Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2018

Vol.17, No.
4, 2018
ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
The International Journal of the Scientia Socialis Ltd., & SMC “Scientia Educologica”
Journal of Baltic Science Education, Vol. 17, No. 4, 2018
Editorial Board
ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/
Editor-in-Chief ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
Prof., Dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas Siauliai University, Lithuania
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Andris Broks University of Latvia, Latvia
Deputy Editor-in-Chief
Prof., Dr. Miia Rannikmäe University of Tartu, Estonia
Executive Secretary
Dr. Laima Railienė SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Editors:
Prof., Dr. Boris Aberšek University of Maribor, Slovenia
Prof., Dr. Agnaldo Arroio University of Sao Paulo, Brazil
Prof., Dr. Martin Bilek Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Paolo Bussotti University of Udine, Italy
Prof., Dr. Hana Čtrnáctová Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr. Peter Demkanin Comenius University, Slovakia
Dr. André du Plessis Nelson Mandela University, South Africa
Prof., Dr. Peter Heering University of Flensburg, Germany
Prof., Dr. Jack Holbrook University of Tartu, Estonia
Prof., Dr. Ryszard M. Janiuk Maria Curie Sklodowska University, Poland
Dr. Milan Kubiatko University of Zilina, Slovakia
Dr. Todar Lakhvich Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Prof., Dr. Jari Lavonen University of Helsinki, Finland
Prof., Dr. Rita Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė Lithuanian University of Educational Sciences, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Aadu Ott Göteborg University, Sweden
Prof., Dr. Paul Pace Malta University, Malta
Prof., Dr. Valfrids Paškevičs Daugavpils University, Latvia
Prof., Dr. Jongwon Park Chonnam National University, Korea
Prof., Dr. Raffaele Pisano Lille 3 University, France
Dr. Pavol Prokop Trnava University, Slovakia
Prof., Dr. Konstantinos Ravanis University of Patras, Greece
Dr. Alona Rauckienė-Michaelsson Klaipėda University, Lithuania
Prof., Dr. Heimo Saarikko Helsinki University, Finland
Dr. Hae-Ae Seo Pusan National University, Korea
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin University of Oregon, USA
Prof., Dr. Borislav V. Toshev Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr. Georgios Tsaparlis University of Ioannina, Greece
Dr. Muhammet Usak Science and Medical Education Research Center, Turkey
A scientific journal JBSE issued by the Scientia Socialis Ltd., in cooperation with SMC Scientia Educologica, Lithuania,
emphasizes theoretical, experimental and methodical studies in the field of science education. JBSE is an international
academic journal. In order to maintain the high standards appropriate to such a journal, all contributions received are
submitted for anonymous review by two experts, additionally to review by the Editor. The decision of the Editor on
the acceptance of articles is final and no correspondence can be entered into on reasons for rejection of a submitted
contribution.
Published since 2002 Address:

The journal is published bimonthly. Scientia Socialis, Ltd.
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ISSN 1648–3898 (Print) © Scientia Socialis Ltd., Lithuania, 2018
ISSN 2538–7138 (Online)

The articles appearing in this journal are indexed/abstracted in British Education Index
(http://www.leeds.ac.uk/bei/bei.htm), Copernicus Index (http://journals.indexcopernicus.com), The Asian
Education Index (http://www.asian-education-index.com/sciences_index.php), EBSCO: Academic Search Premier
530 (http://search.ebscohost.com), Social Scisearch (Thomson Reuters) (http://science.thomsonreuters.com/index.html),
Journal Citation Reports / Social Sciences Edition (Thomson Reuters)
(http://thomsonreuters.com/products_services/scientific/Journal_Citation_Reports),
and SCOPUS (http://www.scopus.com)
ISSN 1648–3898 /Print/ CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Editorial
INTERCULTURAL LEARNING: CHALLENGES FOR CURRENT SCIENCE EDUCATION

Martin Bilek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Articles
IMPLEMENTATION OF INNOVATIVE CHEMISTRY LEARNING MATERIAL WITH GUIDED TASKS

TO IMPROVE STUDENTS’ COMPETENCE
Manihar Situmorang, Marudut Sinaga, Jamalum Purba, Sapnita Idamarna Daulay,
Murniaty Simorangkir, Marham Sitorus, Ajat Sudrajat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
THE EFFECT OF VISUALIZATION TYPE AND STUDENT SPATIAL ABILITIES ON LEARNING
ACHIEVEMENT
I Gde Wawan Sudatha, I Nyoman Sudana Degeng, Waras Kamdi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
CONTEXTUALIZATION OF SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE: CORRELATION BETWEEN SPATIAL
INTELLIGENCE, SPATIAL ABILITY, AND GEOGRAPHY SKILLS
Ahmad Yani, Asep Mulyadi, Mamat Ruhimat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
