. . . . . . . . .
!
Statisti©a| Pro©ess Contre|
for t h e P r o © e s s | n d u s t r | e s
John A. Shaw
Statistical quality control (SQC)
and statistical process control
(SPC) have been used in the dis-
crete parts manufacturing indus-
tries as a tool for improving the
~mality of manufactured items.
,Statistical methods are now being
used in the chemical and petro-
leum industries for quality im-
provement.
Certain concepts of SQC and SPC
are applicable to certain pro-
cesses, but they are not univer-
sally applicable to all processes.
Successful application o f the
tools requires an understanding of
the methods and the limitations.
This paper explains the concepts
of statistical quality control and
examines its use in batch and con-
tinuous processes.
INTRODUCTION
Statistical process control, a
technique whose advocates e×-
pect will improve the quality of
products in all industries, was de-
veloped in the "discrete parts"
manufacturing industry. Its use is
being examined in the chemical
and petroleum industries. Distrib-
uted control manufacturers are in-
cluding SPC capability in control
systems designed for the process
industries. Its succe~ is unques-
tioned in the manufacturing in-
dustries, but ~,,qii its promise be
met in the chemical process indus-
tries?
ISSN 0019-0578191101100991~$2.50© ISA 1991
Statistical methods are not new
to the chemical process industries
or to chemical engineering. Many
statistical applications are in-
tended for use in analyzing, exper-
imental data.O) Digital filtering
techniques, used to remove noise
from process measurements, have
been studied and applied for over
twenty years.
For SPC to be used in the pro-
cess industries, its basic founda-
tion, the assumptions on which it
is based, and its need should be
fully examined in the framework
of the needs and characteristics of
the proces,~ :-~d,s~es.
Deflnigon
Statistical process control (or
statistical quality control) is a sta-
~s.ffcal method for analyzing cer-
tain product characteristics to
determine the likel|hood that im-
provements can be made in the
process to reduce variability and
achieve higher quality.(2, 3)
While often the terms "statisti-
cal quality control" (SQC) and
"statistical process control" (SPC)
are used interchangeably, many in
the fidd define them differently.
SQC refers to the gathering of
data for analysis at a later time,
while SPC refers to on-line data
gathering and h-m'nediate analy-
sis.(4) Some practitioi~ers avoid
the distinction altogether by refer-
ring to these methods as SPQC
!
(statistical process quality con-
trol).
The name statistical process
control ofte__~causes the incorrect
inference that SPC is a control al-
gorithm, or that it can be used to
provide feedback to the process.
SPC is a stalistics-based analysis
method that is used to analyze
process data and, it is hoped, as-
sist the process or control engi-
neer in making improvements to
the process.
SPC is not synonymous with
quality control. It does not mea-
sure quality directly. Instead, it is
a.-, analytical tool that indicates
the Likelihood that there is some
correctable condition that is caus-
ing undesirable variation in prod-
uct quality and that corrective
action may reduce this variation.
SPC methods comprise a vari-
ety of analysis tools, including
cause and effect diagrams, Pareto
charts, and control charts. This
paper will concentrate on control
charts because of the ability of
some dis~buted control systems
used in the process indus~es to
produce such charts.
gaSiC Theory
The basic theory of SPC is that
there will inevitably be variations
of a product from one sample to
another that are due to inherent
(or "built-in") variations in the
process. Variations other than
these inherent variations are clue
VOLUME 30 o NUMBER 1 G 1991
STATISTICALPROCESS CONTROL
to "assignable causes," which can
be corrected. A statistical analysis
of quality measurement should
reveal any assigv_.ab!e cause vaff.a-
tion. If there are no assignable
cause variations and the only vari-
ations are inherent, the process is
said to be "in statistical control."
Otherwise, it is "out of statistical
control" and should be corrected.
SPC is based on samples of the
product and the data resulting
from the measurement of these
samples. Charts are made from
the data to assist in the analysis.
Key to the operation of the SPC
calculations and charts is the
p~'emise that the chance or inher-
ent variations will affect every
measurement and will be stable
over time. Variations that are
greater than the short term varia-
tions or appear only over a longer
Figure 1--NormalDistribution"Bell Curve"
103 ISA TRANSACTIONS
term must be due to "assignable
causes." (5, 6)
The idea is to reduce product
variability rather than strive solely
for conformance to specifications
that all the product will be as
close to aim as possible. (7)
BASIC SPC CALCULATIONS AND
CHARTS
Normal Distribufion'"'Bell-shaped
curve"
One very key concept to SPC is
that of "normal distribution." A
key theorem of statistics is that
samples of the product will follow
the standard bell-shaped normal
distribution curve; that is, more of
the samples will be close to the
center of the range of the distribu-
tion than toward the outside (see
Figure 1).
Shewhart ControlCharts
Shewhart suggested plotting
the data on a chart to show varia-
tion above and below a mean.
This, of course, is very similar to a
trend recording very familiar to
anyone in the chemical process
control business. However,
Shewhart suggested drawing lim-
its (upper and lower control lim-
its, UCL a n d LCL) at three
standard deviations above and
below the mean. When the pro-
cess crosses either limit it is con-
sidered "out of statistical control."
This chart is not very sensitive to
small variations, so it is common
to use various "run" tests in addi-
tion to the limits.

