LECTURE HANDOUTS IN PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL PRODUCTION AND ECONOMICS

RUMINANT PRODUCTION

Ruminant -an even-toed ungulate mammal that chews the cud regurgitated from its rumen. The ruminants comprise the
cattle, sheep, antelopes, deer, giraffes, and their relatives

General considerations applicable for most species of domestic ruminants

• Beef cattle production
• Dairy cattle production
• Carabao production
• Goat production
• Sheep production

Beef Cattle Production

Definitions of some terms used in beef cattle production.

 Acaricide – a substance or a preparation used in killing ticks and mites.
 Anthelmintic – a drug administered as drench, bolus, injectable or mixed in feed to get rid of intestinal parasites.
 Antiseptic – one that prevents or arrests the growth or action of microorganisms either by inhibiting their activity or
destroying them.
 Breeder stock – animal intended for breeding purposes.
 Bull – male breeding cattle of any age.
 Calf – young cattle of either sex under one year of age.
 Calf crop – the number of calves weaned over the number of cows and cycling heifers exposed within a breeding
season.
 Calf drop – the number of calves born.
 Calving – act of giving birth in cows.
 Castration – removal of the testes from the scrotum or any method that would render the testes functionless.
 Colostrum – milk produced during the first 3-5 days after parturition which contains high protein, vitamins and minerals,
and antibodies.
 Concentrate – feed which contains less than 18% crude fiber with high digestible nutrients.
 Conception – pregnancy.
 Cow – mature female cattle that has given birth.
 Estrous cycle – heat cycle – interval from one estrus to the next estrus.
 Estrus – heat period – the sexual period in females when they are receptive to mating.
 Feeder stock – cattle which is fattened prior to slaughtering.
 Feedlot – area with its physical facilities used for cattle fattening.
 Flushing – feeding livestock with plenty of feeds to make them gain weight just before or during breeding season.
 Grassland – a land or an area on which the natural dominant plant form is grass.
 Gestation – pregnancy; period from fertilization to birth.
 Hand feeding – system of feeding wherein feeds are brought to the animals.
 Hay – cut and dried forage for livestock feed.
 Heifer – young female cattle usually under three years old that has not yet given birth.
 Herbage – grass and other herbaceous vegetation for animal feeding.
 Herd – any number of cattle, carabaos, horses, sheep, goats, swine and poultry under one management, maintained in
one premise which are allowed to associate or come in contact with one another.
 Parturition – a general term for giving birth.
 Post-partum – the period after birth.
 Proven sire – bull which has sufficient data to show its good genetic potential and excellent breeding performance.
 Ration – feed allowance for one animal for 24 hours (1 day).
 Replacement stock – yearling heifer or bull raised primarily for breeding purposes.
 Roughage – feed which contains at least 18% crude fiber and low digestible nutrient.
 Silage – any fermented feed material stored in a silo for feeding.
 Silo – a structure usually sealed when full to exclude air and used for storing silage.
 Soilage – forage cut and fed fresh to the animals; also called green chop, soiling, or cut and carry.
 Stag – castrated male cattle operated after the secondary sex characters have been developed.
 Steer – castrated male cattle operated before the secondary characters have been developed.
 Tethering – restraining an animal with a rope or chain so as to allow limited movement.
 Upgrading – improving the genetic potential of an animal by using purebred sire on native (mongrel/scrub) animal.
 Weaning – separating the suckling calf from its dam usually done at the age of 6-8 months.
 Yearling – 1-2 year old cattle of either sex.

Scientific names:
 Bos indicus – Zebu/tropical or humped cattle
 Bos taurus – European/temperate or humpless cattle

Overview of the Beef Cattle Industry

The Philippine beef cattle industry is traditionally led by the private sector and is largely of the smallhold or backyard
endeavor. It is considered one of the country’s least developed commodity for the past several years. This is demonstrated by
the reduction in local cattle population and the continuous importation of both live cattle and beef products to satisfy the
local demand. The decline of cattle population is primarily attributed to high slaughter rate
In general, the growth of the cattle population (2.7%) was much more than that of buffaloes and is also the result
of considerable imports of both dairy and beef cattle into the Asian region. The largest increases were noted in Indo-China,
with Cambodia (8.6%), Laos and Vietnam (7.5%), followed by Indonesia (3.5%) and Myanmar (0.4%). The Philippines had a
negative growth rate.
In 2008, the number of cattle slaughtered for meat in the Philippines was higher by 4.48 percent than the previous year.
Animal deaths and losses likewise rose by 1.32 percent. Also, total cattle population was estimated at 2.56 million head, slightly
down by 0.29 percent than last year’s head count.
 The number of dairy cattle reached 13,810 head, 14.19 percent higher than in 2007. Inventory of cattle from backyard
farms declined by 0.31 percent, while stocks from commercial raisers acquired a minimal growth of 4 percent. Of the total
cattle population, around 94 percent were raised in backyard farms. Commercial feedlot fattening operation emerged and
proliferated on account of the huge demand for meat and meat products. Three things accounted for this great demand--
the ever-increasing population, changing food preferences of the Filipinos, and import liberalization.
However, the industry is heavily dependent on the importation of feeder stocks coming mostly from Australia. In 2007, the
number of imported live cattle was 17,982 head or 23.79 percent while 90 percent of the country’s beef supply is imported
from Brazil. Almost 97 percent of the total importation was feeder cattle and the rest were classified as breeder

Inventory Jan. – Dec 2018

• As of 1 January 2019, the total cattle inventory in the country at 2.54

million heads declined by 0.73 percent compared with its previous
year’s record of 2.55 million heads
• Stocks in backyard and commercial farms went down by 0.74 percent
and 0.42 percent, respectively, relative to their inventory levels in 2018
• Backyard farms accounts for 93% of total inventory; 7% are in
commercials farms
• As of 1 January 2019, the total inventory of cattle was estimated at 2.54
million heads
• Stocks of cattle in backyard farms declined by 0.74 percent from 2.40
million heads in 2018 to 2.39 million heads in 2019.
• Likewise, cattle population in commercial farms diminished by 0.42
percent compared with the 2018 headcount of 150.72 thousand heads
• The decline in cattle inventory was due to the decreases in cows,
yearlings and others by 1.52 percent, 9.93 percent, and 10.28 percent,
respectively.
• These three age classifications had a combined share of 68.58 percent
to the total cattle inventory.
• Inventory of cows as of 1 January 2019 was 1.10 million heads. Among
all ages, cows accounted for 43.35 percent of the total cattle stocks
DISTRIBUTION OF CATTLE INVENTORY BY REGION

• As of 1 January 2019, the top three regions in terms of

inventory were:
• Ilocos Region,
• Central Visayas and;
• CALABARZON.
• These regions contributed about 33.67 percent of the total
cattle population in the country.

Cattle stocks in Backyard Farm

• `In backyard farms, Ilocos Region, Central Visayas and

CALABARZON reported the
highest inventories.
• These regions accounted for 35.20 percent
of the total cattle stocks in backyard farms.

Cattle stocks in Commercial Farm

• Cattle stocks in commercial farm were

highest in Bicol Region, Cagayan Valley
and Central Luzon.
• These regions contributed 55.63 percent share of the total
cattle population in commercial farms.

Competitive Advantages of Beef Cattle Production

• Increasing demand for beef, income elasticity of demand

for beef higher that other meat
• Ability to transform low quality and fibrous feed materials
e.g. grasses and crop residues) into high value protein food
product
• Abundant supply of crop residues especially in small farms
• Favorable climate for fodder production
• Cattle production and meat processing technologies are
available for increased productivity
 Constraints in the Cattle Sector

• Low breeding base

• High financing cost for breeder operations
• High cost of inputs
• Lack of infrastructure
• Competition for use of land
• Changing policy guidelines e.g. pasture lease, tariff
• Import substitutes particularly carabeef, and;
• Policy to unify and integrate the beef industry

Interventions

• Build up population base through well-defined breeding program

• Increase animal productivity through improved husbandry practices and application of biotechnologies
• Promote appropriate feeding and encourage utilization of nonconventional; feedstuffs
• Effect strict quarantine procedures and efficient disease control/eradication programs
• Improve marketing/pricing system
• Review policies on importation and credit system

Beef Cattle Breeds, Breeding and Reproduction

Breeds of Cattle
 Great Britian led the world in the development of the principle beef breeds
o Ex:
 Hereford
 Angus
 Shorthorns
 Galloway

o Other great beef breeds originated from India (Brahman or Zebu), France (Charolais, Limosin, Normandy),
Switzerland (Simmental) and Africa (Afrikander)

Hereford is believed to be the first breed developed in England. It was presumed bred from the white-faced red cattle
of the Netherlands to the smaller black Celtic native to England, particularly, Herefordshire
It is distinguished by its white-face, white flanks, white tails and white crest on its mark. The body color ranges from cherry
to mahogany-red. It is of medium size but increase in weight gains and mature weight is attained by breeders.
The polled herefored is a separate breed brought about by homeless mutations in 1901. They have the same
characteristics as the horned herefored. But became popular because of its hornlessness.
The Aberdan Angus is solid black with abdominal spot of white underneath. This was developed in Scotland, in the
countires of Aberleenshire and Angus. The breed in noted for its high quality of meat, increased weight gains and smoothness.
Other breeds form Europe created impact in cattle breeding in North America. He Galloway may have the same origin
as the Angus. It has very curry black hair.
The Shorthorns on the other hand was popular due to its excellent milk production but yield sizeable meat. It is red to
roan or white and red-spotted, the famous Sta. Gertrudis breed of Texas was developed in the famous King Ranched of
Kleberg County, Southwest Texas. It is 5/8 shorthorn and 3/8 Brahman.
The Brahman breed originated from India, where 30 or more strains exist. The more preferred are Guzert, Nellore, Gir and
Krisna Valle strains.
These strains, together with the Brahman, are characterized by a pronounced hump, excessive skin on dewlap and
underline, large droopy ears and horns which tend to curve downward and outward. The color ranges from near white through
brown, brownish-red and near black. It is heat tolerant drought resistant and resistant to ticks and other parasites.
Its popularity ranges to Central and South America, the gulf coast regions of the US especially Texas and Florida, parts
of Europe and Asia, especially Philippines and Thailand.
Lesser breeds were developed from Brahman crosses. These are Charby (Charolois), Braford (Hereford), Brangus (Angus),
Brahorn (shorthorn) and Beefmaster (Brahman-Short-Hereford).

Modern Cattle Descended from:

Aurochs (Bos primigenius primigenius)

Centers of domestication
 Eastern Europe
 Middle East
 Southeast Asia

India though to be the homeland of primitive cattle which later expanded to Eurasia and North Africa.
 Characterized by great variety of forms. Through subsequent selection, many breeds were obtained with very
high degrees of specialization and uniformity as meat or milk procedures or as beast of burden.
 Some species related to the Aurochs also underwent domestication
 Yak (Poephagus grunniens)
o From mountians of Tibet
o Some regions of middle asia
o South Siberia
 Genus Bibos
o (B. banteng) or Bali cattle
o (B. frontalis) or gayal
o From India, Malay archilepago and Indochina, particularly Burma.
 Probably first domesticated during the stone age, within 10,000 B.C. from the wild ox or Bos primigenius
 Modern cattle family Bovine, genus Bos
1. Bos taurus – of Europe origins such as Shorthorn or Jersey. Those are without humps and Herefore of
temperate origins
 2. Bos indicus – of tropical origin such as the Brahman or zebra of India or or Afrikander or Africa, these are
hump cattle.
3. Crosses of two: Sta Getrudis (5/8 Shorthorn, 3/8 Brahman) and Brangus (5/8 Angus, 3/8 Brahman)

There are 277 identifiable breeds worldwide

• 33 as beef breeds
• 18 as draft breeds
• 39 as meat-draft
• 54 meat dairy
• 21 dairy
• 61 meat-dairy
• 61 meat-dairy-draft
• 51 dairy breeds

Popular Breeds of Beef Cattle in the Philippines:

Philippine Native Cattle

 Small in size (280 – 380 kg adult b.w.)
 Color patterns – mainly red to yellow, black or combination
 Produces only enough milk for its young
 Milk yield for 144 days of lactation – 190 L
 Average birth weight – 19.1 kg
 Daily gain – 0.3 – 0.7 kg

 Origin:
 Philippine native cattle – predominantly descendants of cattle brought by the Chinese & Spaniards
 Batangas cattle – most prominent type = from the yellow cattle of Southern China, which evolved from the
wild cattle (Indian Zebu) in Java & Brahmin archipelago.
 Mindoro, Central & Southern Luzon – Chinese origin
 Northern Luzon – Spanish origin
 Other types: Large Ilocos; Small Ilocos; Iloilo cattle

 Types:
 Beef – meat-type
 Dairy – milk-type
 Draft
 Dual-purpose – meat and milk; meat and draft
 Chromosome number:
 2n = 60
 Major cattle producing provinces:
 Pangasinan
 Cebu
 Negros Oriental
 Batangas
 Ilocos Norte

 Common names:
 Baka; Sap
 Bull: Bulugan; Bumalo; Kalakian; Toro
 Heifer, Cow: Babaye; Bakiya; Dulag; Guyang; Inahan; Kabaiyan; Kabajan
 Calf: Guya; Torrete; Itoy; Nati; Tinday; Ugbon
 Foreign/Introduced Breeds
 From Europe, America and other parts of Asia – to upgrade the native stocks
 Liberal importation & indiscriminate crossing with Philippine native cattle → non-descript mongrels of unknown
blood composition.
 At least 42 breeds: 26 beef, 9 dairy, 3 draft, 4 dual purpose cattle breeds

Foreign/Introduced Beef Breeds

 Angus, Beefalo, Beefmaster, Belmont Red, Braford, Brahman, Brangus, Charbray, Charolois, Chianina, Chiricano, Devon,
Droughtmaster, Galloway, Gyr, Hereford, Indu-Brazil, Limousin, Mandalong Special, Maine-Anjou, Marchigiana, Red Poll,
Santa Gertrudis, Shorthorn, Simmbrah, Simmental, Sussex.

