Number Ratio individual/
crop plant phytoliths 1 g multicelled
of dried material phytoliths

Aegilops caudata W Husk 10,300,000 0.2

Fieldwork was carried out during the summer season in 2008 Stem 4,400,000 2.1
and 2010. The sampled modern materials and activity areas Aegilops crassa W Husk 700,000 0.6
comprised indoor storage and processing spaces, open areas, fire- Aegilops speltoides W Husk 2,400,000 0.3
places, building materials and livestock enclosures. Table 1 lists all Aegilops squarrosa W Husk 4,100,000 0.3
Aegilops triuncialis W Husk 1,500,000 0.3
the modern samples analyzed, with indication of their provenience
Aegilops umbellulata W Husk 5,700,000 0.6
and the main phytolith and dung spherulite results. In total four- Avena barbata W Husk 3,600,000 0.1
teen modern samples were analyzed. Stem 300,000 1.5
Dung material is readily available in the village and surrounding Leaves 2,300,000 0.5
areas due to the presence of free ranging animals. Sampling of Avena byzantina C Husk 6,800,000 0.7
Stem 2,100,000 1.9
modern dung remains took into account different environments Avena fatua W Husk þ awn 500,000 0.1
and locations where animals feed (i.e. crop fields, wild grasslands Avena sativa C Husk 2,900,000 0.1
and marshy areas). Additionally, samples related to herding and Stem 1,800,000 1.6
other activities were also collected from several domestic features Leaves 4,600,000 0.7
on the area facing the site (i.e. livestock penning, corrals), as well as (continued on next page)
110 M. Portillo et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118

Table 2 (continued ) 2.2. Phytolith analyses

Species Wild/ Part of the Number Ratio individual/
crop plant phytoliths 1 g multicelled Phytolith extraction and quantitative analyses followed the
of dried material phytoliths methods of Albert et al. (1999). An accurately weighed amount of
Avena sterilis W Husk 3,900,000 0.2 1 g of dried sediment was treated with an equivolume solution of
Stem 900,000 1.2 3 N HCl and 3 N HNO3. Organic matter was oxidized with 33% H2O2.
Leaves 3,400,000 1.2 Phytoliths were concentrated using 2.4 g/ml sodium polytungstate
Avena strigosa C Husk þ awn 3,600,000 0.1
solution [Na6(H2W12O40)$H2O]. Microscope slides were mounted
Stem 1,200,000 0.6
Hordeum bulbosum W Husk þ awn 6,400,000 0.2 with 1 mg of dried sample using Entellan New from Merck. A
Stem 1,000,000 1.8 minimum of 200 phytoliths with diagnostic morphologies was
Leaves 3,500,000 0.3 counted at 400. Phytolith quantification was based on the acid
Hordeum murinum W Husk þ awn 900,000 0.3
insoluble fraction (AIF), which is the fraction that remains after the
Stem 1,400,000 13.8
Hordeum W Husk þ awn 1,200,000 0.02
carbonates, phosphates and organic material have been removed.
spontaneum Stem 300,000 0.04 AIF allows comparisons between samples independently of the
Hordeum vulgare C Husk 1,000,000 0.3 diagenesis suffered by the sediment. Morphological identification
Stem 700,000 0.8 was based on standard literature (Twiss et al., 1969; Brown, 1984;
Leaves 2,500,000 0.7
Piperno, 1988, 2006; Rosen, 1992; Twiss, 1992; Mulholland and
Secale cereale C Husk þ awn 5,100,000 0.2
Stem 500,000 2.8 Rapp, 1992), as well as on modern plant reference collections
Secale cereale W Husk 3,200,000 0.2 (Albert and Weiner, 2001; Tsartsidou et al., 2007; Albert et al.,
ancestrale Stem 1,400,000 2.3 2012). The terms used follow the International Code for Phytolith
Secale cereale W Husk þ awn 3,900,000 0.3
Nomenclature, wherever possible (Madella et al., 2005).
vavilovii Stem 1,300,000 1.6
Secale montanum W Husk 6,900,000 0.2
Grass phytolith morphotypes were compared to a modern plant
Stem 2,500,000 0.9 reference collection. Plants were divided into their different parts
Leaves 10,700,000 0.6 (inflorescence, stem and leaves) and cleaned by washing in
Triticum aestivum C Husk þ awn 3,400,000 0.3 deionized water and sonication. Dried material was burned in a
Stem 1,100,000 2.7
muffle furnace at 500  C for 4 h and then weighed and treated with
Leaves 4,000,000 0.6
Triticum boeticum W Husk 5,300,000 0.3 1 N HCl. Slides were prepared and examined following the
Stem 3,200,000 3 described procedures using an Olympus BX41 optical microscope.
Triticum compactum C Husk 50,000 0.02 The estimated phytolith numbers are based in abundances per
Stem 300,000 0.1 weight of dried plant part (Table 2).
Leaves 600,000 0.1
Triticum dicoccoides W Husk 700,000 0.1
Stem 400,000 0.2 2.3. Analysis of dung spherulites
Triticum dicoccum C Husk 3,400,000 0.1
Stem 2,100,000 0.3 The methods used are similar to those proposed by Canti (1999).