X.R Charts
The Shewhart control chart is
more commonly known as an X (X
bar) chart often combined with an
R chart. To build the X chart, the
product is periodically sampled
with several (typically four or
five) individual m e a s u r e m e n t s
taken. This set of measm ements is
known as a "subgroup." The in-
dividual samples areaveraged to
produce the number X (or average
X). The individual samples are
also compared to determine their
range, or R. The control chart is
plotted as a b o v e except that,
rather than using theindividual
samples, the average X is plotted.
The upper and lower control lim-
its are de,ermined using the range
of the individual samples in a sub-
group. The upper and lower con-
trol limits are derived from X % 3
standard deviations of the sub-
group. The exact calculations are
shown in Figure 2b.
An important concept is that
the variation of individual mea-
surements within a subgroup is
due to chance causes only. In a
typical chemical process, this vari-
ation would be considered mea-
surement or instrument noise.
Longer term variations from one
subgroup to another that are sig-
nificantly larger (more than 3
standard deviations) than the
variations within the subgroup
are probably due to assignable
causes.
The X and R charts show that
the process is "not in statistical
control" when the X value falls
outside either of the control lh~ts.
Some run rules also will identify
out of control values. For exam-
ple, eight or more consecutive val-
ues on the same side of the mean
signals an out of control condi-
tion.
Process ~pab#ity
Another result of the SPC anal-
ysis of the process data is what is
known as "process capability."
Process capability asks the ques-
tion, "Based on the spread in the
measurements, will the process be
capable of staying within specifi-
cations almost all the time?"
By basing the standard devia-
tion on the average range of the
subgroups (R) rather than on the
distribution of all the measure-
ments, we will base the capability
index on the inherent variability.
This supposes that the subgroup
variability represents the inherent
variability and the overall vari-
ability includes assignable causes.
Example
Shown in Figure 2a are data
taken from a hypothetical contin-
uous chemical process. The mea-
surements of density are made by
an on-line analyzer everX 10 min-
utes. To construct the X-R chart
we will take 4 consecutive mea-
surements every hoar. We then
average the four measurements in
each hourly subgroup and plot
the average on the X chart. We
plot the range of each subgroup
on the R chart. Next we must de-
termine the upper and lower con-
trol limits ushag the calculations
shown in Figure 2b. Horizontal
lines are drawn (Figure 2c) to indi-
cate the UCL and LCL on the X
chart and the UCL on the R chart.
We can then see that at several
points X exceeds the upper con-
trol limit, h~dicating that the pro-
cess is out of statistical control.
D
Vadatlon of X
An important part of the X
chart is the subgrouping of four to
five measurements that are aver-
aged to provide one point on ~ e
chart. The concept is that the natu-
ral inherent varmfion will be re-
flected in the average range of the
subgroup, while the difference be-
tween one subgroup and a n o ~ e r
will, ff it is greater than a certain
a m o u n t , reflect the assignable
cause.
SPC FOR THE PROCESS iNDUSTRIES
Sometimes there is no way to
obtain a rationalsubgroup that re-
flects all the inherent variation.
Here the subgrouping is omitted,
and each measurement is plotted
on a chart of hqdividuals. The con-
trol limits are determined by the
variation between one measure-
ment and the next.
USE OF SPC DATA
So how do the charts and num-
bers improve the q,,ali~_. . of the
product, reduce rerun material,
and make our processes better?
They don't. What they do is pro-
vide information about the pro-
cess that can be used in the
process analysis to determine
ways to improve the process. The
charts and data tell us when the
variability is due to assignable,
perhaps correctable, causes. They
also provide clues such as when
the variability has changed. For
example, ff the process is out of
statistical control only during one
shift and the time changes with
shift rotation, we may want to
look at the procedures used by
those operators.
SPC lntegraOon into ControlSystem
Modem digital distributed con-
trol systems have the capability of
measuring the process parameters
at designated rates, storing the
measurements, and processing
them. One addition that can be
made _toa control syste~ is to pro-
vide SPC c o m p u ~ f i o ~ and "charts
as an integral part of the system.
Such a system wal allow the oper-
ator to quickly display an SPC
chart for a process variable.
SPC~
One application of SPC is to
produce alarms when the mea-
sured v~-iable is out of statistical
control. This feature can easily be
a part of the SFC capability in a
dish'ibu~d control system.(8)
VOLUME 30 • NUMBER 1 • 1991 101
S"TATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL

SAMPL,,. =S_ B~gf.. ___.R_

1 98.349 101.99 99.736 97.777 4.21 99.463
2 100.455 98.957 98.740 102.522 3.78 100.169
3 99.282 99.285 100.206 100.197 0.92 99.743
4 101.677 102.469 101.424 90.526 2.94 101.274
5 102.481 101.461 101.311 102.615 1.30 101.967
6 102.362 101.927 102.601 98.530 4.07 !0!.355
7 102.876 103.314 99.447 99.989 3.87 101.407
8 104.029 102.,~95 104.152 102.499 1,66 103.294
9 102.35 99.920 103.391 100.901 3.47 ~01.640
10 101.68 103.358 100.765 102.905 2.59 102.177
11 104.403 104.369 102.969 103.856 1.43 103.899
12 102.216 100.355 101.209 103.731 3.3S 101.878
13 98.976 100.404 99.647 101.658 2.6'~ 100.171
14 99.611 99.511 100.59 102.929 3.42 i00.661
15 102.737 99.404 101.959 98.850 3.89 100.738
,,,~
16 98.142 97.744 99.840 98.153 -'.10 98.470
17 98.244 97.613 100.839 99.390 3,23 99.022
18 98.793 99.642 101.179 99.809 2.39 99.856
19 99.260 100.71 101.782 101.365 2.52 100.779

R (Average range) = 2.83 X (average ?,f) = lnn.q_5

Figure 2a-Exampleof an X R Chart

(a) is the data, (b)is the calculation, and (c) is the completed charts

Upper Control Limit UCL = X+0.73xR

Lower Control Limit LCL = X- 0.73xR

Range Control Limit UCL(R) = 2.28 x R

Figure 2b-Example on an X R Chart

(a) is the data, (b)is the calculations, and (c) is tl~e,completed charts
Several types of SPC alarms are SPC IN THE MANUFACTURING control. SPC is the primary means
trend alarms when fl~e X points iNDUSTRiES of determiaing product variability
increase or decrease for too many and determining if corrective ac-
samples, alarms when any X is SPC has been adopted in the tion or process improvement is re-
uu .....d~: the upper or lower control manufacturing industries (often quired.
limits, and alarms when the accu- known as the "discrete parts" in- Certain characteristics of the
mulated value above or below the dustries) to the extent that SPC is m a n u f a c t u r i n g industries have
median is too ~eat. almost synonymous with quality encouraged the development of

102 ISA TRANSACTIONS

 SPC FOR THE PROCESS INDUSTRIES

!060" ~
1050"

1040"

1030"

!020"
I010-

I000"
9~o!i
960" '

97O

900
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 1', 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
7 00~

