Everything is Online

“Hey Shad, are you online?” “Of course, I am!” How many of us still think about whether or not
we are “online”? We expect our devices, cell phones, tablets, laptops and desktop computers to
always be connected to the global internet. We use this network to interact with our friends, shop,
share pictures and experiences, and learn. The internet has become such a part of everyday life
that we almost take it for granted.

Normally, when people use the term internet, they are not referring to the physical connections in
the real world. Rather, they tend to think of it as a formless collection of connections. It is the
“place” people go to find or share information.

Who Owns “The Internet”?

The internet is not owned by any individual or group. The internet is a worldwide collection of
interconnected networks (internetwork or internet for short), cooperating with each other to
exchange information using common standards. Through telephone wires, fiber-optic cables,
wireless transmissions, and satellite links, internet users can exchange information in a variety of
forms, as shown in the figure.

Everything that you access online is located somewhere on the global internet. Social media
sites, multiplayer games, messaging centers that provide email, online courses — all of these
internet destinations are connected to local networks that send and receive information through
the internet.

Think about all of the interactions that you have during the day which require you to be online.

Local Networks
Local networks come in all sizes. They can range from simple networks consisting of two
computers, to networks connecting hundreds of thousands of devices. Networks installed in
small offices, or homes and home offices, are referred to as small office/home office (SOHO)
networks. SOHO networks let you share resources such as printers, documents, pictures, and
music, between a few local users.

In business, large networks can be used to advertise and sell products, order supplies, and
communicate with customers. Communication over a network is usually more efficient and less
expensive than traditional forms of communication, such as regular mail or long distance phone
calls. Networks allow for rapid communication such as email and instant messaging, and provide
consolidation and access to information stored on network servers.

Business and SOHO networks usually provide a shared connection to the internet. The internet
is considered a "network of networks" because it is literally made up of thousands of local
networks that are connected to each other.

Small Home Networks

Small home networks connect a few computers to each other and to the internet.

Small Office and Home Office Networks

The SOHO network allows computers in a home office or a remote office to connect to a
corporate network, or access centralized, shared resources.

Medium to Large Networks

Medium to large networks, such as those used by corporations and schools, can have many
locations with hundreds or thousands of interconnected hosts.

World Wide Networks

The internet is a network of networks that connects hundreds of millions of computers world-
wide.

Mobile Devices
The internet connects more computing devices than just desktop and laptop computers. There
are devices all around that you may interact with on a daily basis that are also connected to the
internet. These include mobile devices, home devices, and a variety of other connected devices.

Smartphone
Smartphones are able to connect to the Internet from almost anywhere. Smart phones combine
the functions of many different products together, such as a telephone, camera, GPS receiver,
media player, and touch screen computer.

Tablet
Tablets, like smartphones, also have the functionality of multiple devices. With the additional
screen size, they are ideal for watching videos and reading magazines or books. With on-screen
keyboards, users are able to do many of the things they used to do on their laptop computer,
such as composing emails or browsing the web.

Smartwatch
A smartwatch can connect to a smart phone to provide the user with alerts and messages.
Additional functions, such as heart rate monitoring and counting steps, like a pedometer, can
help people who are wearing the device to track their health.

Smart Glasses
A wearable computer in the form of glasses, such as Google Glass, contains a tiny screen that
displays information to the wearer in a similar fashion to the Head-Up Display (HUD) of a fighter
pilot. A small touch pad on the side allows the user to navigate menus while still being able to
see through the smart glasses.
Connected Home Devices
Many of the things in your home can also be connected to the internet so that they can be
monitored and configured remotely.

Security System
Many of the items in a home, such as security systems, lighting, and climate controls, can be
monitored and configured remotely using a mobile device.

Appliances
Household appliances such as refrigerators, ovens, and dishwashers can be connected to the
Internet. This allows the homeowner to power them on or off, monitor the status of the appliance,
and also be alerted to preset conditions, such as when the temperature in the refrigerator rises
above an acceptable level.

Smart TV
A smart TV can be connected to the Internet to access content without the need for TV service
provider equipment. Also, a smart TV can allow a user to browse the web, compose email, or
display video, audio, or photos stored on a computer.