Triticum durum C Husk 6,400,000 0.4
About 1 mg of dried sediment was mounted on a microscope slide
Stem 2,700,000 1.5
Leaves 20,600,000 0.6 with Entellan New (Merck). Slides were examined at 400 under
Triticum macha C Husk 4,400,000 0.2 the optical microscope with polarized light. Spherulite numbers
Stem 700,000 0.5 were related to the initial sediment weight. Archaeological samples
Leaves 7,900,000 0.6 were compared to the modern dung remains, soils and dung-
Triticum C Husk 9,800,000 0.3
monococcum Stem 5,600,000 3
products from the site area listed in Table 1. Modern dried dung
Triticum spelta C Husk 200,000 0.03 pellets were ashed at 500  C for 4 h. Both phytoliths and spherulites
Leaves 8,000 1 from modern dung samples were treated and examined following
Triticum C Husk 2,700,000 0.1 the above-described methodology.
sphaerococcum Stem 30,000 0.5
Triticum timopheevi C Husk 900,000 0.1
Stem 200,000 0.1 3. Results
Leaves 150,000 1.4
Triticum turgidum C Husk 100,000 0.1 The main results are described separately below.
Stem 170,000 8
Leaves 300,000 0.1
Triticum uratu W Husk 1,600,000 0.1
3.1. Modern plant reference collection
Stem 1,600,000 0.3
Triticum vavilovii C Husk 2,700,000 0.4 Table 2 lists all the analyzed plant species according to their
Stem 1,000,000 1.3 different parts, with indication of the number of phytoliths per
gram of dry organic material and the ratio between individual
(single-celled phytoliths) and multicellular structures (multicelled
buildings with gypsum-plastered floors. The northern building or interconnected phytoliths). The latter data may provide infor-
(about 9 by 6 m) showed a large room in the center, which was mation regarding the extent of silicification of these plants (Rosen
surrounded by a series of smaller rooms. The central floor con- and Weiner, 1994; Albert and Weiner, 2001) as well as of preser-
tained an underground gypsum-lined bin located at the south- vation conditions, although the breakdown of multicellular forms
western corner. Also remarkable is the presence of an oven, a basalt may be dependent on varied taphonomic processes, including
vessel and a gypsum-plastered channel running from the central laboratory procedures such as acid extraction (Jenkins, 2009;
room to an open space located in the east. The southern building, Shillito, 2011b). The examined thirty-four cereal species comprise
which was only excavated for its northern part, showed a similar five of the major Near Eastern genus: wheat (Triticum), goatgrass
architectural pattern, including combustion features and a plas- (Aegilops), barley (Hordeum), oat (Avena) and rye (Secale).
tered channel running also from indoor floors to an open space. Phytolith abundances were relatively high in most of the sam-
Samples were taken during the 2010 excavation season. ples (over half a million phytoliths per 1 g of dried material,
 M. Portillo et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118 111

Table 3
Description of samples and main phytolith and spherulite results obtained from Square E13, Level 14.

Sample Context % AIF Phytoliths % Grass % WM % MC Spherulites 1 g Description

number number 1 g of AIF phytoliths phytoliths phytoliths of sediment

S2 784 53.5 52,000 57.8 11.1 0 46,000 Room fill, northern building
S6 793 53.4 52,000 80.2 6.7 2.9 27,000 Oven pit ashy fill, between buildings
S7 792 59 54,000 69.4 17 0 21,000 Oven pit ashy fill with cobbles, between buildings
S8 779 55.6 143,000 69.3 17.8 1.5 154,000 Outdoor area between buildings
S9 790 54.3 109,000 63.7 9.9 3.7 22,000 Floor, southern building
S12 791 38.4 746,000 83.7 7.2 1.2 0 Plastered floor, southern building
S13 790 57.9 185,000 66.5 10.5 2.1 52,000 Floor, southern building
S14 791 39.1 3,390,000 88.1 2.3 7.2 22,000 Plastered floor, southern building
S15 679 38.3 343,000 74.4 14.7 4.7 31,000 Hearth, whitish compact sediment southern building
S16 679 42.3 431,000 80.1 10.1 28.3 49,000 Hearth, dark sediment southern building
S18 789 59.2 216,000 58.8 21.6 2 22,000 Floor, southern building
S19 797 57.4 360,000 75.2 11.5 9.7 41,000 Oven pit ashy fill with cobbles, between buildings
S21 768 53.4 206,000 80.1 7.5 1.3 61,000 Floor, northern building
S22 784 48.4 254,000 73.3 15.5 1.4 0 Floor, northern building
S24 794 42.2 787,000 80.9 9.9 1 0 Plastered floor, northern building