4 O0"~

300

200

I OO'

0 00~- ; : ~ | I | ! : : : ; ~' 1 I D ! ! l
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 I0 I: 12 13 14 15 lh T7 ~a !9

Figure 2c-Example of an X R Chart

(a) is the data, (b) is the calculations, and (c) is the complmed charts
SPC as the primary method of
qaality control. These industries
produce large quantifies of dis-
~ete parts using a variety of ma-
chines, m o s t of w h i c h are
involved in cutting, stamping, or
shaping solid material. The most
common measurement of a part is
dimensional (size). i3ecause the
measurement of a part is a manual
operation, the parts are usually
sampled, with measurements
from the samples being used to
judge the production. Sar l?lir~g
technology is based on the ~aathe-
matics and theory of statislScs.
In typical manufacturing oper-
ations, t h e r e m a ) b e a large
amount of automatic con~ol"nu-
merically operated m~chines and
programmed robots'1~ut there is
very little of the feedback control
like that used in the chemical in-
dustry. Variations in a product
measurement are not automafi-
cally used to manipulate the ma-
chines. Instead, variations may be
used by supervision to make cer-
tain changes, such as machine ad-
justments or operator retraining.
A~corddng to SPC theory, if the
v~-iation is inherent or the result
of a constant cause (that is, always
present), the process should be
left alone. If fl~e variation is due to
a s s i g n a b l e cause (because it
changes over time), the cause
s h o u l d be i d e n t i f i e d a n d re-
moved. (9)
SPC iN THE CHEWCAL AND
PETROLEUM iNDUSTRY
Differences between Chemical
Processing and Manufacturing
Several major differences be-
tween the discrete p~rts ~ d u ~
and the process industries, partic-
ularly chemical plants and refiner-
ies, are important to statistical
analysis.d0,11,12)
In the typical discrete parts fac-
tory where many parts are made,
only a small number are sampled
for testing. Except for certain ef-
fects, such as different workers on
different shifts and temperatu~
changes wihhin a day, most of the
parts selected for sampling can be
considered statistically indepen-
dent. That is, the difference be-
tween part #101 and #102 should
be the same a~ the difference be-
tween part #102 and part #11301.
In continuous chemical pro-
cesses there is normally a degree
of backmixing of the product
stream due to storage of the prod-
uct Jn vessels that are a part of the
process. This storage "smooths"
the charactedsrfics of the material.
The process measurements are
often continuous or sampled at a