Gaming Console
Gaming consoles can connect to the internet to download games and play with friends online.

Other Connected Devices

There are also many connected devices found in the world outside your home that provide
convenience and useful, or even vital, information.

Smart Cars
Many modern cars can connect to the Internet to access maps, audio and video content, or
information about a destination. They can even send a text message or email if there is an
attempted theft or call for assistance in case of an accident. These cars can also connect to
smart phones and tablets to display information about the different engine systems, provide
maintenance alerts, or display the status of the security system.

RFID Tags
Radio frequency identification (RFIDs) tags can be placed in or on objects to track them or
monitor sensors for many conditions.

Sensors and Actuators

Connected sensors can provide temperature, humidity, wind speed, barometric pressure, and
soil moisture data. Actuators can then be automatically triggered based on current conditions.
For example, a smart sensor can periodically send soil moisture data to a monitoring station. The
monitoring station can then send a signal to an actuator to begin watering. The sensor will
continue to send soil moisture data allowing the monitoring station to determine when to
deactivate the actuator.
Medical Devices
Medical devices such as pacemakers, insulin pumps, and hospital monitors provide users or
medical professionals with direct feedback or alerts when vital signs are at specific levels.

Check Your Understanding - Network Types

Check your understanding of network types by choosing the correct answer to the following
questions.
1. What type of network allows computers in a home office or a remote office to connect to
a corporate network?

2. What can be placed in or on a package so that it can be tracked?

Types of Personal Data

We hear about data all of the time. Customer data, personal data, health data, census data, but
what exactly is data? Perhaps the simplest definition of data is that data is a value that
represents something. In the physical world, we represent data as numbers, formulas, alphabetic
characters, and pictures. Think about all of the data that exists just about you. Some examples
include birth records, baby pictures, school records, and health records.

Most people use networks to transmit their data in order to share with others, or for long-term
storage. Every time you hit “send” or “share” in an app or computer application, you are telling
your device to send your data to a destination somewhere on the network. Sometimes, data is
being sent by your devices and you may not even be aware that this is happening. Examples of
this are when you set up an automatic backup utility, or when your device automatically searches
for the router in a Wi-Fi hotspot.

The following categories are used to classify types of personal data:

 Volunteered data - This is created and explicitly shared by individuals, such as social
network profiles. This type of data might include video files, pictures, text or audio files.
 Observed data - This is captured by recording the actions of individuals, such as
location data when using cell phones.
 Inferred data - This is data such as a credit score, which is based on analysis of
volunteered or observed data.

The Bit
Did you know that computers and networks only work with binary digits, zeros and ones? It can
be difficult to imagine that all of our data is stored and transmitted as a series of bits. Each bit
can only have one of two possible values, 0 or 1. The term bit is an abbreviation of “binary digit”
and represents the smallest piece of data. Humans interpret words and pictures, computers
interpret only patterns of bits.
A bit is stored and transmitted as one of two possible discrete states. This can include two
directions of magnetization, two distinct voltage or current levels, two distinct levels of light
intensity, or any other physical system of two discrete states. For example, a light switch can be
either On or Off; in binary representation, these states would correspond to 1 and 0 respectively.

Every input device (mouse, keyboard, voice-activated receiver) will translate human interaction
into binary code for the CPU to process and store. Every output device (printer, speakers,
monitors, etc.) will take binary data and translate it back into human recognizable form. Within
the computer itself, all data is processed and stored as binary.

Computers use binary codes to represent and interpret letters, numbers and special characters
with bits. A commonly used code is the American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII). With ASCII, each character is represented by eight bits. For example:

 Capital letter: A = 01000001

 Number: 9 = 00111001
 Special character: # = 00100011

Each group of eight bits, such as the representations of letters and numbers, is known as a byte.

Codes can be used to represent almost any type of information digitally including computer data,
graphics, photos, voice, video, and music.

In the figure, enter up to five characters in the Characters field, then click the Show Me button to
see the ASCII bit translation. Click Reset to enter a different group of characters.