S26 799 51.4 293,000 81.8 10.7 1.8 25,000 Fill of the gypsum plaster channel, southern building
S27 798 44.2 2,120,000 87 4.6 4.1 11,000 Gypsum plaster channel, southern building
S29 801 48.7 240,000 81.4 8.6 0.4 0 Fill of the oval gypsum plaster bin, northern building
S37 786 38.7 2,900,000 91.1 2 2.9 0 Plastered floor, northern building
S39 786 39.1 1,077,000 85.3 4.8 5.2 0 Plastered floor, northern building
S41 774 53.2 110,000 82.1 8.8 0.9 0 Mud floor, northern building
S42 786 34.4 630,000 85.8 6.9 8.6 160,000 Plastered floor, northern building
S44 774 47.4 164,000 86.7 4.8 1.4 13,000 Mud floor, northern building
S46 786 41.4 518,000 81.3 9.4 4.2 0 Plastered floor, northern building
S48 786 47 584,000 85.4 78 5.4 60,000 Plastered floor, northern building
S50 669 40.2 153,000 75.6 11.7 1.5 26,000 Hearth, northern building
S51 796 47.4 131,000 84.6 6.6 0 45,000 Eastern outdoor space
S57 812 49.8 146,000 75.3 12.6 1 20,000 Eastern outdoor space
S65 788 37.3 296,000 84.6 10.1 1.3 13,000 Oval gypsum plaster bin, northern building
S67 798 46.7 1,095,000 88 6.1 0.3 0 Gypsum plaster channel, outdoor southern building

Table 2). In general, inflorescences yielded more phytoliths than the
leaves and more specifically than stems, with the exceptions of
Avena sativa, Hordeum murinum, Hordeum vulgare, Secale mon-
tanum and some wheat species: Triticum aestivum, compactum,
macha and turgidum. This general pattern is consistent with data
obtained from different reference collections that have followed a
similar quantitative approach (Tsartsidou et al., 2007; Albert et al.,
2008).
The results of the morphological study are also in agreement
with published data. In general, the dominant morphotypes were
individual cells, mainly epidermal short cells (rondels) and long
cells with smooth or decorated margins (dendritic, echinate, pol-
ylobate, verrucate, etc.) (Fig. 3aec). Other morphologies noted were
epidermal appendage hairs, papillae, prickles, stomata and bulli-
form cells, although in lower amounts. Multicellular structures
were also abundant and showed a great morphological diversity

Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of phytoliths and dung spherulites identified in the samples. Pictures taken at 400, (d) under crossed polarized light, XPL (aed modern reference
samples; eef archaeological samples). (a) Long cell with dendritic margin from the husks of Aegilops squarrosa, (b) short cell rondel from the stems of Triticum dicoccoides, (c) short
cell tower from the husks of Hordeum vulgare, (d) spherulites from sheep/goat fresh dung pellet, (e) multicellular structure from the husk of wheat (Triticum sp.), (f) multicellular
structure from common reed (Phragmites sp.).
112 M. Portillo et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118

(long cells with different decorated margins and other elements Table 4 (continued )
such as short cells, papillae, hairs, stomata, etc.). Among grasses, Species Wild/ Part of the % EA % % % % % SHC
phytolith assemblages varied morphologically depending on the crop plant PA LCD LCE LCPO LCV
plant part: inflorescences, stems and leaves. In general, in- Triticum aestivum C Husk þ awn 15.3 7.7 8 0.3 40.6
florescences were represented by up to 50% of all the individual Stem 0.3 0.3 16.6
long cells with decorated margins. In multicelled phytoliths, this Leaves 0.2 1.9 1.6 3.9 3.3 29.3
percentage increased to around 60e70%. In some cases such as H. Triticum boeticum W Husk 4.9 14.8 20.5 16.8
Stem 0.6 0.3 0.3 1.3 6.1
murinum and T. turgidum, the proportion constituted up to 90% of
Triticum compactum C Husk 29 0.6 0.1 48.6
all the counted morphotypes. The multicelled phytolith morphol- Stem 6.1 56.8
ogies, concerning size and width of the wave of the long cells’ walls, Leaves 2.1 0.9 0.3 1 74.2
amounts and attributes of papillae and shape of the cork cells, are Triticum dicoccoides W Husk 20.5 11.2 11.6 39.5
Stem 6.5 67.4
consistent with those characterized by Rosen (1992) for most of the
Triticum dicoccum C Husk 3.8 15.1 24.9 1.5 39.4
studied genera and by Tsartsidou et al. (2007) for Secale specimens. Stem 0.5 0.8 64.8
An interesting morphotype is the long cell dendritic which is Triticum durum C Husk 0.3 14.9 16.9 0.8 20.8
abundantly produced in inflorescences and has been proposed as Stem 0.3 0.2 0.5 32.8
being characteristic of grass domestic species from northern Levant Leaves 0.7 3.3 4.9 2.5 31.6