THE CONTRIBUTION OF TEACHER PREPARATION ON GRADE 8 STUDENTS’ SCIENCE
ACHIEVEMENT IN TIMSS: A COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN MALAYSIA AND SINGAPORE
Yoon Fah Lay, A.L. Chandrasegaran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
SCIENCE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE EMERGENCE OF RESPONSIBLE
RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN SCHOOL
Mirjam Burget, Emanuele Bardone, Margus Pedaste, Katrin Saage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590
VIEWS AND EXPERIENCES OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS ON THE USE OF STORIES
IN TEACHING SCIENCE
Burcu Anilan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
FOURTEEN-YEAR-OLD STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS REGARDING THE SUB-MICRO AND
SYMBOLIC LEVELS OF SPECIFIC CHEMICAL CONCEPTS
Miha Slapničar, Valerija Tompa, Saša A. Glažar, Iztok Devetak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
IDENTIFYING INDONESIAN UPPER-SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS’ ORIENTATIONS TO LEARN
SCIENCE AND GENDER EFFECT THROUGH THE USE OF STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING
Arif Rachmatullah, Sariwulan Diana, Minsu Ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS’ PREDICTIONS ON STUDENT LEARNING DIFFICULTIES
IN THE DOMAIN OF MECHANICS
Shao-Na Zhou, Hua Xiao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649
ENHANCING STUDENTS’ CORRESPONDING REASONING OF COGNITIVE PERFORMANCES
BY ANIMATED CONCEPT MAPPING IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY
King-Dow Su . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
A LONGITUDINAL TRAJECTORY OF SCIENCE LEARNING MOTIVATION IN
KOREAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
Sein Shin, Arif Rachmatullah, Minsu Ha, Jun-Ki Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
THE VIEWPOINTS OF PRE-SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS ON THE ESSENTIAL NATURE
OF SCIENCE CONCEPTS IN THE SAUDI CONTEXT: A TRIANGULATION APPROACH
Fayadh Hamed Alanazi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
SCIENCE EDUCATION ADAPTIVE LEARNING SYSTEM AS A COMPUTER-BASED
SCIENCE LEARNING WITH LEARNING STYLE VARIATIONS
Z. Zulfiani, Iwan Permana Suwarna, Sujiyo Miranto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
DEVELOPMENT OF PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ UNDERSTANDING OF THE NATURE OF SCIENCE
THROUGH AN INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY
Melis Yeşilpınar Uyar, Tuba Demirel, Ahmet Doğanay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728

Information
INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742

QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21ST CENTURY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743

531
INTERCULTURAL LEARNING: CHALLENGES FOR CURRENT SCIENCE EDUCATION
Martin Bílek
Charles University, Czech Republic
In the time of curricular reforms across the Europe another chance appeared towards increasing learners´
interest in science education, particularly in relation to the future job selection in the field of natural sciences and
technology. Innovations in natural science instruction can be conducted in various ways, e.g. (Bílek & Klečková,
2006): (1) learners´ interest in natural sciences and their instruction (What am I interested in?; What would I like to
learn?; What learning content should be learned?) – answers to these questions were discussed i.e. in the analysis
of the international comparative study ROSE (Relevance of Science Education) (ROSE Project, 2018), (2) context of
instruction (optimally – “school science”, application context, social context, personality context), (3) learning content
(standards; Framework and School programmes; traditions; new topics) or (4) competences (key competences;
“scientific literacy“; activities in natural science). The current approach to instruction in schools is characterized
mainly by the dominant position of the teacher and receptive passivity of learners. Scientific knowledge is built
in such a form, which nearly excludes its application and exploitation in the future. Learners are not able to use
the knowledge in real situations because they do not discover its relation to the reality; they are not able to apply
the abstract knowledge in the real situation. The teacher should create content-rich communicative environment
which will address the subjective knowledge area and at the same time which contains new puzzles inviting to
creative self-orientation. The teacher’s art lies in the ability to forecast the chain of consequences between original
construction of the reality with the learner and scientific knowledge which the learner understands as the state of
expected conflict, solves it via the trial-error way. The attention is paid to the individual with subjective content of
knowledge and experience (Bílek, Rychtera & Chroustová, 2017).