Foreign/Introduced Dairy Breeds

 Australian Friesian Sahiwal, Australian Illawara Shorthorn, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Holstein Friesian, Jersey, Red Dane, Red
Sindhi, Senepol
Foreign/Introduced Draft Breeds
 Bhagnari, Hariana, Madura
Foreign/Introduced Dual-purpose Breeds
 Balinese – work and beef
 Sahiwal – milk and beef
 Nellore or Ongole – work and milk
 Tharparkar – work and milk

 Popular temperate breeds of beef cattles

 France: Charolais, Limousin, Maine-Anjou, Tarentaise
 Switzerland: Simmental, Brown Swiss
 Italy: Chianina, Marchigiana, Romagnola
 United Kingdom: Beef Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus, Devon
 Germany: Gelbvieh
General characteristics:
 Bos taurus
 European
 Humpless
 Popular tropical breeds of beef cattle
 India: Guzerat, Gir, Kankrej, Hariana, Krishna Valley, Ongole (Nellore)
 Pakistan: Red Sindhi, Tharparkar, Bhagnari, Sahiwal
 Africa: Boran, Tuli, Nguni, Ankole, Fulani, Africander
General characteristics:
 Bos indicus
 Zebu
 with humps
 resistant to external parasites
 can thrive in harsh conditions

Examples of Breeds:

1. Angus
Desirable Traits: cold tolerance, mothering and milking ability, early maturity, little calving difficulty, high fertility,
excellent-quality carcass
Undesirable Traits: lack of size, over-prominent shoulders

2. Hereford
Desirable Traits: Hardiness, grazing ability, rugged adaptability, reproductive efficiency, good temperament and
disposition, heavy bones and thick flesh
Undesirable Traits: low milk production, susceptibility to cancer eye and pinkeye, prolapse of uterus

3. Shorthorn
Desirable Traits: High milk production, efficient utilization of roughage, good temperament, rapid rate of gain in
feedlot
Undesirable Traits: Coarse, lower-quality carcass

4. Red Poll
Desirable Traits: Early maturity, good grazing, high milk production, good quality carcass
Undesirable Traits: large barrel, lightly fleshed in the loin and in the hindquarter

5. Brahman
Desirable Traits: thrives well under minimal management, heat tolerant, excellent mothering ability, resistant to
adverse conditions such as diseases and parasites, good for crossing
Undesirable Traits: lack of cold tolerance, late maturity, low-fertility

6. Sta. Gertrudis
Desirable Traits: excellent beef conformation, heavy hindquarter development, excellent forging ability, efficient
beef production on grass, resistance to diseases and insects, heat tolerance, and efficient feed conversion under
feedlot conditions
Undesirable Traits: nervous, matures late, low reproductive efficiency, pendulous sheaths in bulls

7. Beefmaster
Desirable Traits: thick, beefy conformation, good growth rate, heat tolerance, insect and diseases resistance,
good mothering ability
Undesirable Traits: bad disposition, lack of thickness in hindquarters

8. Braford
Desirable Traits: ability to thrive under little management, heat, insect and disease tolerance, good mothering
ability, efficient conversion of feed
Undesirable Traits: lack of cold tolerance

9. Charbray
Desirable Traits: mothering ability, rapid rate of gain, resistance to external parasites and insects, size
Color: Light tan at birth and changes into creamy white color in a few weeks
Characteristics: Horned with slight hint of Brahmans’ loose skin along dewlap and hump
Undesirable Traits: long, shallow bodies, too much length in legs

10. Charolais
Desirable Traits: excellent muscling in the loin, round and hindquarters, heavy bones, good mothering ability, rapid
growth, high dressing percent, cold and heat tolerance
: The Charolais (is one of the oldest of the French breeds of beef cattle.

Undesirable Traits: wide variations in the breed, difficulty in calving

11. Galloway
Desirable Traits: excellent cold tolerance, hardy breed, excellent quality carcass
Undesirable Traits: lack of heat tolerance

12. Maine-Anjou
Desirable Traits: size and scale, lean carcass production, ability to adapt to harsh conditions, heavy weaning
weight, rapid growth rate, good milking and mothering ability

13. Normande
Desirable Traits: good conformation, high milk yield, good mothering ability, suitable for crossbreeding

14. Simmental
Desirable Traits: good milker, rapid gainer, long, heavily muscled body, large in size at birth, weaning and maturity
15. Gir or Gyr
 Origin: India
Color: Red with white blotches, solid reds may be found
 Convex-shaped forehead
 short, thick horns that grow upward and outward and upward with a considerable curve
 pendulous skin at dewlap, prepuce and navel
16. Limousin
• The breed is distinguished by its rich, red-gold color over the back, shading to light buckskin or straw color under the
belly and around the legs and muzzle.
• They are long-bodied, heavy-muscled, trim-middled, and relatively light-boned.
• The reputation of Limousin as meat animals was firmly established. Today, Limousin cattle are still referred to as the
"butcher's animal" in France.
17. Gelbvieh (Gelp-fee)
o The breed is red in color, with strong skin pigmentation, and horned.
o Polled cattle have been developed in the United States from the use of naturally hornless foundation females.
o Proponents of the breed claim the breed has superior fertility, calving ease, mothering ability, and growth rate of the
calves.
18. Salers (Sa’lair)
 Typically horned and dark mahogany red in color, however a growing number of polled and black Salers are
available.
 There are documented proof of the breed's attributes of calving ease, maternal efficiency and carcass merit
19. Sussex
 Dark red coats and white switch
 Developed in Southeast England – initially a draught breed but now a beef breed
 In winter, the coat is curly.
 Adapts well to hot climates & resists tick-borne diseases

20. Texas Longhorn

 The Texas Longhorn originated from Spanish Andalusian
 Texas Longhorns are slow maturing, have high fertility, are resistant to many diseases and parasites, and are well
adapted to harsh environments. They have the ability to survive on sparse rangeland. They are noted for their easy
calving ability, hardiness, and longevity.

The following are stabilized breeds and strains from crossbred foundations:
• Brahman – mixture of 4 principal breeds - Guzerat (predominant), Nellore, Krishna Valley and Gir (Texas, USA)
• Santa Gertrudis – 5/8 Shorthorn, 3/8 Brahman (King Ranch, Texas, USA)
• Indu-Brazil - Guzerat and Gir and other Zebu breeds, esp. Nellore (Brazil)
• Beefmaster - ½ Brahman, ¼ Hereford, ¼ Shorthorn (Texas, USA)
• Brangus – 5/8 Angus, 3/8 Brahman (Louisiana, USA)
• Red Brangus – 5/8 Red Angus, 3/8 Brahman
• Braford – 5/8 Hereford, 3/8 Brahman (Texas, USA)
• Charbray – 3/4-5/8 Charolais, 1/4-3/8 Brahman (Texas, USA)
• Droughtmaster - 3/4-7/8 Shorthorn, 1/4-1/8 Brahman (Australia)
• Murray Grey – Angus bull, roan Shorthorn cow (Australia)
• Belmont Red - ½ Africander, ¼ Hereford, ¼ Shorthorn (Australia)
 The breed has been developed in an attempt to improve the Bos indicus fertility while retaining the
characteristics of heat and tick tolerance
• Mandalong Special – Charolais, Chianina, Poll Shorthorn, British White, Brahman. Stabilized at 58.33% Continental,
25% British and 16.67% Brahman (Australia)
 Hardy animal, small at birth for easy calving but with a high growth rate and produce high quality carcass
(well muscled, distributed fat cover).

• Simford – ½ Simmental, ½ Hereford (Australia)

• Simbrah – 3/8 Simmental, ¼ Brahman, not over 3/8 maximum of other breeds (USA). Purebred Simbrah - 5/8
Simmental, 3/8 Brahman (USA)
• Beefalo – 3/8 Bison, 3/8 Charolais, ¼ Hereford (California, USA)

Breeding and Selection

Selection criteria of beef cattle include:

a. Eye appraisal - judging, as commonly seen in show ring
b. Pedigree - selection based on reputation of ancestors
c. Animal Performance - animals’ ability to perform efficiency and economically
1) Prolificacy in females
2) Masculinity, aggressiveness, good sperm count in males
3) Longer production
4) Efficient growth from birth to weaning to production
d. Production testing - includes reproductive efficiency
1) Reproductive efficiency
2) Mothering ability
3) Rate of gain economy of gain
4) Longevity
5) Carcass merit

Considerations for Breed Selection

 Production system
 Market demands
 Quantity and quality of feedstuffs available
 Climate
 Breed complementarity
 Cost and availability of purebred seedstock
 Traits Important for Selecting Dam Breeds
 Early puberty
 Moderate mature size
 High fertility
 Moderate to high milking ability (appropriate for feed resources)
 Calving ease
 Longevity
 Acceptable growth and carcass characteristics

Traits Important for Selecting Sire Breeds

 high growth rate with moderate mature size

 acceptable calving ease
 adequate carcass quality grades (marbling)
 high retail product yield

BREEDING SYSTEMS

Breeding Systems are systems of mating animals to produce a purebred or a crossbreed. These are the methods employed
by breeders for breeding animals..

Breeding Systems
Inbreeding
Purebreeding
Crossbreeding
• Upgrading
• Systematic crossbreeding
1. Terminal crossing
• Single cross
• Three-way cross
• Backcrossing
2. Rotational crossing
• Crisscrossing (reciprocal backcrossing)
• Three-breed rotation

The traits of the animals could be developed and combined by practicing different breeding systems which are as follows:

1. Inbreeding. Breeding of closely-related animals. This is done to purify the blood line of the animals since the similarity of the
animals within the group is increased. Strong and weak points of the animals will be exposed under this system. Continuous
inbreeding is not recommendable due to its negative effect on the production performance of the animal. It usually decreases
vigor because it brings together the recessive genes with undesirable effects on the resulting crossbred. These homozygous
recessive individuals are usually inferior.
However, inbreeding is not always disadvantageous. It strict selection is practiced, it maybe useful for the purpose of
eliminating defects. It brings out the desired character in a pure form and character may then be retained.

Example: Father Mother

Father x Daughter
Son x Mother
Brother x Sister
Marks effect of Inbreeding
1. Marked decrease in fertility
2. Reduces vigor
3. Decrease in growth rate of offspring
4. Reduces viability of the offspring

2. Purebreeding
A system of breeding wherein animals of the same breed are mated to each other, resulting to the production of purebreds.
This is done to maintain the production supply of the breed. This system will continue to exist because in mating the females of
the same breed to unrelated males, the effects of inbreeding are avoided. Through this system, the breeders are able to
acquire the best available genetic materials at reasonable prices
Example:
• Inbreeding – closely related
• Linebreeding – succession of related sires
- This is a form of mild inbreeding designed to concentrate the genes of a certain
ancestor of the genetic composition of the progeny.
• Outcrossing – unrelated for several generations

3. Crossbreeding
Breeding of two animals from different breeds. This is practiced to combine traits of different breeds. This is the system
recommended for the production of slaughter pigs. It is highly recommended for the production of market hogs for two
important reasons, namely: a)to obtain hybrid vigor or heterosis which is defined as the change in performance of the
crossbred progeny over the average of the parental breeds; and b) to bring together the desirable characteristics of the
parental breeds.

I. Systemic Crossbreeding
-two or more breeds are involved in a breeding program for several years. This way, a crossbred which may
eventually stabilized into a breed. E.g. Brangus (Brahman X Angus) or a Crisscross or triple cross can be developed with the
best desired characteristics such as daily gain, carcass weight, etc.
1. Types of terminal crossing:
A. Single cross - two purebreeds are crossed to produce the F1 (first filial generation) crosses. The amount of heterosis
 is maximum in the F1s.
B. Three-way cross F1s are mated to a third breed (three-way). 100% of the heterosis in the F1 is retained.
C. Backcrossing - F1s are mated back to one of the sire breeds (backcross). 50% of the heterosis is retained.

II. Types of rotational crossing:

A. crisscrossing (reciprocal backcrossing) - the two purebreeds are alternately used in each generation and at
equilibrium (about 5 to 6 generations), two-thirds of F1s hybrid vigor is retained.
B. three-breed rotation - a third breed is used as in the case of the three-way breed crossing, except that the use of
the three purebred sires is rotated in subsequent generations. The offspring produced at equilibrium will have retained
87.5% of the amount of heterosis in the F1s.

4.Upgrading / Grading Up
Upgrading is a system of breeding wherein an inferior breed is improved by continued crossing. It is commonly among native
breeds. The native breeds are usually crossed with pure breeds of cattle.

Eg. 100% B (Brahman) x 100% BC (Batangas Cattle)

Sire Dam

F1 50% B 50% BC (Select the female, then

bred later to 100% B)

F2 75% B 25% BC (Select the female, then

bred later to 100% B)

F37 87.5% B 12.5% BC (and so on and so forth)

REPRODUCTION

Reproduction phenomena
a. Sexual maturity (bulls/heifers) = 6-8 months
b. Estrous cycle = 18-24 days (ave 21 days)
c. Estrus duration
a. -Exotic?European breed = 14-18 hrs
- Indigenous/Zebu = 10-12 hrs
d. Ovulation = 10-14 hrs after end of estrus
e. Parturition = average 283 days
f. A bull ejaculates about 2-12 ml of 500 B or more sperm cells per ml
g. The sperm cells survive he oviduct up to a maximum of 48 hrs
h. Many sperm cells reach the oviduct in 6-7 hours after deposition in the vagina
i. There are many thousand egg cells produced by the female but those released are very few. One mature egg ell
is released at any time.
j. One egg cell is fertilized by one sperm cell at the oviduct (fallopian tube)

Signs of heat in beef cattle:

• Mounts other animals irrespective of sex
• Stands to be mounted
• Lack of appetite
• Reddening and swelling of vulva, with clear mucous discharge (becomes cheesy as heat progresses)
• Restlessness with bellowing/mooing
• Frequent urination in small amounts

Breeding age:
 Usually bred at 2 years of age, to calve at 3 years of age
 18-20-month old – if well-developed
 Grades – should weigh 250-300 kg
Bull-to-cow Ratio

 Bull – must not be less than 15 months of age

 Breeding season – usually 2-3 months
 2 systems of mating:
 Hand mating – a cow in heat is brought to the bull or the bull is brought to the cow in heat
 3-4 services per week (or one service every other day during the breeding season)
 2-3 year old bull – 20-30 cows
 Older bulls <9 years of age – 40-50 cows
 Pasture mating – bull is brought in and goes with the herd of breeding heifers and cows during the breeding season.
 2-3 year old bull – 10-15 cows
 Older bulls <9 years of age – 20-25 cows

 Clean-up breeding period – 3 months after the first

 Single-sire set-up – mature bull in good breeding condition may serve up to a maximum of 35 cows on improved pasture
in a breeding season.