Triticum macha C Husk 16 22.8 9.4 0.3 18
with a value around 7e8% of all the morphotypes present (Albert
Stem 3.9 0.7 1.4 1.1 42.6
et al., 2008). In our reference collection, dendritic cells were Leaves 0.2 1.3 8.9 0.2 3.2 25
abundantly identified in most of the examined wild and domestic Triticum C Husk 3.2 19.2 20.6 1.6 19.4
taxa (ranging from 7 to 27% of all the morphotypes, Table 4, Fig. 3a), monococcum Stem 2.9 0.2 0.8 0.6 9.8
Triticum spelta C Husk 37.5 0.3 2.3 37.2
including the wild Aegilops species. Conversely, in specific domestic
Leaves 4.7 16.3
Triticum C Husk 17.1 15.4 24.2 0.8 27.3
sphaerococcum Stem 9.3 1.4 1.4 39.1
Table 4 Triticum timopheevi C Husk 13.1 7.6 25.6 1 31.8
Main phytolith morphologies from the modern plant reference collection and cor- Stem 6.8 0.3 0.1 66.9
respondence to the ICPN morphotypes (Madella et al., 2005). EA PA ¼ Epidermal Leaves 8.3 0.9 0.9
appendage papillae (ICPN papillae cell), LCD ¼ Long cell dendritic (dendritic), Triticum turgidum C Husk 26.9 0.6 3.6 0.9 53
LCE ¼ Long cell echinate (elongate echinate long cell), LCP ¼ Long cell polylobate Stem 0.9 3.1
(cylindrical polylobate), LCV ¼ Long cell verrucate, SHC ¼ Short cell (rondel short Leaves 13.7 0.8 0.4 0.6 0.2 58.8
cell/trapeziform short cell). Triticum uratu W Husk 31.4 5.3 21.1 0.9 29.3
Stem 1.3 0.4 0.6 1.5 65
Species Wild/ Part of the % EA % % % % % SHC Triticum vavilovii C Husk 7.2 6.5 10.7 2.3 26.9
crop plant PA LCD LCE LCPO LCV Stem 3.3 0.9 0.5 1.9 28.4
Aegilops caudata W Husk 8.7 15.7 8 2 31.3
Stem 0.2 0.2 2.4 9
Aegilops crassa W Husk 10.3 6.8 3.9 1.6 8.4
Aegilops speltoides W Husk 14.2 7.6 8.4 2.7 25.7
and wild Avena, Hordeum and Triticum species dendriform mor-
Aegilops squarrosa W Husk 4.4 22.5 20.5 0.4 20.1 photypes were scarce or even absent (T. compactum).
Aegilops triuncialis W Husk 5.7 26.9 8.5 0.2 26.6 Other common morphotypes are short cells, which are pro-
Aegilops umbellulata W Husk 6. 14.8 10 0.8 18.3 duced in inflorescences, stems and leaves and were abundantly
Avena barbata W Husk 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.6 85.5
identified in most of the samples (more than 80% of all the mor-
Stem 0.3 34.4
Leaves 0.2 1.1 0.4 57.5 photypes in Avena barbata husks and Hordeum spontaneum stems,
Avena byzantina C Husk 0.5 19.4 14.6 4.6 8.9 Table 4). In contrast, Aegilops and Secale samples yielded relatively
Stem 0.8 0.8 0.4 3.3 11.9 lower percentages (less than 40%). Most of these morphologies
Avena fatua W Husk þ awn 8.8 14.9 31.3 3.7 19.5 corresponded to rondels (Fig. 3b), although tower short cell mor-
Avena sativa C Husk 0.8 0.2 1 6.4 74.5
Stem 3.8 1.4 0.2 23
photypes (Fig. 3c) were also observed in low amounts in the Hor-
Leaves 0.5 0.8 2.9 1.5 10.7 1.6 deum genus.
Avena sterilis W Husk 6.1 0.5 0.4 1.5 69.3
Stem 0.6 0.6 1.7 21.4
Leaves 0.5 1 2.3 4.3 21.8 3.2. Modern materials from the site area
Avena strigosa C Husk þ awn 3.2 16.8 7.1 4.6 48.5
Stem 0.2 0.7 2.3 48.2 As expected, concentrations of both phytoliths and spherulites
Hordeum bulbosum W Husk þ awn 16.3 7.2 23.6 22.4
in modern fresh dung samples were very high (several millions per
Stem 2.6 2.6 0.2 21.9
Leaves 0.3 9.3 2.1 18.6 gram of material) in relation to the concentration found in soils,
Hordeum murinum W Husk þ awn 25.4 4.6 16.9 0.3 18.8 dung-products and the archaeological assemblages. The results
Stem 0.5 1 2.1 show that phytolith abundances were overwhelmingly high in
Hordeum W Husk þ awn 36.9 1.3 14.2 0.4 31.5
ruminant dung pellets characterized by a summer grass-rich diet
spontaneum Stem 0.3 92
Hordeum vulgare C Husk 4.5 4.3 42.1 19.4 (over 100 million phytoliths in 1 g of AIF, Table 1). These remains
Stem 0.3 4.5 0.2 4.2 21.3 belong mostly to mixed feeders with close food preferences that
Leaves 0.2 1 25 4.5 grazed on cereal stubble in fallow agricultural fields. Phytoliths
Secale cereale C Husk þ awn 2 20.7 7.6 1.2 37.6 from grasses constitute over 90% in all the analyzed fresh dung
Stem 0.2 0.9 2.4 16.3
pellets. It should be noted as well the differing amounts of grass
Secale cereale W Husk 9.1 11.7 16.6 0.2 0.7 23.2
ancestrale Stem 0.2 0.2 26.7 phytolith multicellular structures, which were high in relation to
Secale cereale W Husk þ awn 3.7 15 17.1 2.8 17.8 the amounts observed in modern soils and archaeological contexts.