VOLUME 30 • NUMBER 1 o 199! ~03

STATISTICALPROCESS CONiROL
time period less than (sampled
faster than) the holdup time in the
relevant parts of the process. This
removes the statistical indepen-
dence of the samples. The result is
what is known as "correlated" (or
auto correlated) data. Conven-
tional control charts do not apply
to correlated data.
Another difference between
m o s t typical m a n u f a c t u r i n g
plants and most chemical process
plants is the degree of feedback
control. In most chemical plants
the key product variables are mea-
sured and, using the PID control
algorithms, fed back to control the
process. The control algorithms
work to move the controlled vari-
able to a set point. Thus, the con-
cept of controlling to an "aim" has
always been the standard practice
in the process Industries.
Areas of ProbableAppflcation
In certain situations, key prod-
uct quality variables cannot be di-
rectly controlled. Typical among
these are certain batch processes
where the product continues to
change even after the last control
action has been taken ~nd there
are no more opportunities to cor-
rect for error (the "end point con-
trol" problem). The situation also
arises when the key quality vari-
able cannot be measured on line
for feedback control but is instead
measured every several hours in a
quality control laboratory.
Another type of quality-related
variables that are not controlled
with the standard PID control
loops are such secondary vari-
ables as small amounts of impuri-
ties in a product. A typical
chemical process may have as its
last unit operation a distillation
column to separate the product
from some other chemical. The
control loops on the column will
measure (using an analyzer or a
tray temperature) and maintain
the proper proportion of the major
constituents of the product. How-
104, ISA TRANSACTIONS
ever, other, more minor, compo-
nents come from impurities in
raw materials, contaminants from
the materials of construction, etc.,
and cannot be controlled directly.
Sometimes product quality
characte_,Ss.fics are measured by a~t
analyzer on a very long sample.
The analyzer may exhibit random
In certain situations, key product quality variables
cannot be directly controlled.
error, so each measurement can-
not, by itself, be taken as an indi-
cation of the quality. SPC
calculations may serve as a filter
to "see t h r o u g h " the r a n d o m
noise.
Fiat Sheet Industries
The "fiat sheet" industries in-
dude paper, plastics, and other in-
dustries that produce fiat sheets of
material through the extrusion of
the material. The material usually
moves from a machine at a very
high speed, and certain character-
istics are determined by scanning
the material at a much slower
speed. Because the holdup in the
machine is very low, this scanning
amounts to sampling of the char-
acteristics.
These flat sheet industries,
from a statistical and sampling
point of view, are very similar to
the discrete parts manufacturing
industries. SPC, in the classical
sense and as used in manufactur-
ing,, should apply directly.
Other areas of the chemical
process industries may be similar.
These would be processes where
there is very little holdup or back-
mixing in the process, where there
are product characteristics that
cannot be continuously measured
but must be sampled, and where
those characteristics cannot be
easily controlled by standard pro-
cess control techniques.
Batch Processes
SPC has been used for batch
chemical processes.(13) Certain
considerations must be made.
First is the use of rational sub-
groups and the number of sam-
ples. If the batch is a well-mixed
liquid, the only difference be-
tween s~mples of the same batch
is measurement error. We may, of
course, wish to make several mea-
surements of the same batch for
accuracy, but if we base the con-
trol lirr'.its on these measurements,
the control limits will be so dose
to the mean (assuming little varia-
tion in the measurements) that
any variation from one batch to
another will be outside the control
limits and the process will be con-
sidered to be out of statistical con-
trol.
Another concern for batch SPC
is statistical significance. With one
true measurement per batch, we
must have a significant number of
batches before the SPC results can
be reliable. Estimates about the
number of samples differ. How-
ever, we cannot have confidence
in the analysis of SPC data after
only five batches. If analysis of the
batch control is necessary after
only a few batches, some other
method will be needed.
Considem~ons in SPC Appffcatlons
One basic tenet of statistical
quality control also may limit :ts
application in many processes: the
assumption that short-term varia-
tions that affect measurements
within a subgroup or ~,~. . . . . . .
jacent measurements are inherent
and not correctable, while long-
term variations reflect assignable
cause, that is, variations due to
some operational or process prob-