Controlled Breeding

Definition: Keeping the bull with the cows for a specified period (e.g., 2-3 months), then removing it completely for the rest of
the year.

Advantages:
 Bulls are in good condition because they can recover
 Calving can be timed with the season – adequate feed for the nursing cow
 Cows will calve in short intervals – calves almost of the same age
 Shy breeders can be easily detected and culled
 Performance of the bull can easily be evaluated

Factors affecting choice of calving period:

 Animal – growth rate and reproductive performance
 Pasture – expected availability and quality of feed – analyze rainfall pattern of at least 10 years
 Market to be supplied
 Management practices – stocking rate and supplementary feeding
 Season of maximum fertility

If rainfall pattern is known, it would be easy to time the following activities:

 Fertility testing of bull – 2 months before the breeding season
 Flushing period of the cows and bulls – one month before the breeding season
 Mating – start 60 days after calving
 Pregnancy diagnosis of breeding herd – 3 months after the end of the breeding season
 Culling of “empties” and poor breeders – after the clean-up breeding period
 Identification of calves
 Weaning of the calves – 6-8 months after calving
 Branding and castration – 1-3 months after weaning
 Growing the replacement stock
 Pasture improvement – 6 months before calving
 Fulfilling feed conservation requirements
 Performance testing of weaned stock for rate of gain

Inbreeding: Traits most adversely are those of the greatest importance from an economic standpoint, such as size and fertility.

Artificial Insemination

A.I. is the deliberate introduction of sperm into a female's uterus or cervix for the purpose of achieving
a pregnancy through in vivo fertilization by means other than sexual intercourse
Artificial insemination may employ assisted reproductive technology, sperm donation and animal husbandry techniques.

3 MAJOR PREMISES FOR A SUCCESSFUL ARTIFICIAL INSEMINATION

a. Spermatozoa can survive outside the body
b. They can be reintroduced into the female genital tract in a way that results in an acceptable conception rate
c. The fertile period of the female can be identified

Factors influencing the success of AI:

 Health and nutritional level of the herd
Brucellosis, leptospirosis, vibriosis
Conception rate – depends on nutritional level of cow during the breeding season
 Heat or estrus detection
Cloudy to yellowish mucus – will be in estrus within 2-3 days
Thin, clear mucus – will be soon in estrus or already in estrus
Bright red blood discharge – often seen 24-48 h after ovulation
 Time of insemination
Foreign breeds – not less than 6 h and not more than 24 h after ovulation (4-22 h after the onset of heat)
First heat in the morning up to 10:00 a.m. (onset is between 2:00 and 7:00 a.m.) – bred in the afternoon (4:00 p.m.)
Heat later in the day – inseminated the next morning
Indigenous cattle and Zebu breeds – breed when heat is first observed, then repeated 12 h later if the cow is still in
heat.
 Optimum time for insemination after calving
26 days after calving – uterus returns to normal size
at least 60 days after calving – recommended
  Efficiency of technician

Estrus and time to inseminate

Beef Production System in the Philippines

Ranching or Extensive System

Cow-calf Operation

The initial and most fundamental step in the beef enterprise is the production of calves and raising it to weaning age.
The calf is, so to speak, the raw material out of which the finished animal will eventually be made. The breeding herds in
which calves are produced need little grain or other fattening feeds. Consequently, the raising of beef calves is confined
chiefly to those sections that have an abundance of comparatively cheap, low carrying-capacity grazing lands.

Hence, we find the important ranches located in provinces that are sparsely settled in or hilly areas where the land
is too rolling to be farmed to advantage.
The aim of cow-calf operation is to produce stockers and feeders. It has the following characteristics.
a. use grade or Philippine cows and purebred or high-graded bulls
b. involves selling calves at weaning as stockers; or as feeder stocks after grazing them out on the range; or as fa
slaughter cattle after feeding them out; or selling heifers to other ranchers for breeding purposes (depending on
the availability of feeds/pasture).
c. Extensive use of native pastures and minimum outlay for supplemented feed/concentrates
d. Maybe integrate with orchard or coconut plantation.

An orchard is an intentional planting of trees or shrubs that is maintained for food production.

Purebred Program or Breeder Farm Operation

• Breeding of purebred or registered cattle is a highly specialized form of beef production.

• Requires large capital for animals and equipment
• Requires considerable amount of skill and experience
• Aim the purebred program or breeder farm operation is to produce breeder stocks to be sold to other ranchers.
• Ultimate goal is the production of highest type of cattle for the open market.

Feedlot Operation

Feedlot fattening of cattle has become important to the livestock industry of the Philippines for three main reasons:
a. provides the farmer with extra income
b. gives year-round work and allow the use of cheap, plentiful farm by-products such as corn stovers, hay, silage,
rice straw, copra meal, rice bran and sugarcane tops which otherwise be wasted;
c. helps meet the urgent demand for high-protein foods in the Filipino diet.

The objective of a feedlot fattening operation is to add weight to the animal and increase its value. The feedlot fattening
operation is characterized by the following:
a. Return from cattle feeding comes from the difference between the buying and selling prices and the gain in
weight.
b. Turnover of capital is faster in this operation than in ranching. Feeder stocks are usually require fattening period
of only 120-180 days from the date of purchase
c. Use of high-energy feeds in order to give the cattle a better “finish” (more fat covering the carcass) and
appearance,
d. Requires very little land area. A sheltered feeding area of one and a half to two square meters per head is
required with a fenced loafting area of five meters per head.
e. Located in areas where large quantities of livestock feeds are raised and,
f. May also be integrated with pineapple and sugarcane enterprises or any set-up which produces large
quantities of by-product feeds.

Backyard Cattle Raising or Semi-Subsistence or Small Holder

• The backyard sector constitutes 93% of the total cattle population.

• The aim is to produce livestock that can be sold augment farm income. Backyard cattle raising is characterized by
the following:
 a) One or two heads of either fattening or breeding cattle is raised on a farmer’s spare time
b) Farmers usually tethers animal to graze around the home lot and then supplements this with farm wastes
like rice straw or corn stovers/stalks wen back in the pen
c) Others proactive soiling and supplementing with ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala), as a source of protein,
and rice bran, corn bran or copra meal at 1-2 kg/animal and,
d) In Batangas, force feeding (supa or supak) of feed mixture is a common practice among backyard cattle
raisers.

SYSTEM OF FEEDING
SYSTEM OF FEEDING

1. Extensive system
– Animals are kept in herd and let loose to browse on vegetation
- a caretaker should tend the animal & direct them to safe areas
- unattended animal may be lost or stolen
- unattended animal may gain access into gardens, crops, etc.

2. Intensive system– Stall feeding or cut and carry method. (Not Common)
• Actual for meat: feed cut napier grass or guinea grass with limited concentrates
• Actual for dairy: stall- feeding with roughage & concentrates or rice straw and molasses
3. Semi Intensive system
• –production comprise between extensive and intensive production and is largely dictated by the availability of
land. Animals are allowed to have 2 to 4 hours browsing in pasture area and 20 hours feeding on the shed.
- Usually housed during the night
- Given supplemental feeds
4. Tethering
• Animal is tied in areas with substantial forage in the morning
• Transferred to shaded places at noontime
• Retethered when the afternoon becomes cooler
• In sparse grasslands – transferred to different sites/

5. Integration into Plantation Agriculture

– Integration of Livestock into established tree crops.
• May be extensive, intensive or semi-intensive
• Animals are raised into established plantations for rubber, coconut, mango, etc.

• Benefits
• Increase soil fertility
• Control of waste herbage growth-minimize labor for clearing herbage
• Possibility of high-crop yield (from the above mentioned advantages)
• Higher economic returns for both the crop and animal components

Backyard Farm refers to any farm or household whether farming or non-farming raising at least one head of animal
and does not qualify as a commercial farm.

Herd Management

The goal of herd management is to produce a crop of high quality heavyweight calves. The factors that contribute
to the accomplishment of this goal are:

1. early sexual maturity of females

2. high conception rates
3. high calfcrop
4. early rebreeding after calving
5. excellent milk production of cows
6. availability of year-round feed supply, and;
7. others. (calving interval, services per section)

Quality of management, plane of nutrition, and farm infrastructures are important determinants of profit or loss.

Herd Division

Herd division ensures the appropriate nutrition of various age groups of the herd, prevent premature breeding which
seriously affect the growth of young bulls and heifers and prevent high rate of abortion resulting from bullying and fighting of
animals.

Animals may be divided into the following herds:

a. Pregnant herd – composed of pregnant females. Cows are grouped with the breeding herd during the breeding
season
b. Breeding herd – consist of dry cows and heifers ready for breeding. After the breeding season, pregnant animals
are transferred to the pregnant herd.
c. Heifer herd – composed of heifers not yet ready for breeding. Heifers calves are included in this herd after weaning.
d. Steers, feeders, or fattening herd – consist of growing cattle and those to be fattened for the market
e. Bull heard – consist of mature males kept mainly for servicing the breeder cows
Management of Breeding Female

a. Lactating and pregnant cows

Once the cows are determined pregnant, they should be separated from the herd to prevent injury and
possible abortion due to riding, bullying and fighting with other animals. The signs of pregnancy are the cessation
of estrus of heat and the enlargement of the abdomen and udder. However, a more reliable pregnancy test is
through palpation 60-90 days after breeding. Palpation is the manual examination of the reproductive tract by
way of the rectum and colon to verify in cattle. This method needs training and experience.

b. Open cows and replacement heifers

Open or nonpregnant cows are replacement heifers should be given the right amount of feed daily to
ensure that they are in the right physiological status. Animals with reproductive problems and those which fail to
settle after the clean-up breeding period should be culled.

Management of Calves, Growers and Fatteners

a. Calves
Calves should suckle colostrum milk from their mother within three hours after calving
b. Growers
Growers are usually maintained in the pasture with very little attention. They are given salt and mineral
supplement.
c. Fatteners
Fatteners require a shorter period to reach slaughter weight. They are generally bigger, mature, or nearing
maturity. However, one and half to two year-old animals weighing 200-300 kg are preferred.

Management of Breeding Bulls

Breeding bull should be selected purebred because it contributes 50% of the genetic makeup of the offspring. They
should be in good condition at the start of the breeding season. Selected bulls should be allowed to breed when they are at
least two years of age. They should be given supplemental feeding of grains or concentrates 60-90 days before and after the
breeding period depending on their orientation. A breeding bull should be kept in the herd as long as he is aggressive enough
to mate. However, to avoid inbreeding, a bull should be kept out of the herd after two and a half to three years when the
offspring reach the breeding age.

General Management Practices

Cattle Identification

Identification is one of the most important management tools a beef producer can include in his or her management
practices. Proper identification is becoming more essential in today’s marketplace and may be used for a variety of purposes.
Identification is necessary when cattle are to be registered or when there is a transfer of ownership. Proper identification allows
producers to keep records on herd performance to monitor genetic improvements.

The practice is necessary for management purposes and to denote ownership. Branding with hot iron is the most
common method of identifying cattle. The animals should be legally branded. The brand must be properly registered by the
owner with the livestock identification office of the municipality concerned. The owner’s brand is placed on the animal’s left
foreleg.

Putting ear tags or ears notches are other effective methods of identifying cattle.
Common identification systems: cows and calves

 Denote ownership and for management purposes

 Branding – most common

Branding
A fire-brand will provide permanent identification against loss or theft.
Calves should be branded at between three and six months. A branding iron
heated to a cherry red-bluish color applied to the calf’s hide for three seconds.
 Brand – must be registered with livestock identification office of
municipality
 Maximum 6.4 x 5 cm; 1 cm width; at least 65 cm long
 Owner’s brand – left foreleg
 Ear-notching – 2nd
 Ear-tagging, ear tattooing, muzzle printing, palatine printing, DNA

Ear notching

Ear notching is a simple and handy method to identify animals individually from a distance.

There are variations in systems, but each identifies the animal by an individual number expressed in the relative positions
of a combination of notches in the ear rim. It can be used for all livestock species, but is particularly common in the pig industry.

It involves removing V-shaped or U-shaped portions of the ear rim in a specific and individual combination of positions,
using a special ear notching pair of pliers. A sharp knife gives less predictable and controllable results.

Thus no two animals will have the same combination of notches. Not all operations may find it necessary to use individual
numbers, but individual numbers are needed when any animal has to be recognized separately from others. Other marking
systems may be used in combination with ear notches.

A variation of this technique is ear punching, in which holes are punched through the ear shell, using a pair of hole punch
pliers.

Advantages of ear notching

 It is permanent.
 It is relatively quick and simple.
 Notches are highly visible. Holes are only really visible against the light.
 High numbers are possible.
 No consumables are needed.

Disadvantages of ear notching

 A large area of the ear shell could be removed. With holes, this is less likely.
 There is an increased chance of errors, mismarking and misreading, especially initially with inexperienced staff.
 Accidental defacing through injury or deliberate action on stolen animals is a risk.

Ear Tagging

The Numbering System

Everyone has his or her own unique method of identification, but the most common system is the numbering system.
With this system, it’s common to introduce both letters and numbers. The letter would represent the year of birth. For example,
if the calf was born in 2012, it would be given the letter A, for calves born in 2013, B, and so on and so forth. The numbers
following the letter could determine the litter, number born on farm, or gender. Each system is unique. Once an animal is given
an identification tag, they are to rep that tag for their entire lifetime.