vavilovii Stem 0.4 5.7 21.9 Accordingly to previous studies which show that faecal spherulites
Secale montanum W Husk 4 22 18.9 2.5 20.7
are mostly produced by ruminants (Brochier et al., 1992; Canti,
Stem 0.2 0.9 1.4 21.7
Leaves 1.6 0.3 3.3 26.8
1997, 1999), our results from the modern reference samples,
showed spherulite concentrations extremely high in fresh dung
 M. Portillo et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118
pellets from these animals (ranging between 145 and 400 million
spherulites per gram of ashed dung, Fig. 3d). This concentration is
high even when compared to compacted soils of modern livestock
pens derived from the same animal producers. Spherulite preser-
vation (see Canti, 1999) is particularly susceptible to dissolution in
acidic pH burial conditions when organic matter degrades. The only
sample in which spherulites were not observed is the mice dung
pellet obtained from an open-air straw storage area located on top
of the archeological mound.
The mud construction samples yielded phytolith abundances
between 0.6 and 1.2 million in 1 g of AIF, whereas spherulites were
also present although in low numbers (less than 50,000 spherulites
1 g of sediment, Table 1). In addition, other silica biogenic micro-
fossilsediatoms, were also noted in these latter samples, as well as
in most of the examined fresh livestock dung pellets.
The temperatures measured within the burning fuel at the
bottom of the tannur baking oven reached values around 610  C in
7 min. Dung spherulites are well preserved at temperatures of less
than w650e700  C (Matthews, 2010; Shahack-Gross, 2011). Both
types of plant and faecal micro-remains were abundantly observed
in burned ovicaprine pellets used as fuel in the same oven instal-
lation (around 41 m phytoliths/1 g of AIF and 0.5 m spherulites 1 g
of sediment). In contrast, much lesser amounts were found in ashy
fuel remains obtained from the bottom of the installation (about 3
times less phytoliths and 6 times less spherulites). This latter
sample yielded higher proportions of dicotyledonous phytoliths
(around 14% of all the counted morphotypes) also associated to a
relatively high dissolution degree (over 17%).
3.3. Archaeological results
The mineralogical results, which are expressed here as the acid
insoluble fraction (% AIF, Table 3), showed different siliceous dis-
tributions in the examined sediments. Samples from gypsum-
plastered floors from both buildings and from the plaster bin
showed low proportions (S12, S14, S37, S39, S42 and S65, less than
40%), meaning that carbonates, phosphates and other non-siliceous
minerals were major components. This mineralogical distribution
likely relates to the lime plaster composition, primarily calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) (Barnett, 1991; Goren and Goldberg, 1991;
Kume, 2013). The lower sedimentary deposits of the Khabur
terrace consisted mostly of calcite, whereas the outer sedimentary
layers comprised both calcite and gypsum (Oguchi et al., 2008).
Phytoliths were abundant in most of the samples (from 100,000
to 3.4 million phytoliths per gram of AIF, Table 3). The only ex-
ceptions are samples S2, S6 and S7, which yielded a lesser amount
(52e54,000 phytoliths/1 g of AIF). The morphological results indi-
cated that grasses dominated in most of the samples with around
70% or more of all the counted morphotypes (Table 3). Grass phy-
toliths were divided into the different anatomical plant parts in
which they were formed (Fig. 4). Phytoliths derived from the floral
parts were abundant in specific samples (up to 30% of all the grass
morphotypes in S12, S16 and S19). Inflorescences were character-
ized mainly by diagnostic papillae cells and decorated elongate
echinate and dendritic long cells. Decorated long cells were abun-
dantly identified in most of the samples (up to 27% of all the
morphotypes), whereas the proportion of long cell multicelled
phytoliths reaches 20%. This presence of decorated long cells is
somehow low when compared with our reference collection results
from the modern herbarium where they constitute up to 40% of the
counted morphotypes in all five examined major Near Eastern
cereal genera. In any case, their preservation in our archaeological
samples, even though they are considered as delicate or fragile cells
(Cabanes et al., 2011), together with low proportions of weathered
phytoliths in most of the samples, are indicative of a good state of
113
preservation of the examined assemblages. According to the short
cell morphologies, grasses belonged to the C3 Pooid subfamily
(Fig. 3b). Chloridoids and panicoids were also observed, although in
much lesser amounts. In addition, tower short cell morphotypes
(Fig. 3c), which according to our modern reference collection data
are commonly produced in the Hordeum genus, were also noted.
Multicellular phytoliths derived mostly from pooid grasses,
including major cereals such as wheat (Fig. 3e) were observed in
most of the samples, although in low proportions (under 10% of all
the morphotypes, Table 3). Interestingly, sample S16 obtained from
a hearth located in the southern building yielded a higher per-
centage of anatomically connected phytoliths (around 28%),
implying also good preservation (Jenkins, 2009; Shillito, 2011b).