lem that can be corrected.(14,15)
This assumption is reflected in the
fact that the control limits, based
on the subgroup variation, are ap-
plied to the average measurement
over a longer time frame.
Many continuous processes ex-
hibit short-term variation in the
m e a s u r e m e n t due to measure-
ment error or noise, with actual
process changes dampened out by
mixing within vessels in the pro-
cess. There will be longer term
variations due to small oscilla-
tions in the process, changes in
feed stock, or process upsets,
which may be insignificant when
compared to the product specifi-
cations but are many times larger
than the short-term variations.
Conversely, there may be situa-
tions, such as many batch pro-
cesses, where short-term
variations between adjacent
batches are very significant in
terms of product specifications,
but because the variations are
short-term and continue over a
longer period of time they are not
reflected in the control chart.
Conventional control chart the-
ory requires that three assump-
tions be met: (1) the process mean
'.'s constant, (2) the process stan-
dard deviaf.m is constant, and (3)
measurements are independent of
one another (un. ~rrelated). If any
of these is not true, then a conven-
tional (ShewharO control chart
probably will I,,i -~roduce reliable
results. The first and third as-
sumptions are particularly rele-
vant to the continuous process
industries. The mean, (that is, the
average of any group of consecu-
tive measurements), often will
vary over a longer period. Also,
continuous process variables tend
to exhibit a large degree of corre-
lation.
This is not to say that SPC is not
applicable to the chemical process
industries but to emp~hasize that it
is not urdver-~aUy applicable; it is
up to the process engineer to de-
termine how it can be applied to
his particular process and if SPC
provides knowledge about the
process not more easily obtainable
through other methods. It is also
incumbent upon the user to make
use of knowledge gained through
SPC to improve his or her process
operation.
OTHERSTATISTICAL
TECHNIQUES
Statistical analysis of data
taken from the process may help
to locate the cause of the variation.
Some variations (measurement
noise, for example) are random,
and can be identified by test for
randomness.
One such method is serial (or
auto) correlation, in which each
sample is correlated with the pre-
vious sample. A random noise ex-
hibits very little correlation. A
r a n d o m noise t h a t has been
damped by passing through the
process exhibits much greater cor-
relation. This test may be able to
determine if var~atmn results from
measurement noise that occurs in
the transmitter from the fluctua-
tions that occur in the process.
Standard SPC con[rol charts
are often used to detect trends that
are not otherwise apparent be-
cause the variation is less than the
noise. In this application, the SPC
chart is really being used as a type
of digital filter.
ADDfflOHALIHVESTIGATIOH
HEEDS
Rather than simply adopting
the SPC techniques of the manu-
facturing industries, the chemical
process industries should choose
statistical techniques tailored to
their processes.
Methods are available that w'll
analyze process variations to lo-
cate the cause of the variation.
Knowledge of the cause of the
variation will assist the process
SPC FOR THE PROCESS INDUSTRIE',
engineer or control engineer to
correct the variation if it is harm-
ful. These methods will include
digital filtering, correlation analy-
sis techniques, and other methods
that will use statistics and other
mathematical methods.
The goal should be to develop
teclmiques that willallow the pro-
cess engineer to analyze the per-
formance of the process in order
to improve product quality and
process efficiency.
COHCLUSIOH
Statistical process control has
served as an important tool in the
discrete parts manufacturing in-
dustries to improve product qual-
ity, r e d u c e variability, and
decrease cost. It is being adopted
by many companies in the chemi-
cal process industries, in part due
to pressure from their customers.
In some areas within the chemical
industry, SPC has proven to be a
useful and successful tool. Its ap-
plicability must be examined in all
areas of the chemical industry, ap-
plication by application. Two pri-
mary considerations should
govern its ~cc_eptance for each in-
dividual application: the ability of
SPC to produce meaningful re-
sults, and the need for SPC as
compared to other statistical and
non statistical tools.
REFERENCES
1. Himmelblau, David M.,
Process Analysis by Statisti-
cal Methods, Wiley, 1970.
2. Western Electric Company,
Inc., ,Statistical Quality Con-
trol Handbook, D e l m a r
Printing Company, Char-
lore, North Carolina, 1956,
p. 3.
3. Grant, E. L., and Leaven-
w o r t h , R. S., Statistical
Quality Control, McGraw-
Hill, 1980, p. 3.
VOLUME 30 o NUMBER 1 e 1991 10
STATISTICAL PROCESS CONTROL
4. Dybeck, Martin, "From
SQC to SPC: An Economi-
cally Significant Step for
Today's Process Industry,"
Advances In Instrumenta-
t/on, Vol. 42 (ISA/87), p.
7i3.
5. Grant, E. L., and Leaven-
worth, R. S., Statistical
Quality Control, McGraw-
Hill, 1980, p. 1 and pp 74-
75.
6. Oft, E. R., Process Quality
Control, TroubZeshooting and
Interpretation of Data, McG-
raw-Hill, 1975, pp 3-6.
7. Hess, J. L., and Bright, L. R.,
"Statistical Process control
and Quality Partnerships,"
Advances In Instrumenta-
tion, Vol. 43 (ISA/88) p.
107.
8. Lee, J. L., "Application of
106 ISA TRANSACTIONS
Statistical Process Conl~'ol
Methods to the Establish-
ment of Process Alarms in
a Distributed Process Con-
trol System," Advances In
Instrumentation, Vol. 43
(ISA/88), p. 1311.
9. Grant, E. L., and Leaven-
worth, R. S., Statistical
Quality Control, McGraw-
Hill, 1980, pp 74-75.
10. Hess, J. L., and Bright, LoR.,
"Statistical Process control
and Quality Partnerships,"
Advances In Instrumenta-
tion, Vol. 43 (ISA/88) p.
107.
11. American Society of Qual-
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