Key Terms: Biological Bases of Behavior

1. All human (and animal) behavior is a product of biological structures and

processes, highly organized on multiple interconnected levels. Understanding
these biological precursors of behavior can lead to treatments for psychological
disorders, such as drugs that influence neurotransmitter function.
2. The nervous system is highly specialized and hierarchical in its structure, but
neuroplasticity gives the brain some flexibility to adapt its structure and function.
3. Though interconnected with and regulated by the nervous system, the endocrine
system produces effects on behavior in a distinct way: endocrine glands secrete
hormones into the bloodstream, allowing hormones to reach and interact directly
with target organs.
4. Biopsychological researchers use a variety of imaging technologies to view the
structure and function of the brain, along with specialized research strategies that
allow them to learn more about the brain’s organization and the origin of
psychological traits.
5. While many behaviors are learned as a result of experience within a particular
environment, the very capacity to learn such behaviors has a genetic basis, and
such capacities only persist because they contribute to the fitness of organisms.
6. Since the late nineteenth century, psychologists have investigated consciousness,
including the awareness of one’s self and environment, the ways consciousness
can be altered, and the various levels and states of consciousness.
7. Sleep cycles through multiple stages that vary in levels of neural activity, muscle
control, biological functions, and dreaming; sleep disorders cause disruptions to
these processes.
8. Psychoactive drugs, including depressants, narcotics, stimulants, and
hallucinogens, affect brain chemistry to alter the perceptions and behavior of
users; some psychoactive drugs are used medicinally and/or recreationally, and
some have a high potential for abuse.

Key Terms: Biological Bases of Behavior

Neurons

● Neurons: The basic functional units of the nervous system; cells which contain
specialized structures to communicate signals.
● Soma/cell body: The part of a neuron that contains its nucleus and other
standard cellular structures.
● Dendrites: The multiple thin, treelike fibers that branch off from a neuron’s
soma and contain receptors to accept incoming signals from other neurons.
 ● Axon: A long, tubular structure in a neuron that transmits action potentials.
● Myelin sheath: A fatty substance that coats an axon, insulating it and
enhancing its ability to transmit action potentials.
● Terminal buttons: The branching structures at the ends of axons that release
neurotransmitters.
● Synapse: The small gap between the axon of a presynaptic neuron and the
dendrites of a postsynaptic neuron.
● Action potential: The electrical impulse sent along an axon when the dendrites
of a neuron are sufficiently excited.
● Neurotransmitter: A specialized chemical messenger which sends signals
between neurons.
● Excitatory: Describes a neurotransmitter that causes a postsynaptic neuron to
propagate more action potentials.
● Inhibitory: Describes a neurotransmitter that causes a postsynaptic neuron to
propagate fewer action potentials.
● Acetylcholine: A neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, and muscle
contraction.
● Dopamine: A neurotransmitter involved in mood, movement, attention, and
learning.
● Serotonin: A neurotransmitter that regulates sleep, mood, appetite, and body
temperature.
● Gamma amino butyric acid (GABA): The primary inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the nervous system.
● Norepinephrine: A neurotransmitter important in controlling alertness,
wakefulness, mood, and attention.
● Glutamate: The main excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous
system; important for learning and memory.
● Agonists: Drugs that mimic a particular neurotransmitter, activating the same
receptors that it does.
● Antagonists: Drugs that block a particular neurotransmitter from activating its
receptors.
● Reuptake inhibitors: Drugs that prevent a neurotransmitter from being
reabsorbed by presynaptic axons, causing greater activation of postsynaptic
receptors.
● Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs): Drugs that prevent the
reabsorption of serotonin, leading to greater activation of serotonin receptors.