Dehorning

 Dehorning should be removed to prevent injury to other cattle and to handlers

 It is best done when the calf is under three months’ old
 Dehorning an older animal when the horn is attached to the skull is a major and painful operation
 Calves can normally be dehorned when two to three weeks old.

Dehorning. Advantages:
 Require less space in feedlots
To make sure that the horn does not
 Less space in transit
 More uniform in appearance regrow, about 1 cm of skin around its base
 To lessen injury should be removed
 Recommended only in large-scale operations
 Debudding better

Methods

a. Very young calves whose bottons grow a little can be dehorned by applying caustic soda or a commercial dehorning
paste on the horn button
b. Calves with horn bottons or horn not over 1.5 – 2.0 cm long can be easily dehorned with dehorning irons
c. Older animals are dehorned with either a metal spoon, Barnes dehorner, a dehorning clipper, or hand or electric saws.

Treatment after dehorning

 After cutting operation, animals may bleed freely for a short time
 A proprietary wound dressing powder that contains a fly repellent should be applied if flies are a problem
 With the hot iron, the wound is cauterized which reduces blood loss and dries out the wound.
 As the animal matures, the horn core becomes a bony extension of the skull with a hallow center communicating
directly with the sinuses of the skull.

Older Calf

After the horn bud attaches to the skull, the horn grows out from
under the skin. It becomes a bony extension of the skull with the hollow
center of the horn opening into the frontal sinus. The brain lies directly under
the frontal sinus covered by a thin layer of bone.

Dehorning after the horn attaches increases the risk of entering the frontal
sinus and subsequent infection

Castration

Bull calves can be castrated any time, but preferably when they are
a few weeks to seven months of age. The slit and the cap methods are both
affective ways of surgically removing the testicles. Bloodless castration can
also be done with Burdizzo, pinchers or emasculator. Castration tends to
decrease the rate of liveweight gain by 15-20%, it should be resorted only
when there is difficulty in separating males from females. E.g inadequate
fencing or limited availability of pasture paddocks

Burdizzo is a castration device which employs a large clamp designed

to break the blood vessels leading into the testicles. Once the blood
supply to the testicle is lost, testicular necrosis occurs and the testicles
shrink, soften and eventually deteriorate completely.

Emasculator is a tool used in the castration of cattle. Their function is to simultaneously

crush and cut the spermatic cord, preventing hemorrhage and detaching the testis from
the animal. The blade is always on the side of the emasculator with the nut that holds
the blades in place, and should always be placed adjacent to the testis so that the
crushing clamp occludes the spermatic artery, preventing life threatening blood loss.

Rubber ring- an elastic tight rubber which is

placed on the scrotum of the animal just above
the testicle. This will occlude the flow of blood to
the said part.

Record Keeping

Records list genetically superior cattle that may be used for breeding. Moreover, slow-gaining heifers, bulls that
produce undesirable hereditary traits, and those that do not perform satisfactory despite good feeding and management
can be identified, too. These animals are culled or removed to improve the herd qualify and to increase profit in beef
production.

Selection

Breeding stock with poor performance should be culled for slaughter. These are as follows:

a. A cow that calves every one and a half to two years

b. A cow that produces a little amount of milk and raises a small calf despite good feeding and management
c. Small, weak, and unhealthy animals which are susceptible to diseases and may become the source of infection of
the herd if not removed on time
d. Heifer that do not come in heat in spite of proper age, good size, healthy condition, vigor and strength.
e. Heifers that fail to meet the standard set for the breeding herd
f. Bulls and cows which have undesirable hereditary defects such as inverted teats, hernia, dwarfism, bull dog,
cryptorchidism (failure of one or both teats to descend normally), and the like.

Housing and Equipment

the risk of heat stress is reduced by growing tropically-adopted cattle, by providing shade and by allowing natural
breeze to blow through the shed or pen.

The amount of metabolic heat that an animal produces, how much heat it receives externally and how effectively
it can transfer heat from its body is influenced by:
- Coat color – black coats absorb more solar radiation
- Coat type – the dense flat coats of tropical zebu cattle can radiate more heat than the woolly coats of
temperature European breeds.
- Temperament – quiet animals generate less heat activity level – active cattle generate more metabolic
heat
- Diet – cereal grains produce more metabolic heat than forages
- Previous exposure to hot conditions – cattle need at least three weeks to acclimatize

Factors to consider for housing and equipment

1. Location- Extensive space with area for expansion. Accessible to market.
2. Topography- gently rolling and elevated land for good drainage is desirable.
3. Availability of water
4. Soil and vegetation – Soil in the ranch must be capable of growing improved grasses and legumes all year round.
5. Far from residential area.

Benefits of Housing
A good housing design should provide comfort to animals and convenience to the caretaker
Comfort
- Provides comfort to the animals
- Protects them from adverse climatic condition (rain and solar radiation)
- Facilities adequate air circulation to avoid gas (ammonia) build up that may affect respiration of the
animal
Safety
- Lessen incidence of injury accident to the animal and caretaker
- Provides adequate space for the animal to stand and le down

Ideal location and slope of the area

- Accessible to service roads, water supply and electric lines
- Should facilitate drainage and allows for air circulation

Shed and Pen Features

Factors to be considered when designing sheds include the orientation of the shed to make best use of:
- Prevailing winds
- Sunshine reaching the floor at different times of the day and in different seasons
- The shed should be aligned north-south so that the floor can be dried by morning and afternoon sun while
the animals are protected from the intense noon sun and heavy rain.
- The roof should be at least three meters in height for good ventilation.

Other features for the shed or pen include:

- The floor should be raised and rammed hard, or with
round logs set above ground level if is not cemented.
- Allow 3-3.5 square meters per head
- The feed trough should be 150mm above the ground,
500mm wide and 300mm deep and large enough to
hold 40-60 kg of green materials. Allow 600mm in
length for each animal.

Fences
Fences can significantly increase livestock grazing efficiency.
The first step in planning livestock fencing is determining the purpose
and goals of the fencing program. Determine the operation size,
number of animals, type of forage system, and number of paddocks
needed before investing in fencing materials and supplies. Whether
used as permanent or temporary confinements, fences should be carefully planned and constructed for efficient use, long
life, and low maintenance
A fence is a structure that encloses an area, typically outdoors, and is usually constructed from posts that are
connected by boards, wire, rails or netting.
• Fencing helps distribute properly livestock particularly by cattle
• Eliminate overgrazing due to rough topography, peculiar grazing habits of animals, or limited water supply
• Used to control drifting animals, fence poisonous plant areas and shut out stray or trespass stock
• They help establish system of deferred or rotation grazing, too.

Factors to consider in constructing fences includes:

– the movement of animals
– system of grazing used
– sizes of herds
– natural obstacles such as swamps and steep hills,
– present and future land utilization.

Deep valleys should not be fenced, as the structure will either be damaged by water during heavy rains, or trampled
down by moving cattle, and covered with soil. Cattle prefer to graze by walking up or along a slope rather than downwards.
Fences should never be built across a steep slope.
 Wide hillsides should be fenced at the top and bottom. Subdivisions should run from top to bottom, on a ridge, and
not in a gully. Fences at the base of a hill should be far enough from the base to allow easy Passage of animals or machines.
Gateways, too, should be located far enough from the base to allow the herd to stand on easy ground. This provides a
comfortable area for working on the stock and room for a herd to slow down before hitting the fence if they stampede down
the hill when assembling

Fence Placement and Layout

• Proper fencing is usually a major investment. Therefore, plan fencing layout carefully to save time and money.
• One of the benefits of a well-designed fencing system is that it can improve grazing efficiency. In continuous grazing,
livestock tend to graze the most palatable plants first and leave mature plants until last.
• Forage selectivity by livestock often leads to concentrated and non-uniform manure distribution in the pasture.

Comparison of livestock fencing systems.

Fencing Systems Advantages Disadvantages

Fixed Minimum daily labor High cost per acre on small installations

Low maintenance Limited management flexibility

Low cost per acre on large installations

Flexible High management flexibility More labor

Low cost per acre on small installations High maintenance

Specifications for construction:

Wire
The principle of wire fences is that they are supported mainly by tension, being stretched between
heavy strutted or guy-wired posts at ends, corners, and ideally at intervals in longer stretches. Traditionally, wire fencing
material is made of galvanized mild steel, but galvanized high-tensile steel is now also used in many places

• Wire – strong, economical

• Barbed wire – battens (droppers) do not slip
• High tensile (HT) – less elastic and stretchable
• Approximate lengths of wire per 45.5 kg weight:
• No. 8 842 m
• 15.2 cm barbed 365 m
• 12.5 gauge HT 1,205 m

Smooth wire
• Smooth (or plain) wire is essentially the same product as barbed wire with no barbs – either a two-wire twist or a
single strand. Its primary advantage is that it is less likely to cause lacerations and cuts if an animal becomes
entangled in it or rubs against it.
• However, animals will readily lean on mild steel smooth wire, stretching it out of shape or loosening it from the posts,
and for this reason it is often used in high-tensile form, which more easily springs back to its original length.

Barbed wire
• Barbed wire is particularly effective for containing cattle. In pastures containing both cattle and sheep, one or two
strands of barbed wire is used in conjunction with woven wire to both discourage cattle from reaching over the top
of a fence and to keep sheep from crawling under

High tensile wire

• High tensile (H-T or HT) fencing is a special hard, springy steel wire.
• The wire may be a single strand plain or barbed wire, or woven mesh, and is capable of much higher tension
than mild steel. It permits the use of wider post spacings and is neither stretched easily by animals, nor by fallen
trees or branches and it can be insulated and electrified.
Posts
Fence post
– A timber or metal post set in the ground as a supporting part of a fence.
Live. Examples

• Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) • Kamachile (Pithecolobium dulce)

• Madre de cacao (Gliricidia sepium) • Kapok (Ceiba pentandra)
• Katurai (Sesbania grandiflora) • Dapdap (Erythrina orientalis)
• Malungai (Moringa oleifera)

Treated (creosote treatment). Examples

• Acacia (Samanea saman) • Untreated timber.
• Almaciga (Agathis phileppensis) • Steel wood (Mangkono) (Xanthostemon
• Apitong (Dipterocarpus sp.) verdugonianus)
• Balete (Ficus baleta) • Concrete – expensive but durable.
• Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) Recommended only as corner posts.
• White lauan (Pentacme contorta)

Wire and post spacing and height specifications

• Posts – 5 m apart, 1.2 m above the ground
• Top wire – 1.1 m above ground
• Wire spacing downwards – 40, 40 and 30 cm intervals
Corner posts
• Concrete or good solid timber not less than 20 x 20 cm
• Not less than 2.5 m long on clayey soil, 2.75 m on sandy soil
• Driven 1.25-1.5 m into ground

• Alternative to fencing – herd driving

Handling and Feeding Facilities

- No single plan
- Should afford facilities for branding, dehorning, loading, unloading, weighing, dipping, parting and working cattle

Working Corral

Corrals are highly specialized facilities and should be properly managed during planning and construction. A well-
constructed corral is economical because the shrinkage resulting from sorting and handling cattle is reduced. The Corral
should be built in the center of ranch operations to minimize the movement of the stock. If possible, a site should be put on
well, drained, sandy textured soil.
Lumber or other decay-resistant woods should be treated with first before using as corral post; these should be set
183 cm apart, and at least 75 cm deep. Post should be tamped solid. Coal or creosote should be used as preservatives. Posts
should not be set in concrete because they may rot. Also if they break, it would be difficult to replace them

• Center of ranch – to minimize movement of stock

• Loading chute – trucks and trailers could reach it at any time. The rest of the corral can then be built around it.
• Fences should be 168-184 cm high
• Corral posts – 183 cm apart, at least 75 cm deep

Gates

– Animals should be able to see where the handler

wants them to go
– Important in working corrals. It is best to place them
in the corners of corrals or other convenient places
where cattle go.
– Should be open in the direction where cattle are
being driven.

Race (single passageway/pathway) is constructed to facilitate segregating animals into individual pens. Essential parts
of the Race: Squeeze, dipping vat, weighing scale, and loading chute.

Squeeze:
For restraining animal for deforming, branding castrating, testing for testing for tuberculosis, vaccinating, or in
performing minor surgical operations. Such arrangement saves a great deal of labor in catching and throwing animals.
An ideal cattle squeeze is durable, can thoroughly restrain the animals, and is convenient for the operator. Cattle
squeeze is normally a part of the pen arrangement in cattle corrals.

Dipping vat:

This is essential for mass the mass-control of ticks, lice, flies, and other external parasites. The vat should be built on
one side of the corral system where water supply is abundant. It should be as near the center of the grazing area as
possible to avoid long travel to and from it; and should have approaches on hard ground.
A simple roof over the vat prevents the rain from diluting the dipping solution. It should prevent excessive
evaporation which increases the concentration during sunny days.
A heard of 200 animal unit (a.u) or more justifies the construction of a dipping vat. Initial cost is high, however, in the
long run, it is more economical in controlling external parasites. Dipping is more economical than spraying because the
chemical solution prepared for dipping can be used for several times within a year. Spraying, on the other hand, needs
one chemical solution per treatment. However, with a small herd of animals of 50-100 heard or even less, spraying with
the use of potable sprayer is more practical and maybe economical than dipping.

Weighing scale:

One of the basic tools and an important piece of equipment in the cattle business is the weighing scale. This is used
for measuring the progress and attainment of production and marketing goals, usually expressed in terms of weight. Birth
weight, weaning weight, daily weight gain, feed efficiency, and carcass data are some important parameters in
measuring the profitability of the enterprise. Moreover, a weighing scale also determines the total animal unit of the herd.
Knowing this, the total number of animals to gaze in a given pasture lot can be determined, based on the feasible
stocking rate of the pasture area. This way, overstocking, which is harmful to the growth of the forage in the pasture, will
be avoided.
If possible, a weighing scale should be built within the corral system with some kind of housing or shelter over it. The
only time the cattle should cross the scale is when the animals are being weighed.