Common Methods of Data Transmission

After the data is transformed into a series of bits, it must be converted into signals that can be
sent across the network media to its destination. Media refers to the physical medium on which
the signals are transmitted. Examples of media are copper wire, fiber-optic cable, and
electromagnetic waves through the air. A signal consists of electrical or optical patterns that are
transmitted from one connected device to another. These patterns represent the digital bits (i.e.
the data) and travel across the media from source to destination as either a series of pulses of
electricity, pulses of light, or radio waves. Signals may be converted many times before ultimately
reaching the destination, as corresponding media changes between source and destination.

There are three common methods of signal transmission used in networks:

 Electrical signals - Transmission is achieved by representing data as electrical pulses

on copper wire.
 Optical signals - Transmission is achieved by converting the electrical signals into light
pulses.
 Wireless signals - Transmission is achieved by using infrared, microwave, or radio
waves through the air.

Click Play in the figure to see an animation of the three types of signal transmissions.

In most homes and small businesses, network signals are transmitted across copper wires
(cables) or Wi-Fi enabled wireless connections. Larger networks employ fiber-optic cables in
order to reliably carry signals for longer distances.
Check Your Understanding - Data
Transmission
Check your understanding of data transmission by choosing the correct answer to the following
questions.
1. A basic unit of information that represents one of two discrete states is known as a:

2. When using your credit card to make purchases at several places, the credit card
company can use this information to learn about your location and your preferences. This
type of personal data is known as:

3. Which of the following methods of signal transmission uses frequencies or pulses of

light?

Bandwidth
Streaming a movie or playing a multiplayer game requires reliable, fast connections. To support
these “high bandwidth” applications, networks have to be capable of transmitting and receiving
bits at a very high rate.

Different physical media support the transfer of bits at different speeds. The rate of data transfer
is usually discussed in terms of bandwidth and throughput.

Bandwidth is the capacity of a medium to carry data. Digital bandwidth measures the amount of
data that can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically
measured in the number of bits that (theoretically) can be sent across the media in a second.
Common bandwidth measurements are as follows:

 Thousands of bits per second (kbps)

 Millions of bits per second (Mbps)
 Billions of bits per second (Gbps)

Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics all play a role in
determining available bandwidth.

The table shows the commonly used units of measure for bandwidth.

h.

Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence

Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth
Kilobyte = Thousands of bits per
kbps 1 kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps
second
Megabyte = Millions of bits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps
Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence
Gigabyte = Billions of bits per second Gbps 1 Gbps = 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps
Terabyte = Trillions of bits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps = 1012 bps

Throughput
Like bandwidth, throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given
period of time. However, due to a number of factors, throughput does not usually match the
specified bandwidth. Many factors influence throughput including:

 The amount of data being sent and received over the connection
 The types of data being transmitted
 The latency created by the number of network devices encountered between source and
destination

Latency refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to
another.

Throughput measurements do not take into account the validity or usefulness of the bits being
transmitted and received. Many messages received through the network are not destined for
specific user applications. An example would be network control messages that regulate traffic
and correct errors.

In an internetwork or network with multiple segments, throughput cannot be faster than the
slowest link of the path from sending device to the receiving device. Even if all or most of the
segments have high bandwidth, it will only take one segment in the path with lower bandwidth to
create a slowdown of the throughput of the entire network.

There are many online speed tests that can reveal the throughput of an internet connection.

Check Your Understanding - Bandwidth and

Throughput
Check your understanding of bandwidth and throughput by choosing the correct answer to the
following questions.
1. The capacity of the medium to carry data is known as:

2. Which of the following measurements includes any latency encountered during data
transmissions?

3. Bandwidth is typically measured in:

Clients and Server Roles
All computers connected to a network that participate directly in network communication are
classified as hosts. Hosts can send and receive messages on the network. In modern networks,
computer hosts can act as a client, a server, or both, as shown in the figure. The software
installed on the computer determines which role the computer plays.

This figure depicts a client PC and a server connected through a cloud symbolizing the
Internet

Servers are hosts that have software installed which enable them to provide information, like
email or web pages, to other hosts on the network. Each service requires separate server
software. For example, a host requires web server software in order to provide web services to
the network. Every destination that you visit online is provided to you by a server located
somewhere on a network that is connected to the global internet.