Diagnostic phytoliths from the husks and culms of pooids, wild
weed grasses and common reeds (Phragmites sp., Fig. 3f) were
observed in this latter sample.
Dung spherulites were noted also in some of the samples in
different amounts. The richest sediments were samples S8 and S42
(more than 150,000 spherulites/g sediment), which show also large
abundances of grass phytoliths (over 0.6 million phytoliths/g of AIF
in the above mentioned S42, Table 3). In contrast, spherulites were
scarce or even absent in samples S14, S27, S37, S39 and S67, which
contained the largest grass phytolith abundances by far (over 1
million phytoliths/1 g of AIF). These microfossil associations sug-
gest that plants were deposited onsite as dung and non-dung
sources respectively.
Additionally, diatoms were also noted in most of the plastered
floor samples from the northern building (S37, S39, S42, S46, S48)
as well as in the plastered channel samples from the southern
building (S27 and S67). In sample S42 diatom abundances overlap
not only with large numbers of phytoliths, but also with dung
spherulites. Diatoms can be found in fresh or salt water or even in
almost any condition where moisture is present, including deposits,
soils, mud-bricks and plasters, but they can also be present in dung
(Brochier et al., 1992; Shahack-Gross, 2011). These biofossils were
also observed in our modern samples from the site vicinity,
including fresh dung pellets and building materials as well (see
mud-brick samples).
4. Discussion
One of the main traits noted in the examined archaeological
building floors and room fills is that none of these microfossil
concentrations (phytoliths, dung spherulites and diatoms) were
overwhelmingly high, emphasizing the relatively cleanliness at the
time of abandonment. This general pattern has also been observed
in our previous studies of plastered and cobbled building floors in
Level 10 of Squares E12 and E13 (Portillo et al., 2010). The consistent
cleaning of the room floors at the PPNB levels of Seker al-Aheimar
has also been suggested by a distribution analysis of micro refuse
such as obsidian chips and animal bone fragments (Kadowaki et al.,
2013). This cleanness contrasts with the results obtained from the
open-air activity area in Squares D11, D12 and E12 (Levels 17 and
18), which yielded the richest phytolith and spherulite concentra-
tions obtained up to date in the site. The relatively cleanness of
most of the studied well plastered floors is probably related to
sweeping, as proposed for other early farming and urban Near
Eastern sites (Matthews and Farid, 1996, Matthews et al., 1997;
Shahack-Gross et al., 2005; Matthews, 2010).
Despite this general lower presence of micro-remains in indoor
building spaces (floors, plastered deposits and even in their fills),
the differences in assemblages and distributions are indicative of
the activities that might have taken place. The presence of different
microfossils such as phytoliths, dung spherulites and diatoms in the
building areas, likely represents material accumulation resulting
114 M. Portillo et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118

Fig. 4. Anatomical origin of the grass phytoliths identified in the samples.

 M. Portillo et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118
from daily household debris being indicative of behavioral re-
siduals (i.e. food remains, matting, fuel residues), and perhaps also
the remains from trampled and/or swept construction materials.
Our modern reference data show that plant material from agri-
cultural sub-products (most commonly straw) as well as other
biogenic fossils such as spherulites (derived from additional dung
material) and diatoms (related to water used in mud preparation
and/or to dung content), are embedded in the matrix of mud-
bricks, mud-plaster fabrics and material used to temper mud
walls. Cattle dung pats are plastered onto the walls and floors of
livestock pens, corrals and domestic installations in the village of
Seker al-Aheimar today, including the two modern households
placed at the top of the tell. Regarding mud construction materials,
there is considerable ethnographic and archaeological literature
(i.e. pisé, plasters and bricks), being constituted primarily from local
alluvial sediments, water and temper, including vegetal matter and
other many materials, such as dung, which may have been intro-
duced either deliberately or accidentally during the manufacturing
process (Goldberg, 1980; Goodman-Elgar, 2008; Matthews, 2010;
Love, 2012). Ethnoarchaeological studies in different geographical
areas show that livestock dung can be a component of floors, mud-
bricks, wall plasters and roofing (Shahack-Gross et al., 2003; Zapata
et al., 2003; Tsartsidou et al., 2008; Portillo et al., 2012).
The general phytolith distributions showed concentrations of
grasses from the Pooid subfamily in the central and the south-
western rooms of the northern building (samples S24, S37 and S39,
Fig. 2), as well as in floors from the southern portion of the main
room in the second building (S12 and S14). The comparison of these
phytoliths with our modern plant reference material indicates that
they most probably belong to major cereals, such as wheat and
barley. Furthermore, most of the identified multicellular phytoliths
originate from wheat (Fig. 3e). Also remarkable is the presence of
specific short cell morphologies (Fig. 3c), which according to our
modern plant reference data, are common in wild and domestic
barley species. This is consistent with charred macrobotanical ev-
idence from the Late PPNB occupation of the site, which is clearly
dominated by domestic specimens, such as emmer wheat and
domestic barley (Tanno and Willcox, 2012). The presence, in minor
number, of chloridoids and C4 panicoids phytoliths in indoor
plastered floors could be related to building material, matting
basketry and/or cording. It is well known that plant-made con-
tainers have long played a major role, even after the adoption and
development of early pottery. At Neolithic Çatalhöyük in central
Anatolia, panicoids have been associated with decayed baskets and
wheat husk phytoliths concentrations in domestic contexts, and
interpreted to have been used for storing or cooking cereals and
possibly other plant foods as well (Rosen, 2005). In addition, phy-
tolith evidence for the use of basketry has been also found in
specific storage contexts at this early farming site (Ryan, 2011).