Chute
Chute is a strongly built stall or cage for holding cattle, horses, or other livestock safely while they are examined,
marked, or given veterinary treatment. Cows may be made to suckle calves in a crush. For the safety of the animal and
the people attending it, a close-fitting crush may be used to ensure the animal stands "stock still". The overall purpose of
a crush is to hold an animal still to minimize the risk of injury to both the animal and the operator while work on the
animal is performed.

Loading chute: For loading and unloading animal. The extensive use of trucks and trailers in cattle farms necessitates
the use of a chute for loading and unloading stocks. The main essentials are proper height for the truck commonly served,
adequate width to accommodate the animals, and sufficient slope and cleating to the platform approach to prevent
slipping.
Farm Resources

• Permanent Resources
• Semipermanent Resources
• Variable Resources

Permanent Resources
• Use the information to design a fencing layout that maximizes forage efficiency and provides proper rest periods
for plant growth and recovery. Permanent resources, such as soil type, slope, and aspect, affect fencing layout
plans. Pastures should have similar soil type, slope, and aspect to provide uniform forage production and grazing
distribution.
Semi-permanent Resources
• Semi-permanent resources include water and shade.
• critical for livestock productivity but can be modified to accommodate the fencing layout.
• Water – Fencing layout should be planned to allow livestock access to adequate water supplies. A continuous
supply of clean water is essential for all livestock.
• When possible, fence off surface water sources, such creeks and ponds, to prevent livestock from
entering water bodies.
Variable Resources
• Variable resources also play a major role in fencing decisions. A combination of cool- and warm-season grasses,
along with compatible legumes, can provide a good forage supply throughout the grazing season.
• Use temporary fences to subdivide pastures by grazing method, such as creep grazing or leader-follower grazing,
and to separate acreage designated for hay production.
• More economical than permanent fences when small paddocks are needed

Feeding facilities

Factors to be considered:
• Labor efficiency
• Good drainage
• Protection of feed from bad weather
• Protection of animals from bad weather
Space allowances:
• 76 cm per dehorned animal
• 107 cm per horned animal
• 61 cm per calf
• Concrete slab 3-3.65 m wide – along full length of feeding trough – keeps cattle out of mud and facilitates
cleaning.
Barn or shed floor:
• Cows or steers 2 years or over – 4-5 sq. m
• Yearlings – 3-4 sq. m
• Calves 160-230 kg – 2-3 sq. m
• Cows in maternity stall – 10-15 sq. m
• Herd bulls – 10-15 sq. m
• Water trough
• 30.5 cm (1 foot) of open water tank space per 10 cattle or
• 1 automatic watering bowl per 25 cattle

Weighing scale – measure profitability; measure no. of a.u.

Dipping Vat – for mass control of external parasites. If >200 a.u., more economical than spraying because chemical can be
used several times a year.
Sprayer – if 50-100 head.
Rain gauges – for rainfall pattern

Watering facilities
Mature cattle – consume about 45 liters of water per head daily

Nutrition

Herbage – natural feed of cattle

Herbage production is greatly helped by the following factors:

• Adequate rainfall for most parts of the year
• Soil fertility
• Use of improved forage/pasture species
• Grazing management – avoid premature grazing, overgrazing or undergrazing
• Reseeding, fertilization, sub-soiling, other pasture renovation practices

Nutrients and their functions:

• Carbohydrates – chief source of calories or energy
• Fats – more concentrated source of energy (twice more than CHOs and proteins). Energy reserve is expressed in
terms of fat deposits
• Proteins – provide amino acids for the building and repair of protein tissues
• Minerals – essential for animal life and health
• Vitamins – play an important role in maintaining vigor, health and productivity
• Water – acts as solvent for chemical reactions, carrier of absorbed nutrients, medium of excretion of wastes,
regulate body temperature

Mature cattle – consume about 45 liters of water per head daily

Nutrient Requirements:
“Rule of thumb”
• Mature cattle - 2% of body weight in dry matter feed
• 2-year-old heifer, steer or bull – 2.5% of body weight
• yearling or younger – 3% of body weight

“Air dry” – refers to the feed or ration having approximately 12-14% moisture content under ordinary conditions

Roughage – feed which is relatively high in fiber and low in total digestible nutrients (TDN)
Forages (pasture herbage, soilage or green chop, silage or hay)
Farm by-products (rice straw, corn stover, sugarcane tops, etc.)

Stocking Rate – usually measured in tems of animal unit (a.u.) per hectare
• Cow, bull, heifer (above 3 years old) = 1 a.u.
• Bull, heifer or steer (2-3 years old) = 0.75 a.u.
• Bull, heifer or steer (1-2 years old) = 0.5 a.u.
• Calf under 1 year of age = 0.25 a.u.

Rule of thumb:
• Native cogon pasture in the Philippines = 1 mature animal/ha/yr
• Majority of grasslands (undulating steep slopes, 3-6 months dry season) = 0.25-0.5 a.u./ha more realistic
• Improved pasture (grass-legume) with fertilizer = 2 a.u./ha

Native forage species:

• Imperata cylindrica – Cogon • Chrysopogon aciculatus - Amorseco
• Themeda triandra – Bagokbok • Capillepedium parviflorum - Misamis grass
• Saccharum spontaneum - Talahib • Themeda arundinacea – Malatanglad

Improved grasses:
• Andropogon gayanus (Gamba grass)
• Brachiaria brizantha (Brizantha), B. decumbens (Signal grass), B. humidicola (Humidicola), B. mutica (Para grass), B.
ruziziensis (Ruzi)
• Panicum maximum (Guinea grass)
• Paspalum atratum (Paspalum)
• Pennisetum purpureum and hybrids (Napier)
• Setaria sphacelata (Setaria)

Recommended legumes:
• Arachis pintoi • Desmodium cinerea (or D. rensonii)
• Calliandra calothyrsus • Gliricidia sepium (Kakawate, Madre de Cacao)
• Centrosema macrocarpum, C. pubescens • Leucaena leucocephala (Ipil-ipil)
• Desmanthus virgatus • Stylosanthes guianensis (Stylo)

Pasture Management

Forage crops from the basis of the nutritional programs in ruminant livestock in the Philippines. Most of the about 90%
of the cattle in the Philippines which are raised by small hold farmers, and the almost 100% of the carabaos are fed solely on
forages, i.e. without or with minimal concentrates. The main sources of this forage or roughage are: 1) weeds or
indigenous/native vegetation, 2) farm by-products or residues and, to a very limited extent, 3) sown pastures.
Native tropical grasslands are mainly composed of short-season species which grow fast and tall during rainy season,
and become dominant in the pasture. While grasses are growing actively protein is reasonably good.

At the end of the rainy season, the plants develop tall, flowering stems, which decrease in protein and increase in
carbohydrates and fiber. From this point onwards, the grass matured, dries off and become leached. Feed value is extremely
low. Stock grazing this dried off, stalky mass of material do not even get their maintenance requirement and lose weight. Low
levels of animal production are inevitable because stocking rates must be adjusted to this period of minimum feed supply.

As native grasses are usually adapted to low soil fertility levels, the direct application of fertilizers alone will not
produce any dramatic improvement in feed value or carrying capacity. Further, in these native grassland there is a complete
or almost absence of legumes which themselves cannot supply high protein feed.

The Need for Improvement Pasture

The value of a forage species is measured by its ability to supply the grazing animal with energy, protein, vitamins
and minerals. The feed value of native forage species and/or farm by-products or residues is low. The productivity of the
ruminants subsisting on these feeds is thus limited by inadequate nutrition. There is now a wide range of forage species, both
grasses and legumes available replace native vegetation.

Philippine Grassland Community Types

Scientific Name Common Name

Saccharum spontancum Talahib

Imperata cylindrical Cogon
Theneda triandra Bagokbok
Capillidedium parviflorum Misamis grass
Chrysopogon aciculatus Amorseco

Weeds
 Scientific Name Common Name

Lantana camara Lantana

Blumea balsamifera Sambong
Amorphophallus campanulatus Pongapong
Pteridium aquilinum Bracken fern
Chromolaena odorata Hagonoy, Gonoy
Mimosa invisa Giant mimosa
Solanum ferox wild eggplant

Establishing Pastures

In a commercial dairy farm, it is necessary to establish pasture as soon as possible. Here, a more thorough and positive
method of establishing pasture is needed. Land preparation is important in planting grasses as in planning agronomic crops
as com and rice. The intensity of land preparation depends on whether the land is a newly opened timber or rainforest land,
or a native grassland or open woodland. Also the type of planting materials affects the thoroughness of seedbed preparation.
Planting seeds of pasture species usually requires a firmer seedbed than com and sorghum because the seeds are smaller.

Sowing Time
The most reliable time for planting is just before the rainy season, or shortly after the first rains have fallen. For many of
the small grass seeds, which must be planted close to the surface, available moisture is quite critical for germination and
emergence. Warmer temperature usually occurs with the opening rains, and this favors germination of grass and legume
seeds. Further, at this time of the year the air humidity is high and evaporation is reduced. Both these factors favor seeding
survival.

Management of Improved Pastures

Management is as important as selecting the right pasture species and applying the correct fertilizers. It is perhaps
more of art than science, and the best managers are those who by observation and practical experience endeavor to
combine the welfare of their livestock with the welfare of the plants in the pasture.

Efficient Pasture Use

Efficient use of the pasture aims at carrying as much stock as possible but at the same time animals should be making
maximum liveweight gains. In other words, as stocking relates are increased, the output per animal decreases. Maximum
production per hectare is measured by beef or milk produced, or at a point when the output per animal multiplied by the
number of stock carried is at its highest.

Stocking rates must, of course, be kept below a figure where damage to the sward or influx of weeds occurs. This
means that there must be some provision for feeding animals of this likely. Alternatives open are conservation of hay or silage,
purchased of feed, adjusted or sale of stock.

Forage Utilization
1. Cut and Carry
- forages are cut and brought to the animals
- requires a compromise between maximizing forage yield and maintaining forage quality
- consideration: nutritional quality of he forages, legumes in particular is very high when they cut frequently.
However, frequent cutting reduces he growth rate of the forage.

Recommended only when:

- land is limited
- labor and capital are available
- potential for increasing production and market of animal’s products is high

Recommended cutting intervals

- grass (5-6 weeks)
- legumes (8-12 weeks)

The stems of grasses have more of the indigestible lignin than the leaves.
In general, cutting should be above the growing points of the plan to allow regrowth.

2.Grazing
- animals are allowed to feed on the pasture
- overgrazing reduces the overall yield and quality of the forage.
Recommended only when:
- land area is adequate to support the number of animal in the farm
- capital for fencing and other facilities are available
 Stocking rate: refers to the number of animals a hectare of pasture could support, expressed in animal units, (a.u)

Pasture Stocking Rate (Animal Unit Conversion)

Stocking rate depends on available pasture: 0.25 – 0.5 a.u per hectare

Native imperata (cogon) pasture: 1 mature animal/ 3-4ha/year

Majority of grasslands (undulating steep slopes, 3-6 months dry season): 0.25 – 0.5 au/ha
Improved pasture (grass-legume) w/ fertilizer: 2au/hectar

3. Rotational Grazing
- assignment of herd groups to specific pasture area at any given time
- aims to utilize efficiently all existing pasture to optimize animal performance
- pasture are divided into paddocks
Advantages:
- allows forages for regrowth
- lessen the parasitic development
Disadvantages: requires fencing, thus costly

Feeding Behavior
When grazing, cattle divide their day among grazing, drinking, walking, resting and ruminating. They may spend from
3-13 hours per day grazing, 6-8 hours ruminating (chewing the cud) and the balance resting but this will vary with the
type of pasture and the season of the year.
In good quality pasture, cattle will be seen resting and ruminating whereas they need to keep weather, many cattle
rest at midday and graze in the cooler early morning and evening. Bos taurus cattle may seek shade while Bos indicus
cattle are happy to graze in the sun.

Animal Health Program

Herd Health Management

Herd health management must integrate livestock medicine with modern production technology. The responsibility
of a programmed health and care and disease control is equally divided between the veterinarian and the livestock raiser.
The veterinarian devices such a program with due consideration to the local conditions and resources while the livestock
raisers implement it with optimal supervision. Their complementary activities have the objective of attaining healthy and
productive animals. Even with such efforts, diseases or abnormalities may still occur and these must be reported promptly for
early suppression and treatment.

The slow growth of the cattle industry in the country is spite of the efforts to increase the number of the species may
be partly attributed to low conception rate (<50%), a high pre-weaning and post weaning mortality rates (>10%) and annual
death losses in mature cattle (2>%). These death losses affecting young and mature stocks are expectedly high inasmuch as
these animals do not get the benefit of an effective disease control program. The readily identifiable causes of deaths among
cattle herds fall under the broad categories of infectious, nutritional, and parasitic diseases. Although variations in their degree
of incidence and severity of illness occur between herds and age groups, the ultimate effect is the poor production either
due to death or setbacks in growth and reproductive efficiency of the animal.

Some suggested disease preventive measure are:

a. Start with healthy stocks. Purchase animals most be rigidly examined for abnormalities, defects or signs of illness, must
come from reliable sources of known sturdy parental stocks and must be under isolation for a minimum of 30 days after
purchase.

b. Work-ups for parasite and disease control such as deworming, deticking and immunizations must be done during the
isolation period.

c. For the unconfined stock or pasture herds, maintain a similar program with emphasis on their proper application on a
continuing basis. In areas where there is a high incidence of liverfluke, deworming with effective flukecides every 3-4
months will help control this parasite.

d. Provide adequate quality ration since well nourished cattle do not only perform better but are more resistant to infectious
and parasitic.

e. Give optimum protection from environmental sress by providing proper housing and clean water supply

f. When individually confined or herd quartered, practice sanitation on the pens. Prompt waste disposal should be done to
rid houses and pens of pests and insects which thrive on manure and other wastes.

g. Graze in pasture relatively safe from infective stages of internal parasites particularly livefluke. For the latter, snail control
and pasture management should compliment regular deworming with an effective flukecide.

h. Deworm regularly for other internal or gastroenteric parasites. Mature stocks may serve as carriers of parasites. Where
parasitisms with nematodes is high, deworm 3 to 4 times or as recommended.

i. Detick with effective chemicals with due consideration on proper concentration and frequency as recommended by the
manufactures

j. Unproductive breeding stocks must be culled out o the herd and replaced with tested or potentially good breeders.

k. Conduct regular checks for the presence of parasitic diseases. Random fecal examination conducted at regular intervals
 may help check the increase in the incidence and severity of parasitisms.

l. During disease outbreaks or when the animal is visibly ill, segregate it immediately and seek immediate veterinary
assistance. Intensify efforts of environmental control through sanitation and disinfection on contaminated quarters and
utensils.

m. Immunize regularly against diseases prevalent in the area; community vaccination may be arranged with the proper
authorities’ way ahead of expected disease outbreaks.

n. Segregate the cattle from other animals like carabaos, goats and sheep to avoid intertransmission of the disease among
these species.