New challenge penetrating through all above mentioned “ways” and “problems” of science education is in-
tercultural aspect, intercultural teaching and learning in science education. Making interculturality come alive in
European society is the core to our future development: In the last ten years the number of asylum seekers, e.g.
in Germany, has risen from around 30.000 a year in 2005 to about 440.000 in 2015. Forecasts indicate that 50%
of future pupil generations will have migrant background. If we want a stable, socially cohesive society, activities
which allow for intercultural learning, exchange and dialogue are urgently needed (IncluSMe Project, 2016).
How to connect maths and science educational content and intercultural aspects? How to include different
social, cultural, religion, historical, ethical contexts into maths and science classroom? It is really a challenge also
for maths and science education or it is a case of social sciences only?
Answers to formulated questions are not so simple, but experiences from the intercultural classrooms (schools)
present that maths and science education have to include these aspects, too. Maths and science principles, phe-
nomena or laws are the same in all the world, it means they are global, but their instruction, their explanation has
a higher efficiency if they are connected with social, cultural, religion, historical, ethical and other approaches
which are mainly really local.
In the educational reality we can find recently different contributions to implementation of intercultural context
into curriculum, but maths and science education is not frequently included. The ambience to fill this gap has the
current project from framework Erasmus+ with acronym IncluSMe. The acronym means “Intercultural Learning in
532
Mathematics and Science Initial Teacher Education” and project activities focus on increasing the quality of the
initial teacher’s education of prospective mathematics and science teachers by including intercultural learning into
their curricula: Prospective mathematics and science teachers need to learn how to cope with language barriers,
culturally different pre-concepts about science and highly varying proficiencies of students (immigrants including)
to be prepared to tackle the challenges of their future profession (IncluSMe Project, 2016).
In turn, maths and science competences are crucial for civic participation, academic and professional success,
not only for students with diverse backgrounds but for all. But if comprehension and communication problems
due to language barriers or cultural differences are not addressed, mainly students with immigrant background
may perform poorly in maths and science. In order to secure educational opportunities for immigrant and refugee
youth, it is essential to include intercultural aspects into the initial education of maths and science teachers. Aims of
the project IncluSMe are to improve the relevance of higher education curricula for prospective maths and science
teachers by linking maths and science education with intercultural learning – and thereby strengthening students’
social, civic and intercultural competences. The project brings together 11 teams of higher education institutions
for initial teacher education from across Europe comprising experts in maths and science education, in inclusion
and diversity, in mobility and intercultural learning, as well as people involved in pilot projects for refugees: Univer-
sity of Education Freiburg, Germany (coordinating institution), University of Nicosia, Cyprus, University of Hradec
Králové, Czech Republic, University of Jaen, Spain, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece, Vilnius
University, Lithuania, University of Malta, Malta, Utrecht University, Netherlands, Norwegian University of Science
and Technology, Norway, Jönköping University, Sweden and Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia. Each
one from the cooperating institutions is preparing their own module with a topic close to integration of maths and
science content and intercultural aspects. Disseminations are oriented to offering international summer schools
and multiplier events and to strengthen transnational cooperation between universities in establishing mobility
programmes for maths and science students in initial teacher education. Web page of the project is accessible at
the link https://inclusme-project.eu/.
For intercultural learning, first-hand experiences are indispensable and in particularly relevant for the future
classroom. Yet, prospective science teachers need to be aware of the cultural realities of many science tasks as well
as of culturally different algorithms. They should be able to perceive culturally different perspectives and develop
intercultural sensitivity. From these reasons the first common activity was prepared with selected, science-oriented
modules, International Summer School in Prague, a beautiful city in the heart of Europe with great opportunities
to meet and recognize multicultural society and intercultural relations. Venue in Prague offered to discover “genius
loci” connected with intercultural feeling and rich historical memory. Participating students of the first IncluSMe
Summer School had numerous opportunities for intercultural exchange, both within the international student
group and outside when meeting local students, teachers and pupils. This enabled them to gain rich intercultural
experience connected to their own future profession – science teacher. Students had a profit from the summer
school as an excellent opportunity for gaining international and intercultural experiences which enabled them
to better appreciate and understand cultural and social diversity. During the summer schools, students lived and
worked in an intercultural setting together with students from 7 different European countries, having numerous
opportunities for intercultural communication.