Clients are computer hosts that have software installed that enables the hosts to request and
display the information obtained from the server. An example of client software is a web browser,
such as Internet Explorer, Safari, Mozilla Firefox, or Chrome.

Type Description
The email server runs email server software. Clients use mail client software, such as
Email
Microsoft Outlook, to access email on the server.
The web server runs web server software. Clients use browser software, such as
Web
Windows Internet Explorer, to access web pages on the server.
The file server stores corporate and user files in a central location. The client devices
File
access these files with client software such as the Windows File Explorer.

Peer-to-Peer Networks
Client and server software usually run on separate computers, but it is also possible for one
computer to run both client and server software at the same time. In small businesses and
homes, many computers function as the servers and clients on the network. This type of network
is called a peer-to-peer (P2P) network.
The simplest P2P network consists of two directly connected computers using either a wired or
wireless connection. Both computers are then able to use this simple network to exchange data
and services with each other, acting as either a client or a server as necessary.

Multiple PCs can also be connected to create a larger P2P network, but this requires a network
device, such as a switch, to interconnect the computers.

The main disadvantage of a P2P environment is that the performance of a host can be slowed
down if it is acting as both a client and a server at the same time. The figure lists some of the
advantages and disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks.

In larger businesses, because of the potential for high amounts of network traffic, it is often
necessary to have dedicated servers to support the number of service requests.

The advantages and disadvantages of P2P networking are summarized in the figure.

The figure shows a small network with three devices. A printer is on the left, connected to a print
sharing PC in the middle, which is also connected to a file sharing PC on the right. Under the
topology is a list of the advantages and disadvantage of peer-to-peer networking.

The advantages of peer-to-peer networking:

 Easy to set up
 Less complex
 Lower cost because network devices and dedicated servers may not be required
 Can be used for simple tasks such as transferring files and sharing printers

The disadvantages of peer-to-peer networking:

 No centralized administration
 Not as secure
 Not scalable
 All devices may act as both clients and servers which can slow their performance

Peer-to-Peer Applications
A P2P application allows a device to act as both a client and a server within the same
communication, as shown in the figure. In this model, every client is a server and every server is
a client. P2P applications require that each end device provide a user interface and run a
background service.

Some P2P applications use a hybrid system where resource sharing is decentralized, but the
indexes that point to resource locations are stored in a centralized directory. In a hybrid system,
each peer accesses an index server to get the location of a resource stored on another peer.
The figure depicts a Instant Message conversation with two machines communicating with each
other through the network. Each machine is acting as both a client and server. The caption states
Both clients can simultaneously send and receive messages.

Multiple Roles in the Network

A computer with server software can provide services simultaneously to one or many clients, as
shown in the figure.

Additionally, a single computer can run multiple types of server software. In a home or small
business, it may be necessary for one computer to act as a file server, a web server, and an
email server.

A single computer can also run multiple types of client software. There must be client software
for every service required. With multiple clients installed, a host can connect to multiple servers
at the same time. For example, a user can check email and view a web page while instant
messaging and listening to internet radio.
Check Your Understanding - Clients and
Servers
Check your understanding of clients and servers by choosing the correct answer to the following
questions.
1. A computer that has software installed to provide information such as email or web pages
to other devices is known as a:

2. A smart phone uses web browser software to request and display a web page. The smart
phone is considered what type of computer?

3. A network where two computers are communicating with each other as both a client and
as a server is known as a:

Network Infrastructure
The path that a message takes from its source to destination can be as simple as a single cable
connecting one computer to another, or as complex as a network that literally spans the globe.
This network infrastructure is the platform that supports the network. It provides the stable and
reliable channel over which our communications can occur.

The network infrastructure contains three categories of hardware components, as shown in the
figure:

 End devices
 Intermediate devices
 Network media
Devices and media are the physical elements, or hardware, of the network. Hardware is often the
visible components of the network platform such as a laptop, PC, switch, router, wireless access
point, or the cabling used to connect the devices. Occasionally, some components may not be so
visible. In the case of wireless media, messages are transmitted through the air using invisible
radio frequencies or infrared waves.