Health Program for Cattle

Before Breeding:

a. If there is a group of animals from which breeders are to be selected, pick out those which are potentially good ones
based on physical characteristics, temperament or previous reproductive performance and pedigree if known.

b. Blood test the animals for diseases such as brucellosis and leptospirosis especially in areas where these diseases are known
to occur or when reproductive failures suggest their presence in the area. Consult the provincial veterinarian or any
other veterinary authority for guidance

c. Deworm animals with wide spectrum anthelmintic. Where liverfluke is widespread or is confirmed to be present in the
animals or herd, treat it simultaneously with any available flukecides.

d. Inject with Vitamin ADE to improve the reproductive performance

e. Vaccinate against diseases prevalent in the area i.e., hemorrhagic septicemia, blackleg, brucellosis, anthrax. All
vaccination must be spaced out and accomplished preferably before breeding or pregnancy.

Pregnancy Period:

a. Maintain animal on high plane of nutrition. Provide nutritional supplements such as minerals and vitamins, if necessary.
Deficiencies of energy, protein, vitamins and minerals during gestation gave been linked to increased mortality and
poor viability of calves. Inject Vitamin ADE in the second or third trimester of pregnancy.

b. Where immunization of bacterial of bacterial diseases are indicated (Salmonella, Pasteurella, Letospira) bacterins may
be given at 7-8 months of pregnancy. The protection conferred is not only for the dam but also for the calf by way of
passive immunity through the colostrum.

c. At about the last 2-3 weeks of pregnancy, deworm against common intestinal roundworm using wide spectrum
dewormers.

d. Feeding should be reduced at the last 2-3 weeks of pregnancy.

Calves and Post-Calving:

a. Segregate expectant cows from the herd at least one week before calving. Provide adequate and comfortable quarters.
Avoid unnecessary stresses caused by excitement, transport, unsanitary environment, adverse climatic conditions. Etc.

b. Prepare calving area. An ideal calving pen should be a small, clean and dry area preferably free from build-up of fifth
and manure. Clean straw as bedding in the maternity area is a practical material to reduce gross contamination and
subsequent infection of the calf. Before calving, the genital area and udder should be washed thoroughly to reduce
gross contamination and infection of the calf during suckling time.

c. For day old calf, cut the umbilical cord and paint the remaining stump with strong tincture of iodine. It must suckle after
parturition to receive the colostrum. If the calf is unable to suckle, assist or train it to nurse on the dam

d. To prevent uterine infection in the dam, antibiotic boluses may be inserted high up into the vagina. Retained placenta
(unexpelled beyond 24 hours) must be removed by gentle traction an when unsuccessful inject Pitocin or oxytocin as
indicated. Flesh genitalia with mild antiseptics like diluted Lysol or potassium permanganate solution.

Calves up to Weanling

a. In area where internal parasitism is common especially ascaris infection, deworm calves as ealy as 4-5 weeks, repeat
after 30 days. Dose with piperazine compounds or any equivalent dewormer in their proper dosages.

b. When necessary, as when calves appear weak, unthrifty looking or runty, supplement nursing calves with
multivitamin/mineral preparations preferably Vitamin B complex. Water-soluble nutritional supplements may be made
available at all times to the calves.

c. Since calves are easily infected with ticks and other external parasites, spray with appropriate insecticides. These
chemicals are potentially poisonous f applied improperly. Seek technical advice as to the proper dosages, formulations
and interval of application. For cattle ticks, the general advice is to apply the chemical solution at interval of 3 weeks
for 5 consecutive times.

d. Vaccinate against diseases prevalent in the area when the calf is 6 months or more preferably before weaning.

e. Repeat deworming against gastrointestinal parasites at 2 to 3 months and again immediately before weaning.
 f. To reduce the stressful effect of weaning the calf from the dam, allow it to creep feed a few weeks in advance of their
weaning. Leave the calf in the pasture or corral where creep is located until final weaning is done.

Yearling – Growing Period

a. When immunity due to previous vaccination has lapsed, repeat the procedure
b. Repeat tick control
c. Treat against liverfluke. Repeat flukecide treatment every 3 months especially in areas iin areas where this parasite in very
common. Where such treatment has considerably reduced the infection, dosing may be repeated twice a year
thereafter.
d. For sporadic incidence of specific diseases, consult a veterinarian for proper treatment and control.

DAIRY CATTLE PRODUCTION

Philippine Dairy Situation, Year 2017

• The Philippines produces less than one percent of its total annual dairy
requirement and imports the balance. Data from the NDA shows that local milk
production (from cattle, carabao, and goats) was 21,160 metric tons (MT) in 2016,
up from 20,390 MT in 2015.
• Roughly 65 percent of it is cow’s milk. The value of dairy production in 2015
amounted to P715 million ($14 million).
• Local milk production is projected to reach 22,000 MT in 2017 and will likely
continue expanding on an annual basis due to increasing consumer preference
for fresh milk and improved dairying capabilities.

• Average Philippine milk production per animal (8 liters/day) remains low due
mainly to poor feed and management practices as well as high production 40 Ave. Milk
costs and a lack of adequate dairy infrastructure. Production L/Day
• By comparison, the average daily milk yield in the United States is around 30
liters/day and about 20 liters/day in the United Kingdom. According to the NDA,
the average farmgate price of milk increased slightly from P31.54/liter ($0.65) in
30
2015 to P34.75/liter ($0.68) in 2016. The corresponding farmgate price of milk in 30
the U.S. is about $0.39/liter ($17.30 hundred weight) as of July 2017.
20
As of January 1, 2016, the total dairy 20
animal population was 44,432
heads. This was 6.34 percent higher 10
than last year’s headcount. Dairy
cattle stocks grew by 8.95 percent. 8
Dairy carabao and dairy goat
population went up by 2.91 percent 0
and 6.75 percent respectively.
Phil USA UK
Liter
 As of 2015, milk production in
the country was 20.39 million
liters. This was 3.34 percent
higher than last year’s level of
19.73 million liters. Of this total,
12.93 million liters or 63.42
percent were cow’s milk; 7.12
million liters or 34.93 percent
were carabao’s milk and 0.34
million liters or 1.65 percent
were goat’s milk.

Philippine Dairy Imports

• Dairy products are currently the country’s third largest agricultural

import after wheat and soybean meal.
• According to NDA, total imports of dairy products reached a record 2.77 MMT LME in 2016 on low global dairy prices
and strong local demand. Stocks were accumulated during this period of low prices as well.
• Post expects imports in 2017 to decline slightly to 2.5 MMT as global dairy prices begin to recover and domestic stocks
remain high
Major suppliers of Milk to the Philippines

• New Zealand with a 39 percent share of total imports by volume, the United
States with 24 percent, and Australia with 6 percent
• Skim Milk Powder (SMP) and Whole Milk Powder (WMP) imports comprise almost
60 percent of total dairy imports

Four main types of dairy farms in the Philippines

1. Individual smallholder producers (who consume and sell locally what they produce),
2. Smallholder cooperatives (who deliver their milk to a collection point for transport to a processing plant),
3. Commercial farms (which supply processors), and;
4. Government farms (which supply school and rural community feeding programs).

Breeds and Selection

Selection criteria for dairy cattle:

1. General appearance - milkiness, feminine refinement. Symmetry, balance of body and mammary system, barrel
capacity, straight long back and topline to represent strength for milking longevity.
2. Dairy character - angular body with lack of beefiness, not too thin nor too fat. Body smoothness and openness is evidence
of milking ability
3. Body capacity - long, wide and deep barrel, strongly supported by well-sprung ribs, large heart girth. Body capacity
indicates heart and lung capacity, as well as capacity to handle feed needed for milking.
4. Mammary system - strongly attached, well carried for a long milking career. Large, soft pliable udders indicate a sufficient
amount of active milk glands and storage capacity. Blood veins should be prominent due to the large amount of blood
required to produce milk.

Popular Breeds of Dairy Cattle in the Philippines:

Foreign/Introduced Dairy Breeds

 Australian Friesian Sahiwal, Australian Illawara Shorthorn, Brown Swiss, Guernsey, Holstein Friesian, Jersey, Red Dane,
Red Sindhi, Senepol
Foreign/Introduced Dual-purpose Breeds
 Balinese – work and beef
 Sahiwal – milk and beef
 Nellore or Ongole – work and milk
 Tharparkar – work and milk

Examples of Breeds:

1. Ayrshire
Desirable Traits: hardiness, excellent grazing ability, style, symmetry, strong attachment of udder, smooth and clean dairy
type body
Undesirable Traits: nervous, fair rating for beef and veal, lack of heat tolerance

2. Brown Swiss
Desirable Traits: hardy animals, excellent grazing ability, large size, desirable for beef and veal, docility, large volumes of milk,
high percentage of milk fat and solids
Undesirable Traits: stubborn, lack of heat tolerance

3. Guernsey
Desirable Traits: docile, high milk fat and total solids content, yellow milk
Undesirable Traits: yellow body fat, small size, undesirable for veal production, lack of heat tolerance
4. Jersey
Desirable Traits: large amount of milk fat, uniformity in type, yellow milk
Undesirable Traits: yellow body fat, small size, undesirable for veal and beef production, lack of heat tolerance

5. Holstein-Freisian
Desirable Traits: highest milk production, lowest milk fat, good size, fast growth, good carcass, desirable for beef and veal
production
Undesirable Traits: lack of heat tolerance

6. Sahiwal
Desirable Traits: heat tolerance, high milk fat, resistance to parasites and diseases
Undesirable Traits: low milk production, lack of cold tolerance

Temperate breeds: -1 – 10ºC

Tropical breeds: 10 – 27ºC

Other Dairy Breeds

1. Norwegian Red –
Using the classical definition, the Norwegian Red cannot be considered a breed. It is an amalgamation to develop superior
strain of dual-purpose cattle
• Cows are selected for milking potential, rate of milk flow and fertility
• They do not express the external uniformity seen in true breed, although they are red or red-pied for the most part.
• Cows weigh about 495 kg; bulls about 900 kg. Milk yields average 5,804 kg per lactation.
2. Milking Devon
- The Milking Devon is a medium sized triple-purpose breed adapted to survive on a low-quality, high forage diet under severe
climatic conditions. They are healthy, long lived, and thrive on good care and management.
They are medium-sized cattle: cows average 1,100 pounds (499 kilos) and bulls 1,600 pounds (726 kilos).
The Milking Devon produces Jersey-quality milk, without the Jersey’s dependence on grain. Milk production depends a lot on
feed of course. Butterfat and protein numbers in Milking Devons are high, in the same range as the Jersey and the Guernsey.
Butterfat of 6% or higher is common.

3. Kerry – Irish breed

In appearance they are black, of fine dairy type with white horns tipped black, though many herds are now dehorned. The
Kerry is adaptable and hardy, of manageable size (350-450kg), calves easily and has a long and productive life, some still
calving at 14 and 15 years of age.
Average milk yield is between 2950 and 3650kg at 4% butterfat and there are quite a number of cows capable of yielding
4535kg at 4% and over.

4. Dutch Belted (Lakenvelder)

- The name Lakenvelder or Lakenfield cattle derives from the word “laken” meaning a sheet or cloth, referring to the white
band passing around the body.
The Dutch Belted (Lakenvelder) breed traces directly to the original belted cattle which were described in Switzerland and
Austria. The breed was then established in the Netherlands in the 17th century.
Their milk tests 3.5 to 5.5 per cent butter fat making it an ideal drinking milk. Dutch Belted are small-boned, making them very
easy calving. They have unusual longevity and fertility, high meat yield and friendly dispositions.

5. Canadienne
Canadienne cattle were developed in Canada primarily from animals imported from Normandy and Brittany during the 16th
and 17th century
Canadiennes produce good quantities of milk in relation to their own body size and food requirements. The meat tends to be
lean, and the light bone results in a high percentage of usable meat in relation to total body weight. A cow annually produces
about 3800 kg of 4.4% butterfat, 3.6% protein milk.

6. Sahiwal
Milk yield 2270 kg/year (calf suckling)
Origin: India/Pakistan
It is tick-resistant, heat-tolerant and noted for its high resistance to parasites. Due to their heat tolerance and high milk
production they are exported to other Asian & African countries.Color can range from reddish brown to the more predominant
red
The Sahiwal is the heaviest milker of all Zebu breeds and display a well-developed udder. Sahiwals demonstrate the ability to
sire small, fast-growing calves and are noted for their hardiness under unfavorable climatic conditions.

7. Illawara
Temperate dairy breed, Developed in NSW, Australia
From Ayrshire, Devon and Milking Shorthorn
Color: predominantly red with some roans and whites. High resistance to sunburn. Docile
Consistently produce very high protein commercial milk.
Average milk yield is 3,800 liters with butterfat of 3.6%.