The programme provided lectures and workshops on intercultural science learning, as well as offered activi-
ties to make own experiences in the working place: for example, visits to Czech schools and non-governmental
institutions connected with different intercultural contexts, to recognize climate of middle European city with rich
historical and intercultural heritage etc.
During the summer school the following topics were held, it means the following IncluSMe modules were
selected for lectures, seminars and lab or field works: (A) Intercultural competencies - Accompanying prospective
teachers in making intercultural experiences (team of lecturers from the Jönköping University, Sweden in coop-
eration with the teams of lecturers from the other participating universities organized in sending to institutions
before Summer School), (B) Intercultural science learning outside of school - Diversity in school, diversity in nature
(team of lecturers from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway), (C) Culture-related context
for mathematics and Science Education (team of lecturers from the Utrecht University, Netherlands), (D) Different
perspectives on current ecological problems - The example of water (team of lecturers from the University of Hradec
Kralove, Czech Republic), (E) Relevance of language in science education (team of lecturers from the University of
Nicosia , Cyprus), Scientific problems involving moral, ethical or cultural aspects - Use of socio-scientific scenarios
to enhance science learning in culturally diverse classrooms (team of lecturers from the University of Jaen, Spain)
533
and Assessment in mathematics and science in multicultural contexts (team of lecturers from the University of
Malta, Malta).
Participating students were prepared for their stay abroad by being sent to institutions with the help of Module
A, raising students’ intercultural awareness and preparing them for a stay in a country where they do not under-
stand the local language. During their stay they had numerous opportunities for intercultural communication both
within the international student group and outside when meeting the local population and local minorities. This
enabled them to gain rich intercultural experience. The programme was realised at Faculty of Education Charles
University and offered students the opportunity to perceive and analyse different aspects of science education
in its interrelation with cultural, national, religious and other dimensions of society, as well as current ecological
problems. In the programme participated 26 university students, future teachers, from 7 countries: Czech Republic
(5), Slovakia (5), Spain (5), Norway (3), Sweden (3), Cyprus (3) and Malta (2).
By student’s evaluation Summer School was evaluated very positively for the interesting content, positive
climate and working atmosphere. Project partners received a very good experience from the Summer School
realisation and all recommendations and comments will be used mainly in the second Summer School, which will
be oriented to intercultural learning in maths education and will be organised by partners from Vilnius University
in Lithuania, in 2019. The focus is now oriented to the next activities like research based on questionnaires and
interview realised by leading of NTNU team, individual module evaluation questionnaires, analysing of student’s
portfolios etc. Transnational collaboration between the lecturing partners was very high with great support from
students, participants of the Summer School as well as students from hosting institutions. Receiving results from
prepared modules and their realisation during the Summer School are very promising and can propose new ways
in science teacher’s education. Finalised versions of modules directly allow completing the curriculum for future
science teachers and they as well can ensure continuing education of teachers from the practice.
What to add at the conclusion? Maybe one sentence from students participating in IncluSMe Summer School
in Prague: “…it is a new point of view. For me, mathematics and science are not connected with culture. It is rather a
domain of history and geography. But now I think I was wrong. That’s why I think everything was GREAT!”
References
Bílek, M., Rychtera, J., & Chroustová, K. (2017). Identification of key and critical points in early chemistry curriculum in Czech
Republic. In Lamanauskas, V. (Ed.), Science and technology education: Engaging the new generation, Proceedings of the 2nd
International Baltic Symposium on Science and Technology Education – BalticSTE 2017 (pp. 25-27). Šiauliai: Scientia Socialis.
Bílek, M., & Klečková, M. (2006). K možnostem inovace výuky chemie na základní škole v době kurikulární reformy [On current
possibilities of innovation in chemistry instruction at basic school within the curricular reform]. In Kričfaluši, D. (Ed.), Aktuální
aspekty pregraduální přípravy a postgraduálního vzdělávání učitelů chemie (pp. 13-16). Ostrava: PřF OU.
ROSE Project. (2018). Retrieved from https://roseproject.no/.
IncluSMe Project. (2016). Retrieved from https://inclusme-project.eu.