The examined building spaces may relate to domestic behav-
iors which involved cereal exploitation, storage, cooking, crop-
processing and food preparation activities. Sediments extracted
from the bottom wall of a gypsum-lined oval bin located at the
southwest corner of the central room in the northern building, as
well as from the plastered floor surface adjacent to the bin (sam-
ples S65 and S42, respectively, Fig. 2), showed concentrations of
husk cereal phytoliths. The presence of such plastered-bin feature
in this central space of the building may be related either to cereal
storage or crop-processing (i.e. de-husking activity area). In addi-
tion, concentrations of chaff phytoliths suggesting storage were
found in the room at the southeastern corner (sample S21). A
similar function is suggested to the room at the southwestern
corner (S24), and possibly the adjacent rooms next to the east
showing a relative higher inflorescent phytolith proportion, which
appears to have been used as cereal storage areas as well (S37 and
115
S39). Interestingly, panicoids were also observed in larger amounts
in these latter rooms, thus suggesting the remains of matting/
basketry in a crop-storage context as previously argued. No evi-
dence from dung micro-remains was found in these latter three
sediments. This interpretation is supported also on their small and
narrow space and the fact that buildings with a similar layout from
the upper levels almost always had storage structures at the south
and the southeast (Nishiaki, 2011). These distribution patterns
were also observed in previous studies conducted in Squares E12
and E13 (Portillo et al., 2010). The northern building in Level 10
showed also concentrations of husk cereal phytoliths in the plas-
tered floor of the central space, whereas chaff phytoliths sug-
gesting storage were noted at the narrow southern room, in
addition to the presence of panicoids at the southeastern corner.
The results reported here (Level 14) compared to those from the
upper Level 10, emphasize the similarities between both levels in
relation to the patterned room use and activities within the
building, as well as the continuity of the same tradition in this area
of the site.
Although direct evidence of microfaunal remains from rodents
has not been examined yet, their presence in building areas may
add support to storage activities. Rodent remains have been noticed
as well in other contexts of the site (Gourichon, personal commu-
nication). This relationship between cereal storage and rodent ac-
tivity has also been evidenced in early agricultural Near Eastern
communities based on the presence of rodent bones, teeth, tooth
marks on archaeological objects and charred dung pellets (Cucchi
et al., 2005, 2012; Willcox and Stordeur, 2012). The identification,
in our modern reference from the site area of mice fresh droppings,
of well-preserved anatomically connected phytoliths associated to
the absence of spherulites, could be related to a possible differential
digestibility process of rodents, although it needs to be addressed
more systematically in order to evaluate confidently factors
involved in the formation and preservation of these microfossils.
Despite the archaeological importance of these key commensal
species, indicators of sedentism, and food storage and security,
rodents (i.e. house mice, rats) are still rarely investigated in many
sites. Its study would shed more light regarding early farming
patterns.
Another significant trend is whether certain of the examined
assemblages may relate to the use of dung as fuel. Dung spherulites
were observed in all the combustion features, including hearths
located in building spaces and oven-pits ashy fillings from the
outside area between both buildings. The correlation between large
amounts of grass phytoliths and spherulites in most of these con-
texts indicate that these plants derived, at least in part, from live-
stock dung sources. The zooarchaeological record reveals the
presence of small ruminants, sheep and goat, in the Late PPNB
levels of the site (Helmer et al., 2007), which according to published
data and our modern dung reference results are major spherulite
producers. Phytolith assemblages consisted mainly of leaves and
the stems of Pooideae, wild weed grasses and common reeds
(Phragmites sp.). Moreover, previous studies at an open-air activity
area in Squares D11, D12 and E12, defined by clusters of fireplaces in
Levels 17 and 18, were characterized by large phytolith amounts in
association to rich spherulite abundances (Portillo et al., 2010).
Phytolith results showed a similar composition dominated also by
pooids and reedy grasses. These findings were interpreted as the
remains of fuels. The presence of both dung and Phragmites micro-
remains in oven and midden deposits has been also related to fuel
remains in other early farming contexts (Rosen, 2005; Shillito,
2011a), although reeds may have many different uses, such as
matting and building material (Stevanovic, 2008; Kansa et al.,
2009; Ryan, 2011), with a significant input to fuel and/or fodder,
as observed here.
116 M. Portillo et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 42 (2014) 107e118
In our ethnographic samples burned sheep and goat dung pel-
lets obtained from a tannur baking oven, contained also large
amounts of both dung and plant microfossils. As described above,
the examined material corresponds to a summer grass-rich diet,
which is characterized by a high proportion of inflorescent phyto-
liths. In summer, ovicaprine herds commonly graze either on cereal
stubble in fallow agricultural fields and they are also foddered with
“waste” agricultural by-products (i.e. chaff, straw and husk mate-
rial, when available). Similar quantitative phytolith and spherulite
results have been reached in a recent work carried out with early
summer burned dung from northern Africa, where tannur or
Tunisian cooking and baking tabouna ovens commonly use ovica-
prine pellets as main source of fuel (Portillo and Albert, 2011;
Portillo et al., 2012).