8. Sindhi
Also known as Malir, Red Karachi & Sindhi
Origin: Pakistani state of Sind. Deep, rich red color but may vary from yellowish brown to dark brown. Males are darker &
extremities almost black. Adaptable, hardy, good forager, resistance to heat and ticks
Milk yield 1700 to 3400 kg depending on management
Some data of temperate breeds performing favorably in the Philippines

Ave. weight (male • Ave. daily milk Average Lactation

Breed
female) (kg) production (kg) butterfat (%) period (days)

Holstein Friesian 818 • 568 22 3.6 300

Jersey 636 • 431 13 5.2 300-365

Brown Swiss 909 • 591 17 4.0 300-365

Some data of tropical breeds performing favorably in the Philippines

Ave. weight (male • Ave. daily milk Average Lactation
Breed
female) (kg) production (kg) butterfat (%) period (days)
Sahiwal 540 • 370 8 4.9 300
Red Sindhi 415 • 310 6 4.9 275

Tharparkar 540 • 385 6 4.3-6 268

Foreign/Introduced Dual-Purpose Breeds

Balinese Cattle
 Origin: Bos sondaicus of Indonesia = direct descendants of wild Banteng, which have been domesticated over the
centuries
 Banteng – big & muscular, front part of body higher

Nellore (Nelore) or Ongole

 Origin: India, but developed in South America
 White or red
 Large (over 6 feet), can pull a 4-ton load
 Can survive & thrive on poor quality roughage, Tick resistant, heat resistant
 Dewlaps very large, Humps are huge & tall, often lean to one side
 Stumpy horns but loose (poorly developed core)
Tharparkar – also known as White Sindhi
 Origin: India
 White or gray with light gray stripe along backbone while skin color is black
 Color deepens during winter & when pregnant
 Became prominent in First World War - can work in arid conditions & yet produce milk
 If not held frequently, they become wild & vicious

Foreign/Introduced Draft Breeds

Bhagnari
 Origin: Bhag territory, Pakistan
 White to gray, deepening to almost black on the neck, shoulder & hump in mature males, black switch
 Compact & massive, suitable for heavy draught work. Neck short & strong with small dewlap
 Ears small & pointed. Horns are stumpy

Hariana
 Found in Northern India
 Grey or white
 Females also milked – up to 2300 kg
 Well suited to fast road work – can pull a 1-ton load at 2 miles/hour for 20 miles/day

Housing and Equipment (Facilities)

3 types:
• Stanchion barn
• Each cow is tied in a stanchion, tie stall or comfort stall most of the time, except when grazing or at exercise.
• Cows may be milked in the stanchion or in a milking room.
• Loose housing
• Cows are free to move between resting, feeding and watering areas.
• Cows rest in free stalls or loafing shed.
• Cows are usually milked in a milking room.
• Free stall
• Cross between conventional stall barn and loose housing = consists of individual resting areas but no feeding area
in front of cows, i.e. feeding area is separate.
• Stalls (resting, milking, feeding) are separate compartments which cows can enter or leave at will.

Milking Parlor
Place where the cows go to get milked and used for other purposes
at least 4 types:
• Abreast (parallel)
• chute (walk through)
• side opening (gate-type)
• herringbone
2 systems:
 • floor-level
• elevated

Cow-to-can milking with elevated stalls Walk-through parlor with four stalls

Gate-type stalls (or single side opening) (open side)

- cows stand in an end to end configuration during milking and units are attached from the side gives the maximum
view of and access to cows by the operator during milking suited in situations in which individual cow.

Double herringbone milking parlor

- cows stand on elevated platforms on either side and
at an angle of about 45 degrees to the edge of the
operator’s area allows the operator access to the
sides of the udder for cow preparation and unit
attachment.

Rotary abreast (or turnstyle) milking parlor

Rotary tandem (carousel) milking parlor

- cows walk on to a rotating milking platform one at a time
- cows move past an operator where cow preparation and unit attachment is performed; - a 2nd operator is positioned
near the exit to remove milking units if detachers are not used and to apply post milking sanitizers
- number of stalls: 10-60 or more
 Rotary herringbone milking parlor Polygon herringbone milking parlor

Herringbone

- Cow stand on elevated platform on either side and at an angle of about 45 degrees to the edge of the operator’s
area allows the operator access to the sides of the udder for cow preparation and unit attachment

Parallel/Side-by-side parlors

- cow stand on elevated platforms at 90-degree

angle to the operator area
- access to the udder for cow preparation and unit
attachment is between the cow’s rear legs

Fences – for stock control and proper grazing rotation. 3-4

strand with gauge 8 plain and barbed wire is best.
Plain wire should be the top wire. Post may be lauan,
guijo, yakal, molave or other hardwood. Post interval:
1.8-2.4 m. Bury post 76-91 cm leaving 1.2 m above
ground.

Nutrition (Feeds and Feeding)

Nutritive requirements of dairy cattle

• Energy • Minerals
• Protein • Vitamins
• Fats and oils • Water
Recommended grasses
• Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) • Pangola grass (Digitaria decumbens)
• Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) • African star grass (Cynodon plectostachyus)
• Para grass (Brachiaria mutica) • Alabang X (Dicanthium aristatum)
Recommended legumes
• Centro (Centrosema pubescens) • Schofield stylo (Stylosanthes guyanensis)
• Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala) • Siratro (Phaseolus atropurpureus)
• Townsville stylo (Stylosanthes humilis)
Recommended grass/legume mix
• Guinea/Stylo
• Centro/Napier
• Para/Stylo
• Guinea/Centro

Pasture propagation:
1. Prepare land thoroughly – to outgrow weeds
2. Planting – start of rainy season
3. Plant vegetative cuttings (canes or stem cuttings, tufts or root stocks, rhizomes or stolons) or seeds
4. Seeds: 0.6 in deep (1.2-2.5 cm)
• Small seeds: 3-5 kg pure live seed (PLS)/hectare
• Large seeds: 6-10 PLS/ha.
5. Fertilizers:
• Complete fertilizer: 400 kg/ha/yr
• P2O5 (phosphorous): 30-60 kg/ha/yr.
• Lime (if soil pH <5.0): 2-4 tons/ha
• Potassium (based on soil analysis)
• Recycle manure waste materials and intercropping of legumes

Grazing Management
Rotational grazing
• 50-60% grazed
 • 20-60 days recovery
Continuous grazing
• Only for extensive operations - native
Zero grazing (cut and carry system)
• Few animals, limited forage area

Care and Herd Management

Management of Calves
 Some guidelines at calving:
 Allow dam to cleanse the calf. Drain out the mucus from nose & mouth.
 Tie navel cord ~3 cm from body. Cut cord 2 cm distal to tied portion then soak in I or apply wound powder.
 Assist calf to suckle colostrum as early as possible. Separate from dam immediately or max. of 3 days.
 Watch for expulsion of placenta (usu. 5-6 h after birth). Dispose of properly.
 Weigh calf & give ID (e.g. ear notch) ASAP.
 Dehorning
 Chemical (caustic potash or soda), electric or hot iron cautery.
 Hot iron most practical esp. backyard
 Removal of supernumerary teats
Management of Growing Herd
 6 mos of age: separate heifer from bulls – to avoid premature breeding
Management of Breeding Heifers
 18-20 mos of age (min. 250 kg) – bred
 Periodic pregnancy dx
 Weigh every month
 Run with milking cows a month or so before calving
Management of Pregnant Herd
 Early pregnancy: may be managed with the heifers
 Last 2 mos of pregnancy: separate from heifers and mixed with the dry cows
 Should be given more care & attention & better nutrition
 One wk before calving: house separately.
 Prepare calving area – clean & dry beddings
 Round-the-clock observation for signs of calving:
 Reduced appetite
 Distended udder
 Swelling & congestion of vulva
 Mucus discharge from genitals
 Frequent urination
 Restlessness
Management of Dry Cows
 Dry off cow 2 mos before expected date of calving
 Milk once a day, then once every other day, then stop collection (intermittent process).
 Stop milking abruptly by reducing or removing the amount of concentrates.
 If with mastitis, use intermittent process then apply broad spectrum antibiotic infusion in all teats.
Management of Breeding Sire
 6-8 mos old: teach bull to lead.
 6 mos old: puncture nasal septum and insert nose ring (lightweight non-rusting material ~4 cm diam.).
 Allow >2 wks to heal before leading with the ring.
 10-12 mos old: replace ring with 7.5 cm brass ring.
 In commercial operations, group bulls into 3 categories:
 For semen collection
 For natural breeding
 Yearling bulls (12-20 mos old) – as replacement stock
Management of Replacement Stock
 To cover up losses due to culling or death.
 Maintain a 20% replacement for an average herd loss of 20% of the stock/year

Reasons for culling:

 Low milk yield
 Commercial: < 8 kg daily
 Backyard: lower production may be tolerated
 Problem breeders
 Poor dairy temperament
 Vices
 Health abnormalities

Management of Waste
 Objectives of manure disposal:
 minimize odor
 prevent  of flies & pests
 prevent seepage in water sources
 (organic fertilizer)

Breeding and Reproduction

Reproductive Physiology
 First estrus: 6-8 mos
 Estrus cycle: 17-23 days, avg. 21 days
 Estrus period: 8-30 h, avg. 19 h
 stands to be mounted
  ruffled hair & mud on rump & flanks
 restless & noisy
 clear mucus discharge, soiled tail
 swelling of vulva
 chin resting, sniffing, licking, mounting other animals
 frequent urination
 Ovulation: 7-12 h after end of standing heat
 Fertility of egg after ovulation: ~6 h
 Capacitation time for sperm: ~6 h
 Gestation period: 260-296 days, avg. 283 days
 Return to estrus: as early as 2 wks after calving, 22-51 days after calving

Breeding practices for heifers/cows

 Breed heifers: 220-250 kg (18-20 mos old)
 Milking cows: 60 days after calving depending on condition (usu. 2nd heat after calving)
 In general: breeding is done whenever heat is observed
 Keep animals in heat away from other animals

Breeding practices for bulls

 Breed bulls: 280 kg or 18 mos old, whichever comes first
 Limit frequency to 2X/wk
 3 yrs old: up to 5X/wk

Breeding Systems
 Purebreeding: mating of animals of the same breed
 inbreeding: closely related
 linebreeding: succession of related sires
 outcrossing: unrelated for several generations
 Grading up: mating of purebred sire to a native or grade female
 Crossbreeding: mating of 2 animals of different breeds

Artificial Insemination
 Advantages:
 Top quality semen is much cheaper than maintaining a bull
 No injuries to small cow
 Extends use of good sire
 Controls sexually-transmitted diseases

Pregnancy Diagnosis
 External signs of pregnancy:
 Cessation of estrus
 Enlargement of abdomen
 Increase in live weight
 Rectal palpation: 2-3 mos after breeding

Animal Products and By-products

Milk and Milk Products – nature’s most nearly perfect food

Components Cow milk Murrah Buffalo Carabao milk Goat milk
(%)
Fat 4.16 7.38 9.65 4.02
Protein 3.17 3.6 5.26 3.28
Lactose 4.68 5.48 5.29 4.2

Ash 0.71 0.78 0.95 0.79

 Pasteurization – process of heating milk to destroy any harmful organism, while causing minimal changes in the
composition, flavor & nutritive value (63ºC for 30 min or 72ºC for 15 sec). To prevent the growth of surviving bacteria, it
should be cooled rapidly after heating.
 Sterilized milk – milk heated at 110ºC for 30 min or 130ºC to 140ºC for 2 to 4 sec.
 Cheese – a concentrated milk product resulting from the coagulation of the milk usually by the combined action of
lactic acid and the enzyme rennin, the removal of some of the moisture as whey and the subsequent ripening of the
curd by microbial and other enzymes.
 Cream – the portion of milk rich in milk fat, that rises to the top of the milk while it is standing or is separated by means of
centrifugal separator.
 Skimmilk – that portion of milk which remain after removal of the cream in whole or in part.
 Evaporated milk – a liquid containing at least 25.8% total milk solids and 7.8% milk fat.
 Sweetened condensed milk – evaporated milk in which refined sugar (sucrose) or a combination of refined sugar and
refined corn sugar (dextrose) are added. It contains at least 28% milk solids and 8.5% milk fat.
 Yoghurt – fermented milk production made with the use of bacterial starters such as Lactobacillus bulgaricus or with
combinations of Streptococcus thermophilus.
 Whey – the watery portion of milk remaining after the removal of the fat and curd.
 Butter – For every 25 kg of cow’s milk about 1 kg of butter is produced. It must contain not less than 87% by weight of milk
fat.
 Buttermilk – fluid that results from the manufacture of butter from milk or cream. It contains at least 8.25% non-fat milk
solids.
 Casein – the protein precipitated from milk by acid and/or rennin.
 Recombined milk – skim milk standardized and reconstituted with butter oil.
 Reconstituted milk – milk powder dissolved in water.
 Filled milk – mixture of skimmed milk and refined coconut and oils fortified with vits. A and D.
 Starters – culture of lactic streptococci added to milk to promote acid development

Carabao Production

Major constraints in carabao production

 Poor reproductive capacity  Poor marketing
 Low productivity  Unrealistic credit facilities
 High mortality

Breeds and Selection

Chromosome number:
 2n = 48 (Swamp-type)
 2n = 50 (River-type)
 2n = 48, 49, 50 (Hybrids)

 Origin:
 Carabao – believed to have been introduced by the Chinese between 200 and 300 B.C.
 May have originated from the wild buffaloes of India.
 Importations:
 India: Murrah, Nili-Ravi, Kundi, Surti, Jaffarabadi, Mehsana, Nagpuri
 Kampuchean Buffalo
 Thai Swamp Buffalo
 Australia: feral buffaloes
 Bulgarian Murrah
 American Murrah
 Philippine Carabao
 Swamp-type. Ash-colored.
 Horns are extended outward to form a semicircular curvature.
 Two light gray chevrons
 Below the line of lower jaws
 Across the chest
 Body is relatively short but wide and low-set.
 Newborn calves – average 31.2 kg
 Weight at 3 yrs. – 361.5 kg
 Lactation yield – 535 kg
 Lactation length – 208.2 days

General types of water buffaloes:

River type Swamp type
Chromosome # 2n = 50 2n = 48
Main Use Milk and Meat Draft and Meat

Location Indian continent, Brazil, Europe, Southeast Asia including China

Egypt and Australia
Existing Breeds of Buffaloes
Riverine buffalo breeds
 Pandharpuri
 The breed is famous for its high reproductive ability, producing a calf every 12 months. Under average
management conditions and hot -dry climate these buffaloes yield 6-7 liters of milk per day; however under good
management they are reported to yield up to 15 lit of milk per day.
 The majority of the breed are black with white markings found on the forehead , legs and switch of tail.
 The Pandharpuri are medium sized with average body weight of 450-470 kg.
 Bulgarian Murrah Buffalo

 Nili-Ravi
 Nili = means blue (blue water of Sutlej river in Punjab) Origin: Pakistan
 Imported as frozen semen in 1983
 Black, but some are brown. Have white markings on forehead, face, muzzle, legs and switch
 Head is long, deep between the eyes and prominent at the forehead
 Undersized horns curve inward
 Average mature weight: male 590 kg, female 453 kg. Milk production: 6-7.5 kg/day
 Kundi (Milk Type)
 The color is solid black.
 The average weight at maturity for the male is 600 kg and 375 kg for the female.
 The horns are small and spirally twisted and hence the name "Kundi".
 The udder is large and strong and the longevity of production is 'good'.