Received: June 30, 2018 Accepted: July 31, 2018
Martin Bílek PhD. in Pedagogy with orientation to Chemistry Didactics, Professor

of Chemistry Didactics, Department of Chemistry and Chemistry
Education, Faculty of Education, Charles University, M. D. Rettigové 4,
11639 Prague, Czech Republic.
E-mail: bilek.martin@post.cz
Website: http://www.pedf.cuni.cz
534
IMPLEMENTATION OF
INNOVATIVE CHEMISTRY
LEARNING MATERIAL WITH ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
GUIDED TASKS TO IMPROVE ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
STUDENTS’ COMPETENCE
Abstract. This research aimed to provide an
innovative chemistry learning material with
guided tasks to improve students’ compe-
Manihar Situmorang, tence in Chemistry. It involved 180 students
enrolled in the Analytical Chemistry course at
Marudut Sinaga, State University of Medan in academic year
Jamalum Purba, of 2016/2017. The samples were purposively
Sapnita Idamarna Daulay, selected and divided into two groups. The
Murniaty Simorangkir, research consisted of several steps including
Marham Sitorus, enrichment, innovation and standardization
of learning material, followed by implemen-
Ajat Sudrajat
tation of the developed learning material in
class. A set of good quality learning material
equipped with the guided task for Gravim-
etry topic has been provided. It contained
Introduction relevant contextual examples, laboratory
works, students’ activities, multimedia, and
Implementation of National Qualifications Framework (in Indonesian hyperlink to trustworthy websites. Implemen-
Kerangka Kualifikasi Nasional Indonesia, KKNI) as the basis of competence tation of innovative learning material has
standard has been shifting the teaching and learning paradigm to adopt been conducted by using a set of developed
competence-based curriculum at Universitas Negeri Medan. The current learning material in the experimental class
while the existing textbook was used in the
curriculum needs to apply various learning strategies to provide the students
control class. The research findings high-
with appropriate knowledge of the subject they learn. Thus, it is compulsory
lighted several points: (1) well-implemented
to integrate relevant task to encourage the students to learn and to develop innovative learning material was effective
their competence and skills necessary to succeed in their study. The students to improve the students’ competence; (2)
are required to possess adequate knowledge, skills and good character to learning outcome in experimental class
adjust themselves to the relevant sector for life. The availability of good was found higher than that in control class;
quality learning resources is needed to help the students meet the required (3) the guided task in the learning package
competence in the learning target. The strategies to improve chemistry facilitated the students to learn the selected
teaching and learning process have been carried out, including the variation chemistry topic independently which in turn
in learning methods and models (Chamizo, 2013; Jahangiri & Hajian, 2013; shifted student learning style from lecturer-
Mari & Gumel, 2015), the use of laboratory experiment and virtual labora- oriented to student-oriented; (4) the guided
task not only made the students be familiar
tory (Arabacioglu & Unver, 2016; Tatli & Ayas, 2013), and the implementation
with searching for scientific documents to
of technology and multimedia (Chroustova, Bilek, & Šorgo, 2017; Khairnar,
complete the given tasks but also improved
2015). Teaching innovation has been proven to be effective to improve the students’ ability to write and organize
learning activities to facilitate the development of students’ cognitive skills, their assignments; (5) students’ academic
and to provide enjoyable learning environment (Fiksl, Flogie, & Aberšek, attitudes, observed during the learning activi-
2017; Hadjilouca, Constantinou, & Papadouris, 2011; Liu, Hodgson, & Lord, ties, were categorized as very good.
2010). It can be performed through teaching and learning method, strategy Keyword: innovative learning material,
and models, modification of laboratory experiment, integration of learning guided tasks, independent learning, students’
media and multimedia, and the development of learning material (Maaß & competence.
Artigue, 2013; Noor & Ilias, 2013; Slabin, 2013). Teaching innovation with an
adaptation of information technology in teaching and learning has become Manihar Situmorang, Marudut Sinaga,
a trend nowadays (Varghese, Faith, & Jacob, 2012). Learning innovation by Jamalum Purba, Sapnita Idamarna
Daulay, Murniaty Simorangkir,
using technology, such as web-based approach and Massive Open Online Marham Sitorus, Ajat Sudrajat
Courses (MOOCs), can enhance and facilitate student learning process from State University of Medan, Indonesia
traditional classroom to student-centred learning (Dagienė & Gudonienė,
535
IMPLEMENTATION OF INNOVATIVE CHEMISTRY LEARNING MATERIAL WITH GUIDED TASKS TO
IMPROVE STUDENTS’ COMPETENCE
(P. 535-550) ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/
2015; Leito, Helm, & Jalukse, 2015). The use of interactive learning by the aid of multimedia has also been introduced
(Betten, Roelofsen, & Broerse, 2013; Osman & Vebrianto, 2013; Rusek, Starkova, Chytry, & Bilek, 2017). An innovative
learning material is considered as an effort to improve the quality of learning activities (Lee, Lin, & Kang, 2016).