The Nervous System

● Nervous system: The organ system that governs the reception, processing, and
transmission of information throughout the body.
● Nerves: Fibrous bundles of neurons.
● Brain: The primary organ in the nervous system, which oversees most of its
operations.
● Central nervous system (CNS): The brain and spinal cord.
● Hindbrain: The lowest segment of the brain, primarily involved in the
regulation of basic bodily functions and consisting of the cerebellum, medulla,
pons, and reticular formation.
● Cerebellum: Regulates motor coordination.
● Medulla: Controls autonomic responses, including breathing, heart rate, and
blood pressure.
● Pons: Transfers information between the cerebellum and other parts of the
brain and contributes to a wide variety of processes.
● Reticular formation: Contributes to attention and conscious state by filtering
incoming stimuli and selectively relaying information.
● Midbrain: The middle segment of the brain, involved with motor control,
vision, hearing, arousal, sleep, temperature regulation, and the transmission of
sensory information.
● Forebrain: The highest segment of the brain, consisting of the thalamus,
hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and cerebrum.
● Thalamus: Relays signals from other parts of the brain to the cerebral cortex
and regulates sleep, consciousness, appetite, and alertness.
● Hypothalamus: Regulates a variety of drives, including hunger, thirst, sexual
arousal, and temperature; the master regulator in the endocrine system.
● Amygdala: Involved with fear, aggression, and other emotions, as well as
memory consolidation.
● Hippocampus: Involved in the formation of long-term memories.
● Limbic system: Regulates emotions and drives; consists of the thalamus,
hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and other structures.
● Cerebrum: The largest part of the human brain; contains the cerebral cortex.
● Cerebral cortex: The wrinkled surface of the cerebrum, divided into four lobes
and two hemispheres.
● Lobes: Four specialized regions in the cerebral cortex.
● Frontal lobe: Controls voluntary movement and higher-order cognitive
processes; at the front of the brain.
● Parietal lobe: Integrates perceptions from different senses; at the top of the
brain.
● Temporal lobe: Controls hearing and language; at both sides of the brain.
● Occipital lobe: Controls vision; at the back of the brain.
● Hemisphere: One of two symmetrical halves (left and right) of the brain,
specialized for particular functions.
 ● Lateralization: The localization of some functions in one of the two
hemispheres.
● Wernicke’s area: The region in the temporal lobe of a person’s dominant
hemisphere that controls speech comprehension.
● Broca’s area: The region in the frontal lobe of a person’s dominant hemisphere
that controls speech production.
● Spinal cord: The long tube of nerves that connects the brain to most of the rest
of the body; protected by the vertebral column.
● Reflex: An automatic, involuntary response to a particular stimulus.
● Peripheral nervous system (PNS): All nerves outside of the brain and spinal
cord.
● Somatic nervous system: Part of the PNS that controls skeletal muscles and
their voluntary movements.
● Autonomic nervous system: Part of the PNS that controls involuntary bodily
functions.
● Sympathetic nervous system: Part of the autonomic nervous system
activated during the “fight or flight” response to stress.
● Parasympathetic nervous system: Part of the autonomic nervous system
activated during the “rest and digest” response to non-stressful situations.
● Neuroplasticity: The capacity of the brain to reorganize itself at a high level,
such as might happen in response to traumatic injury; it decreases with age.
● Synaptic plasticity: The ability for certain neural connections to be
strengthened or weakened over time, a process essential for memory and
learning.
● Neurogenesis: The processes that create new neurons.

The Endocrine System

● Endocrine system: The system of glands that secrete hormones into the
bloodstream in order to maintain the body’s homeostasis.
● Homeostasis: A dynamic state of internal equilibrium within a changing
external environment.
● Hormones: Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream,
interacting with organs to stimulate or inhibit various biological processes.
● Glands: Endocrine organs that produce and secrete hormones.
● Pituitary gland: The primary gland in the endocrine system, regulated by the
hypothalamus; produces hormones that interact with the other endocrine glands.
● Thyroid gland: Produces and secretes hormones that regulate metabolism;
found in the neck.
● Adrenal glands: Produce and secrete stress hormones like cortisol and
epinephrine (adrenaline); found directly above the kidneys.
 ● Ovaries: Female gonads (sex glands) that secrete hormones like estrogen and
progesterone, which regulate the menstrual cycle and pregnancy.
● Testes: Male gonads (sex glands) that secrete androgens (male sex hormones)
like testosterone, which regulates sexual development and sexual desire.

Biopsychological Research

● Electroencephalograph (EEG): A device that uses electrodes on the scalp to

detect and record brain waves.
● MRI: Stands for “magnetic resonance imaging”; a technique that uses magnetic
fields and radio waves to produce high-resolution images of brain structure.
● Functional MRI (fMRI): An imaging technique similar to MRI, which
measures blood oxygen levels to determine brain function.
● PET scan: A technique that uses a radioactive dye injected into the bloodstream
to detect neurological activity.
● CT scan: A technique that uses X-rays to create 3-D images of brain structure.
● Traumatic brain injury (TBI): Damage to some part of the brain caused by
an external force; may impede cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functions.
● Corpus callosum: The bundle of nerves that serves as the primary connection
between the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
● Split-brain patients: Individuals with a severed corpus callosum; used in
studies of brain lateralization.
● Contralateral organization: The tendency of the left cerebral hemisphere to
control and perceive from the right side of the body, and vice versa.
● Twin study: A research design that investigates the traits of identical and
fraternal twins to determine the extent to which traits are genetically or
environmentally controlled.

Hereditary, Environment, and Evolution

● Variation: The natural range of differences found among the traits of members
of a species.
● Inheritance: The transmission of various traits from one generation to the next.
(Genes are the units of inheritance.)
● Fitness: The tendency of a trait or organism to be well-suited to a particular
environment.
● Natural selection: The process by which fitter organisms are able to genetically
outcompete others of their species by living longer and having more offspring.
● Adaptations: Evolved traits that are well-suited to a particular environment.
 ● Sexual selection: The process by which organisms with more attractive traits
are able to genetically outcompete others of their species by having more
offspring.