In addition to dung, modern households in Seker al-Aheimar
also showed the use of cotton by-products, mostly dried
branches obtained from the last year harvest, as the main source of
combustible for baking activities in the area, as previously argued.
Consistently, phytoliths from the ashy remains at the bottom part
of the same oven installation showed the presence of dicotyle-
donous phytoliths in association to grasses into a minor relative
extent and lower spherulite content. This direct evidence of
sample represents the deliberately use of different fuel sources in
the same burning installation and the mixing of different fuel
types within the bottom. Traditional households keeping sheep
and goats in the village use such additional ovicaprine dung ma-
terial in baking ovens, due to its excellent combustible properties
which maintains oxidized burning conditions within fires for
longer than other sources of fuel, including cotton woods, ac-
cording to our informants. Ethnographic record shows that
burning contexts may vary depending on such factors as the di-
versity of combustion resources (different dung, non-dung sources
or both), variability in livestock diet and raw material availability,
as well as human behaviors regarding the selection of different
types of fuels.
In our archaeological study thus, the question relates to the
nature of the fuel used, dung composed of ingested grasses and
reeds, or a mixture of dung, which includes also phytoliths, pooid
grasses and reeds being used as fuel into different extent, as
observed in our modern reference baking oven samples. In any
case, further work integrating modern firing contexts coming from
different geographical regions, and comparing different dung
sources and mixed plant and dung material is required to better
understanding the nature of fuel residues and delineating behav-
ioral patterns in the archaeological record.
5. Conclusions
The research reported upon here sheds new light on household
behavior, regarding the exploitation of vegetal and animal re-
sources of PPNB populations in the Upper Khabur region. The as-
sociation between phytoliths and spherulites suggests that plants
were deposited in building areas both as dung and non-dung
sources. The contexts investigated showed storage areas, plas-
tered room floors that may be routinely swept, processing spaces,
as well as a varied range of household residues, including agricul-
tural products and by-products, fodder of domestic animals, live-
stock dung, building materials and fuel. Combustion residues may
relate either to a mixture of pooid grasses, reeds and dung used as
fuel, or the use of livestock dung derived from a grass and reed diet.
These findings showed room-use patterns, household behaviors
and some degree of continuity in the location of activities within
rooms of the investigated building complex; and therefore, the
examined contexts suggest the strength and significance of social
tradition in this farming community (Nishiaki, 2012).
In this study we have dealt with questions concerning domestic
activities and their contextual variation in space using an ethno-
archaeological approach. Beyond identifying activity areas and a
patterned room-use, these findings present an important approach
to evaluating the specific formation and depositional processes
responsible for these behavioral residuals. Despite present-day
conditions are not completely analogous to those of past times,
this ethnoarchaeological research provides a reference framework
for better understanding of early farming communities in this
relatively poorly investigated region.
Acknowledgments
This study was made possible by funding from the University
Museum, University of Tokyo, the Japan Society for Promotion of
Sciences (Grant 20401030 and 23720382), the Spanish Ministry of
Innovation and Science, MICINN (HAR2009-06147-E/HIST) and the
Catalan Agency for Universities and Research Grants, AGAUR
(SGR2009 1418). The research performed by the first author is
funded by the Juan de la Cierva Subprogramme (Spanish Ministry of
Competitiveness and Economy, MINECO). M.P. was a postdoctoral
fellow at the Institute of Archaeology, University College London
and a postdoctoral fellow from the AGAUR Beatriu de Pinós pro-
gram at the GEPEG, University of Barcelona. We are grateful to
many members of the excavations team for their helpful discus-
sions and comments: M. Le Mière (Maison de l’Orient, CNRS), K.
Tanno (Yamaguchi University), K. Shimogama (Ancient Orient
Museum), H. Sudo (Okayama Orient Museum), S. Kume (Kokushi-
kan University), S. Arai (University of Tokyo), Y. Tsuda (University of
Tokyo), R. Deeb (Damascus University) and R. Shams ed-Din
(Damascus University). We would like to thank D.Q. Fuller and
A.M. Rosen for providing the modern plants form the reference
collection of the Institute of Archaeology, University College Lon-
don. Thanks are extended to F. Hernández and L. Macià (GEPEG,
UB), who helped in the phytolith laboratory. We are also grateful to
K. Ahmo, the representative of the Department of Antiquities in
Hassake and A. al-Mohammed, the representative of the Depart-
ment of Antiquities in Aleppo, who helped in the reference material
sampling. Thanks are due to the site workers, and more especially
N. al-Khader, A. and A. al-Khader and, to their families and neigh-
bors, with special tanks to A. al-Hamadi family, for their kind help
with modern materials sampling and providing us with valuable
information on the site area and local traditional husbandry
practices.
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