Chemistry is a very challenging subject for undergraduate students as it plays a role on the specific compe-
tence in science. Chemistry, as the basic science, is an essential part of the chemistry curriculum from the basic to
the advanced level and consists of topics from principles of the methods to problem solving (Broekaert, 2015). The
development of innovative chemistry learning material is very important as it could motivate the students to meet
the desired knowledge and skills (Trifilova, Bessant, & Alexander, 2016). Similarly, innovation to provide standard
learning material has also been made to improve students’ competence (Hosler & Boomer, 2011). Good quality
learning material helps the students to understand the chemistry concept, while the illustration in the book makes
those concepts be easy to remember and ease the students to understand the relationship between the theory
and the contexts. A standard learning material can be designed as a learning media to facilitate the learners with
complete information from the right sources and can be accessed anytime and be able to facilitate the learner to
learn independently (Simatupang & Situmorang, 2013). It has been demonstrated that innovation in the teaching
and learning materials is effective to improve students’ achievement (Situmorang & Situmorang, 2014). A complete
and systematic set of chemistry learning materials can be provided in the format of books, modules and e-book to
facilitate the students to learn chemistry based on their need. Chemistry learning material in an electronic format
which provides flexibility of uses, both in the class and outside the class (Sinaga, Limbong, & Situmorang, 2016).
Analytical chemistry course is an essential part of the chemistry curriculum from the basic to the advanced
level for undergraduate students. The course is purposively made compulsory for science students to achieve high
metrological quality and to solve information-related (analytical) problems in order to ensure consistency between
required and delivered analytical information (Valcárcel, 2016). It is the basic science for chemical analysis for the
determination of the compounds in a high diversity of materials both qualitatively and quantitatively (Broekaert,
2015). Therefore, the topics of analytical chemistry have to be clearly explained in the principles of the methods
to problem solving data acquisition, data treatment, measurement values conversion and calibration techniques.
Analytical chemistry textbook for university students consisted of the chapters on Gravimetry (Christian, Dasgupta,
& Schug, 2013; Harris, 2015; Skoog, West, Holler, & Crouch, 2013). Gravimetry analysis is one of the analytical
methods that has been widely implemented in determining the target analyses in real samples (Jacob, Dervilly-
Pinel, Biancotto, & Le Bizec, 2014). This gravimetry topic is assigned to be very important in chemistry curriculum
for bachelor’s degree as it covers the knowledge and skills in chemistry (Zhang & Zhang, 2014). Gravimetry topic,
which is ranging from the preparation of the sample, selection of precipitation reagents, formation of precipitate,
separation technique and digestion, purification, drying and ignition, to calculation, was very important to be
developed for undergraduate chemistry students (Christian, et al., 2013; Harris, 2015; Skoog, et al., 2013). Those
techniques are compulsory for chemistry students to develop their skills on the classic method in the analytical
determination. The strategy, therefore, has to be made to boost students’ interest in learning the Gravimetry topic.
The development of an innovative learning material with guided tasks is a strategy to provide good quality
learning resources to be used in teaching and learning activities to improve students’ performance as desired in
the competence-based curriculum. A standard learning material with guided task is expected to improve students’
activities in learning chemistry. Universitas Negeri Medan (UNIMED) has set the guided task in the KKNI curriculum
which consists of six tasks, including routine task (RT), critical book report (CBR), critical journal/research report (CJR),
idea engineering (IE), mini research (MR), and small project (PR) in relevance to the topic being taught (UNIMED,
2016). The research was conducted with two fold aim: (1) to provide an innovative chemistry learning material with
guided tasks in the teaching of Gravimetric analysis topic, and (2) to investigate the effectiveness of the developed
standard learning package to improve students’ competence through their achievements and academic attitudes.
Methodology of Research
General Background
The study was carried out in the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematic and Natural Science (FMIPA)
Universitas Negeri Medan. The research steps covered the development of innovative learning material for the
Gravimetric topic, standardization of the learning package, and implementation of the developed learning mate-
rial to improve students’ competence.
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Population and Sample
The research involved 180 second-year students enrolled in Analytical Chemistry course. The samples were
purposively selected from the Department of Chemistry and divided into two groups, named as experimental
class and control class. The sample in each group was made homogenous by rejecting outlier samples based on
student ability to solve chemistry problem in the pre-test. Samples were all treated equally, yet only 30 students
per class were included in the data analysis.