 Surti
 River type
 Origin: India
 Black or brown; black or reddish skin; gray to rusty brown hair. Horns coil downward and upward to form a hook
 Two streaks of white markings are evident around the jaw from ear to ear & the other lower down the brisket
 Average mature weight: male 499 kg; female 408. Milk production: 5-6 kg/day

 Jaffarabadi
 Origin: India
 Color: Black with occasional white marking on the face and legs.
 Characteristics: Heavy and broad flat horns that incline to droop on each side of the neck and turn up of the tips,
but not curled. Teats and udder are well developed. Body is long and heavy.
 Ave. Mature Weight: Male: 589 kg, Female: 453 kg.
 Milk Production: 13-18 kg/day

 Egyptian Buffalo
 The Egyptian buffalo is kept as a draft animal and for milk production.
 They are grey-black with short curved horns.
 The varieties include Baladi (lower Egypt) and Saidi in upper Egypt.
 Mediterranean Buffalo
 Caucasian Buffalo
 Bufalypso

Swamp buffalo breeds

 Cambodian Buffalo
 Philippine Carabao
 Chinese Buffalo
 Thailand Buffalo
 Origin: Thailand Color: Black
 Characteristics: Hair is relatively long as compared to some other types; strong and broad bodied animals with
prominent muscling in neck, chest and back; massive and strong horn to form a moonlike crescent with ends
upwards.
 Ave. Mature Weight: Male: 540 kg, Female: 400 kg Milk Production: 0.90-1.00 kg/day
 Vietnamese Buffalo
 Malaysian
 Used primarily as a draft animal
 they are usually dark grey and occasionally white
 They have crescent horns.
 They originated from and are similar to Bubalus arnee.

Selection of stocks:
 Draft/carabeef – more points are given to hindquarters, then forequarters, then general appearance
 Dairy – emphasis on general appearance, temperament, mammary system

 F1 Hybrids
 Inter-specific crosses between Philippine Native and Murrah or Nili-Ravi are fertile (2n = 49)
 F2s – from inter se mating of F1s – consist of 3 karyotype categories (2n = 48, 2n = 49 and 2n = 50)
 Show hybrid vigor (heterosis) in milking ability, fertility, meat production, and working ability.
 Phil-Murrah F1 hybrid birth weight = 35 kg
 Phil-Murrah lactation yield = 1089 kg with 297 days lactation length
 Phil-Ravi lactation yield = 1,159 kg with 293 days lactation length

Housing and Equipment (Facilities)

Housing of buffaloes by farmers

• Common measurements of stalls in villages:
– Floor area 6 m2 or 1.5 x 4 m
– Height of roof 3m
 – Slope of roofing 2%

Nutrition (Feeds and Feeding)

Feeding systems
• All roughage system
– Forage: pasture grasses, soilage, silage, hay, etc.
– Crop residues: rice straw, corn stover, sugarcane tops, etc.
– Cut and carry system of grazing and tethering
• Roughage-concentrate system
– Addition of concentrate feeds in the ration (roughage). Commonly used in backyard and feedlot fattening
operations.
– Grains (corn), oil meals (copra meal), root crops (cassava), milling and factory by-products (rice bran).

Time spent on grazing

Time of day Time spent on grazing
AM 6:00-12:30 4 h 13 min
PM 12:31-5:00 2 h 25 min
Total 6 h 38 min

Water
• Buffaloes – take in more water than cattle especially when fed relatively dry materials
• 300 kg – need 20-25 l per day
• 35 l – height of summer because evaporation losses could amount to 20 L
• Lactating animals – 45 L per day
 GOAT PRODUCTION

Breeds and Selection

Types:
 Meat - Philippine Native Goat, Jumna Pari, Boer, Kalahari
 Milk - Anglo-Nubian, French Alpine, La Mancha, Saanen, Toggenburg
 Fiber – Angora, Cashmere

Popular Breeds in the Philippines

Philippine Native Goat
Foreign/Introduced Breeds: Anglo-Nubian, French Alpine, La Mancha, Saanen, Toggenburg, Boer

Important factors in choosing a buck:

 Blood composition
 Constitution and vigor
 Breeding quality
 Aggressiveness
Important factors in choosing a doe:
 Milk production ability
 Reproductive capacity
 Dairy temperament
 Motherly instinct

Housing and Equipment (Facilities)

Goat house specifications:

 Backyard – 2 x 3 m = sufficient for 2 goats
 Commercial: 2-3 m high, sloping to 1.5 m behind
 Floor = wooden slats 2.5 cm thick, 5 cm wide
 Floor elevated 1 to 1.5 m
 Minimum space per animal: 1 sq. m

Fence specifications:
 Height: 1.5 m
 Hog wire nailed to wooden posts at 3-4 equally distanced points
 Posts staked every 3-4 m

Nutrition (Feeds and Feeding)

Feeding habits of goats:

 Goats will accept a wide variety of feeds.
 Goats do not thrive well if kept on one feed for any length of time but to prefer to select from many varieties of feeds
and vegetation.
 Goats generally refuse anything which has been soiled by other animals.
 The appetite of the goat for any given concentrates or mixture of concentrates, fed in quantities of over 0.45 to 0.91
often decreases within a short period of time.
 Goats have a higher tolerance to bitter tastes

Practical Feeding Guides:

Lactating Does:
 Forage about 6 kg/hd/day
 Molasses 1 kg/20 l drinking water – to increase water consumption
 Vitamin-mineral salt – ad libitum

Pregnant Dry Does

 Concentrates 0.2-0.7 kg/day

Yearling Does
 Concentrates 0.2-0.7 kg/day
 Forage 5 kg/hd/day

Breeding Bucks
 Two weeks before and during breeding season – 0.45-0.9 kg concentrates

Young kids
 Milk replacer 0.5-1 l/day 3-5 times a day for 2 weeks

Care and Herd Management

Goat production systems:

 Tethering  Intensive
 Extensive  Integration into plantation

Care of the breeding buck:

 Must be separated from doe kids after 3 months and given higher energy ration
 Exercise
 Hoof trimming
 Hair clipped and face washed – reduce odor and discourage lice

Care of the Dry Doe

 Milking doe must be dried off at least 6-8 weeks before kidding
 Exercise needed

Care of the freshening doe and newborn kids

Signs of approaching kidding
 Udder and teats enlarge 2 months before kidding
 Nervous and bleats low
 Appears hollow in the right flank and both rumps
 Slight discharge of mucus – several days before kidding
 Paw bedding around
 Becomes more and more restless

 Tie string around umbilical cord 2-3cm from base of navel

 Afterbirth usually expelled 30 min to 4 hour after kidding

Care of the Kid

 Colostrum
 If doe died – give about 1 tbsp vegetable oil or milk with white of fresh egg

Disbudding
 3-5 wks old
 hot-iron cautery, dehorner, or chemical method (potassium hydroxide)

Castration:
 2-4 wks old

Weaning:
 3 days if dairy
 3 months if for meat
 Doe kids can be run with breeding herd at 8-10 mos. old

Care of Lactating Goats:

 Bucks should be separated – to prevent taint in milk

Other Management Practices:

Hoof Trimming
Record Keeping
 Types of records:
 Identification  Feed record
 Production records  Others (herd inventory record, pasture
 Reproduction and/or breeding records production, personnel services, etc.
 Herd health and disease control records

Selection and Culling

Important traits for selection:

 Adaptability to environment and production  Carcass value
conditions  Milk yield
 Reproductive efficiency  Fat percent
 Growth rate

Heritability estimates for traits:

 Weaning weight: 0.33-0.55  Fat, %: 0.32-0.48
 Weight at 7 mos: 0.49-0.77  Fat yield: 0.30-0.47
 Milk yield per lactation: 0.36-0.60  Milking time: 0.67
 Protein yield (milk): 0.47  Age at kidding: 0.77
 Protein, %: 0.58  Multiple births: 0.09-0.25

Breeding and Reproduction

Signs of estrus:
 Mounting other goats irrespective of sex or allowing  Vulva is swollen and inflamed.
other goats to mount the doe.  Nervousness
 Shaking of tail from side to side.  Frequent urination
 Bleating.  Capricious appetite
 Mucous discharge from the vagina.  Decrease in milk yield

Heat interval – 18-24 days (average 21 days)

Ovulation – 33 h after beginning of estrus
Gestation period – 147-155 days (average 5 months)
Special reproductive behavior – willingness to accept the buck even when pregnant (9-11 days after heat)
Kidding interval – 7 months

Breeding Practices for Does

 Bred at 8 mos. if in good condition
 Usually bred at 10 mos.
 Bred twice: 12 hours after heat is first observed then 12 hours later if still in heat
 Culling: if failed to conceive after 2 cycles

Breeding Practices for Bucks

 Bred at 8 mos. old  Hand mating – 1 buck for every 25 does
 If less than 1 year old – not more than 20 does  Unrestricted breeding – 1 buck:25 does

Animal Products and By-products

Milk – processing is the same as in cow’s milk

Chevon – meat of goat
Mohair – from Angora
Cashmere – from Cashmere goat

Slaughtering
 Best age is 12 mos.
 Yield: 43% dressing, 27% liveweight lean, 32% boneless recovery

3 methods of slaughtering goats in the Philippines:

a. Singed
b. Scalded
c. Flayed
 SHEEP PRODUCTION

Breeds and Selection

Popular Breeds in the Philippines

Philippine Native Sheep
Foreign/Introduced Breeds – Barbados Blackbelly, Border Leicester, Dorset (Poll Dorset and Dorset Horn), Katahdin, Lincoln,
Merino (Australian Merino, Fine and Superfine Merino, Medium-Wool Merino, Strong Wool Merino, Poll Merino, Fonthill Merino,
Booroola Merino) Rambouillet, St. Croix, Shropshire, Suffolk, Wiltshire Horn, Karakul

Housing and Equipment (Facilities)

Live fences for sheep:

• Madre de Cacao/Kakawate (Gliricidia
sepium)
• Dapdap (Erythrina orientalis)
• Kapok (Caiba pentandra)
• Ipil-ipil (Leucaena leucocephala)
• Kalumpang (Stereulia foetida)
• Malungai (Moringa oleifera)
• Kamachile (Pithecolobium dulce)
• Others

General space allowance: 1 m 2 per animal

Shed 2 x 2 m = 2 mature ewes and their lambs

Nutrition (Feeds and Feeding)

Compared to goats (and cattle):

 Grazers rather than browsers, therefore, less competitive when raised in shrub lands
 Less selective like cattle
 More sedentary
 Can select nutritious parts of plant better than cattle
 Can walk long distances in search of feed
 Less adaptable to heat stress
 Less efficient than goats and water buffaloes in utilizing fibrous roughages

Water
 2-3 liters for every kg of DM
 Increases to 50% during latter stage of gestation and during lactation

Energy
 In confinement: 93 kcal ME/w 0.75 or about 26 g TDN/w0.75
 Grazing conditions: 50-75% of basic requirement
 Growth: 9.7 kcal ME or 2.7 g TDN/g liveweight gain
 Last 2 months of pregnancy: 171% increase
 First 8 wks of lactation: 212 kcal ME/w 0.75 or 58 g TDN/w0.75
 last 8 wks of lactation = latter part of pregnancy period

Protein
 Maintenance, growth and early pregnancy: 24 g DP/Mcal ME
 Last stage of pregnancy: 27 g DP/Mcal ME
 Early part of lactation: 30 g DP/Mcal ME
 last 9 wks of lactation = latter part of pregnancy period

Minerals
 can tolerate higher levels of Ca as long as Ca:P is 1:1 – 1.5:1
 adult sheep – about 10 g salt/day
 Sheep have short tongue – avoid salt blocks

Concentrate supplementation – 1-1.5% of body weight daily if pasture quality is poor

Care and Herd Management

Worldwide production systems include:

• Very extensive • Very intensive
• Extensive (semi-intensive) • Transhumance (migratory)
• Intensive grassland • Nomadic
• Intensive arable • Village and smallholder

Systems of small ruminant production in the Philippines:

• Tethering • Extensive
• Intensive – not very common • Semi-intensive
 • Integration into plantation crops

Care of the Breeder Ram

 Must be separated from rest of lambs at 3 mos. of age
 Selection is at 8-10 mos. of age

Care of the Pregnant Ewe and Newborn Lamb

 Records
 At least 1 week before lambing, keep in a confined area for closer observation
 Signs of approaching parturition
 Fretful and nervous  Paw her bedding around
 Flanks on either side of tail become hollow.  Restless
 Slight mucus discharge
 Umbilical cord should be tied and cut 2-3 cm from the base of the navel
 Afterbirth: placenta passed out within 30 min to 4 h

Care of the Lambs

 Ewe and lamb should be in confined area for 1 week
 After 1-2 weeks, they may run with the rest of the flock

Dehorning
 Chemical method – potassium hydroxide – burn horn tissue 2-5 cm in diameter
 Hot iron cautery – red-hot iron 1.3 cm in diameter
 Dehorner

Castration: 2-4 weeks old

 Surgical, Emasculator
 Elastrator
 Burdizzo

Weaning: 3-4 mos.

Shearing
Before onset of summer (or after the
cold mos.)