Make a list of the network infrastructure components installed in your home network. Include the
cables or wireless access points that provide your network connections.

End Devices
The network devices that people are most familiar with are called end devices, or hosts. These
devices form the interface between users and the underlying communication network.

Some examples of end devices are as follows:

 Computers (workstations, laptops, file servers, web servers)

 Network printers
 Telephones and teleconferencing equipment
 Security cameras
 Mobile devices (such as smart phones, tablets, PDAs, and wireless debit/credit card
readers and barcode scanners)

An end device (or host) is either the source or destination of a message transmitted over the
network, as shown in the animation. In order to uniquely identify hosts, addresses are used.
When a host initiates communication, it uses the address of the destination host to specify where
the message should be sent.

Click Play in the figure to see an animation of data flowing through a network.
Check Your Understanding - Identify End and
Intermediary Devices
1. Which two devices would be described as intermediary devices? (Choose two.)

2. Which two devices would be described as intermediary devices? (Choose two.)

3. Which two devices would be described as end devices? (Choose two.)

What Did I Learn in this Module?

Network Types

The internet is a worldwide collection of interconnected networks, cooperating with each other to
exchange information using common standards. Using the internet, we can exchange information
through telephone wires, fiber-optic cables, wireless transmissions, and satellite links. The
internet is considered a "network of networks" because it is literally made up of thousands of
local networks that are connected to each other. The internet connects more computing devices
than just desktop and laptop computers. There are devices all around that you may interact with
on a daily basis that are also connected to the internet.

Data Transmission

Volunteered data is created and explicitly shared by individuals, such as social network profiles.
Inferred data, such as a credit score, is based on analysis of volunteered or observed data.
Observed data is captured by recording the actions of individuals, such as location data when
using cell phones. A bit can only have one of two possible values, 0 or 1. Each group of eight
bits, such as the representations of letters and numbers, is known as a byte. There are three
common methods of signal transmission used in networks: electrical, optical, and wireless.

Bandwidth and Throughput

The rate of data transfer is usually discussed in terms of bandwidth and throughput. Bandwidth is
typically measured in the number of bits that (theoretically) can be sent across the media in a
second. Throughput measures the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time.
Many factors influence throughput including the amount of data being sent and received over the
connection, the types of data being transmitted, and the latency created by the number of
network devices encountered between source and destination. Latency is the amount of time,
including delays, for data to travel from one given point to another.

Clients and Servers

Servers are hosts that have software installed that enable them to provide information, like email
or web pages, to other hosts on the network. Clients are computer hosts that have software
installed that enable them to request and display the information obtained from the server. In
small businesses and homes, many computers function as the servers and clients on the
network. This type of network is called a peer-to-peer (P2P) network. The simplest peer-to-peer
network consists of two directly connected computers using either a wired or wireless
connection. A P2P application allows a device to act as both a client and a server within the
same communication. In this model, every client is a server and every server is a client. In a
home or small business, it may be necessary for one computer to act as a file server, a web
server, and an email server. A single computer can also run multiple types of client software.
There must be client software for every service used.

Network Components

The network infrastructure contains three categories of hardware components: intermediate

devices, end devices, and network media. Devices and media are the physical elements, or
hardware, of the network. Hardware is often the visible components of the network platform such
as a laptop, PC, switch, router, wireless access point, or the cabling used to connect the devices.
The network devices that people are most familiar with are called end devices, or hosts. These
devices form the interface between users and the underlying communication network. An end
device (or host) is either the source or destination of a message transmitted over the network.

Module 1 - Communications in a Connected

World Quiz
1. Which term is used to describe a network device with the primary function of providing
information to other devices?

2. What allows digital devices to interconnect and transmit data?

3. What is a characteristic of a peer-to-peer application?

4. What is the delay in the amount of time for data to travel between two points on a
network?

5. What type of network is defined by two computers that can both send and receive
requests for resources?

6. What is a characteristic of a SOHO network?

7. What type of network must a home user access in order to do online shopping?

8. What is the Internet?

9. What are two functions of end devices on a network? (Choose two.)

10. What is an example of a binary value from everyday life?

11.

Refer to the exhibit. Which term correctly identifies the device type that is included in the
area B?