Research Procedures
The research followed the procedures as explained in previous work (Situmorang, Sinaga, Sitorus, & Sudra-
jat, 2017). It consisted of the development of innovative and interactive learning material with guided tasks for
analytical chemistry topic, preparation of tasks instruction, evaluation and standardization of learning package,
implementation of developed learning material, and evaluation test. The strategy to measure students’ competence
and academic attitudes was also prepared. The procedure is illustrated in figure 1.
Figure 1. The overview of research procedures on the development and implementation of innovative learn-
ing material with guided task on the teaching of chemistry.
Preparation of Innovative Learning Material for Gravimetry
Innovative learning material for Gravimetry topic has been prepared by selecting the relevant sub topic, fol-
lowed by writing a draft of chemistry material and enriching the topic with relevant local contents as the contextual
examples to meet required students’ competence based on the KKNI curriculum on Chemistry. Integration of relevant
laboratory experiment, preparation of innovative learning media, and selection of hyperlinks to trusted websites
related to Gravimetry topics were done based on the procedures explained in the previous study (Situmorang,
Purba, & Sihombing, 2016). Sets of guided tasks with the instruction were then included in the learning material in
line with the regulation provided by the university (UNIMED, 2016). The feasibility of the innovated learning pack-
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age was then judged both by chemistry lecturers (n=8) who have the experience in teaching analytical chemistry
and by senior students (n=64) who studied Gravimetry topic in the previous year. The performance of the learning
package was assessed in accordance with the standard given by Indonesian National Education Standards Board
(Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan, BSNP). Preparation and standardization of questionnaire were carried out by
following the procedures explained previously (Situmorang & Sitorus, 2012). The questions raised in the question-
naire were provided based on the parameters for a learning material given by the BSNP. Assessment components
consisted of questions to reveal the contents, extension, depth, design, and language with four options from strong
to weak opinions. The questions were provided in multiple choice options with a very strong opinion of very good
(score 4) down to a very weak opinion of very poor/bad (score 1). Chemistry learning material was then provided
in printed and electronic format that was ready to be used as a learning media in the teaching of Gravimetry topic.
Guided Task Instructions and the Marking System for Gravimetry Topic
The guided task instructions for Gravimetry topic has been designed following the guidelines given for KKNI
curriculum (Lecture material given by Professor Syawal Gultom, Rector UNIMED, 2016). There were six compulsory
tasks relevant with sub topic of Gravimetry to be included in the class. The instruction for the tasks has been modi-
fied to optimize the students’ potential for learning. Learning activities with guided tasks were designed to equip
the students with necessary skills and to transform the learning process from the conventional lecture-centred
to student-centred learning. Specific tasks, learning activities, and report format were provided in the learning
material based on the guideline given by the university (UNIMED, 2016).
The six compulsory tasks assigned for the students were elaborated as follows. First, the learning package
included the problem examples and drills for routine task suited to Gravimetry sub topic. Within the routine task,
the students were asked to solve problems and submit the answer in the following week. Second, critical book
report was prepared by giving copies of book chapters on Gravimetry topic from chosen Analytical Chemistry
textbooks. The students were asked to analyse the contents of book chapters and submit the report following
the format provided in the handout. Third, critical journal/research report was designed to analyse one out of
five selected articles on Gravimetry topic. The students were asked to elaborate their opinion on the content of
the article based on the instruction and submit their report via email. Fourth, idea engineering was designed to
motivate the students to articulate their raw idea related to the subject matter they learn on Gravimetry topic.
With the idea engineering task, the students were given a freedom to express their raw idea on the application of
Gravimetry topic, and the report was submitted a month after Gravimetry time table. Fifth, the mini research task
was carried out to do an experiment in the laboratory. The students were provided with a package of simple experi-
ment on Gravimetry topic and were free to do the experiment. The marking system was based on how closed the
value obtained is to the target value given by the laboratory instructor. Sets of mini research and the procedures
on Gravimetry topic were given in the handbook, and the students were asked to choose one experiment from
available topics and do the experiment in the laboratory, followed by a personal report. Sixth, the last task was
designed as a project-based learning (PBL) on specific Gravimetry topic. The students were given the web link on
PBL and the list of chemistry topics related to Gravimetry to be chosen for PBL. The schedule to submit every task
and the marking system for submitted assignments are given in the lecture note. The student work was marked
individually both from their assignments submission and the average grades of all tasks. All instructions for guided
tasks have been integrated into developed chemistry learning material. Separated instructions were also available
for students who were not using the developed chemistry learning material. The marking system for the guided
task was provided for individual reports portfolio from submitted tasks based on the instruction given in KKNI
curriculum (UNIMED, 2016). The marking scale for students’ tasks is between 0 – 100.