Types of Conscious States

● Consciousness: A state of being awake and aware of external stimuli and one’s
own mental activity.
● State of consciousness: The features of consciousness experienced by an
individual at a particular point in time.
● Altered state of consciousness: A temporary state that differs significantly
from a normal waking state; includes sleep, meditation, a coma, hypnosis, or the
influence of drugs.
● Conscious level: All of the things within one’s awareness at the present
moment, including information about one’s self and current environment.
● Nonconscious level: The body’s automatic biological processes, like breathing
and heartbeat, which are controlled by the brain but are generally outside of one’s
active awareness.
● Preconscious level: In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, all of the unrepressed
stored memories, thoughts, and information that can be recalled and moved from
the unconscious to the conscious level in a matter of seconds.
● Unconscious level: In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious mind
represents the thoughts, desires, and urges that are actively repressed from
consciousness and that affect mental activity outside of active awareness.
● Subconscious level: Information beyond a person’s conscious awareness that
affects mental processes.
● Priming: When exposure to a stimulus beneath conscious awareness influences
a response to other stimuli.
● Mere-exposure effect: The preference for familiar stimuli over new stimuli,
even when exposure to the stimuli does not occur on a conscious level.

Sleep and Dreaming

● Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep: A period of dreamless sleep

divided into four dis- tinct, continuous stages.
● Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: The period of sleep that is most
associated with dreaming.
● Hypnagogic hallucinations: Sensory phenomena, like visions and sounds,
that a sleeper perceives in the transition between wakefulness and sleep.
● Sleep spindles: Bursts of neural activity that take place in stage 2 of NREM
sleep and may be important for memory consolidation.
 ● Slow wave sleep: Stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep, the deepest stages of sleep,
when neural activity and brain waves are slowest.
● Paradoxical sleep: Another name for REM sleep, due to the contradictory way
in which the brain is active but the body is at rest.
● Manifest content: The actual events and imagery within a dream that,
according to Freud, serves to mask the unconscious thoughts and desires of the
dreamer.
● Latent content: In Freudian terms, the unconscious thoughts and desires
underlying the manifest content of dreams.
● Activation-synthesis hypothesis: The theory that maintains dreams are the
brain’s interpretations of neural activity during REM sleep.
● Information-processing theory: The theory that maintains dreaming is a
way for the brain to deal with stress.
● Night terrors: A sleep disorder that causes the sleeper to wake from NREM
sleep suddenly with feelings of extreme fear, agitation, or dread.
● Insomnia: A sleep disorder marked by difficulty falling or staying asleep.
● Sleep apnea: A sleep disorder caused by breathing interruptions during sleep.
● Narcolepsy: A neurological sleep disorder characterized by irregular sleep
patterns and the inability to control and regulate sleep and wakefulness.
● Somnambulism: A sleep disorder also known as sleepwalking that occurs
during slow wave sleep and results in walking or performing other behaviors
while asleep.
Psychoactive Drugs

● Psychoactive drugs: Drugs that affect the chemical and physical functioning of
the brain, altering the perception and behavior of the user.
● Depressants: Drugs that slow down neural activity.
● Narcotics: Drugs that dull the senses and relieve pain, also called opioids.
● Stimulants: Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions,
including heart and respiration rates; often used to relieve fatigue and increase
alertness.
● Hallucinogens: Drugs that alter mood, distort perceptions, and evoke sensory
images in the absence of sensory input.

Important Contributors

● Alois Alzheimer: Discovered Alzheimer’s disease, named after him, when he

performed an autopsy on the brain of a 55-year-old woman who had died after
many years of progressive mental decline.
● Thomas Bouchard: American psychologist best known for studying identical
twins separated at birth to determine the effects of genetics and environment on
a variety of traits.
● Paul Broca: A French scientist who investigated speech disorders. The region of
the cerebrum responsible for speech production was named after him (Broca’s
area), as was an associated speech disorder (Broca’s aphasia, also known as
expressive aphasia).
● Charles Darwin: Developed the idea of evolution through natural selection,
which he used to explain the origin of species.
● Sigmund Freud: The founder of psychoanalysis. His approach to therapy
included dream interpretation, which Freud believed could reveal insights about
the unconscious mind.
● Francis Galton: An English scientist who founded the field of behavioral
genetics, popularized the phrase “nature versus nurture,” and was the first to
apply statistical methods to study heredity and intelligence.
● Michael Gazzaniga: An American cognitive neuroscientist, best known for his
research with Sperry on split-brain patients.
● William James: Founder of functionalism who maintained that psychology
should aim to understand how consciousness helps organisms adapt to their
environments.
● Roger Sperry: An American neuropsychologist who conducted groundbreaking
research with Gazzaniga on split-brain patients, which helped to improve
understanding of brain lateralization.
● Carl Wernicke: A German scientist who studied speech disorders. The region
of the cerebrum responsible for speech comprehension was named after him
(Wernicke’s area), as was an associated speech disorder (Wernicke’s aphasia, also
known as receptive aphasia).
● Wilhelm Wundt: Founder of structuralism; used the technique of
introspection to investigate structures of consciousness.