Teaching and Learning Activities
The procedures in the teaching and learning activities consisted of doing a short training for lecturers, giving
instruction for learning activities in the class, and conducting evaluation and marking system. A training was given
to the lecturers to explain their involvement in the study, to give general procedures to use the learning package,
and to choose the right method to deliver the chemistry subject in the class. Lecturers were assigned to select
samples for experimental and control class, to distribute learning packages, to give instruction for guided tasks, to
collect reports, and to motivate students to use the developed chemistry materials. The evaluations (pre-test and
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post-test) were carried out on allocated time at the end of the program. Students’ achievement was measured from
these evaluation tests. The marks for submitted assignments were collected from their performance to complete
their tasks. Students’ academic attitudes were also recorded.
In the implementation of teaching and learning activities, all students involved were treated equally without
any discrimination, but the data were only taken from homogeneous samples after removing the outlier samples.
A preliminary evaluation was performed before the teaching treatment was carried out, followed by the teaching
and learning activities to both experimental classes and control class. The developed chemistry learning material
with the guided task was used as learning media for experimental class, while existing chemistry textbook was used
by the students in control class. During the teaching and learning activities, the students were asked to maximize
their potential for self-learning to use the learning resources available in the university. First evaluation test (post-
test 1) was carried out after completing all Gravimetry topic, followed by second evaluation test (post-test 2) one
month after post-test 1 (Situmorang, Sitorus, Hutabarat, & Situmorang, 2015). The students were asked to submit
the tasks at the scheduled due-date, and the penalty was applied for late submission.
Students Achievements and Academic Attitudes Measurement
Students’ achievements were measured from student’s ability to answer the question items in the objective
evaluation test at the end of the teaching session. The evaluation test, consisted of 20 multiple choice tests with five
options, was prepared to measure student performance on the pre-test, post-test 1 and post-test 2. The problems
provided in the test have covered all Gravimetry topic. The test items varied in the level of difficulty following the
procedures explained previously (Situmorang & Sitorus, 2012). The marking system for multiple choice test was
counting the right answer, reducing points for the wrong answer, and converting the score to range scale of 0-100.
Student’s performance was measured by marking portfolio of submitted tasks. The students’ competence was
measured from the combination of the scores from the evaluation test and the submitted tasks (65:35) (UNIMED,
2016). Students’ competence, ideally, has to be counted from their results to complete all subjects on chemistry.
However, students’ achievements reported in this study were only measured from learning activities on the teach-
ing of Gravimetry topic.
Academic attitudes of every student were also investigated by the chemistry lecturers based on a subjective
assessment of their involvement in teaching and learning activities and the judgment of their submitted report of
the tasks. There were ten parameters being observed for students’ academic attitudes, including: (1) communication
ethics, (2) honesty, (3) responsibility, (4) cooperation and collaboration, (5) toughness, (6) caring, (7) discipline, (8),
perseverance and persistency, (9) self-sufficiency and independency, and (10) learning initiative (UNIMED, 2016).
The marking system has been made for each of them within the score of 1 to 4, with criteria starting from a very
strong opinion with positive attitudes of very good (score 4), down to a very weak opinion with negative attitudes of
very poor/bad attitudes (score 1). Students’ academic attitudes were recorded in the semester academic transcript.
Results of Research
The Development of Innovation of Learning Material
An innovative learning material with guided task has been developed for Gravimetry topic. The total time al-
location for learning activities was distributed for class lecture, laboratory works, self-study to complete the tasks,
drills activities, and the evaluation test. The distribution of topics and sub-topics of Gravimetry and the type of
tasks to be completed are shown in Table 1.
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Table 1. Chemistry topics and sub-topics in Gravimetry and the type of guided task to be included in the
learning activities.
No Chemistry Topic Name of Sub-Topic in Gravimety Guided Tasks in Learning Activities
1 Introduction to Precipitation - Mechanism of Precipitation RT and CJR

- Nucleation
- Crystal Growth
- Aggregate Particle Growth
- Crystal Purification (Coprecipitation and Post-
Precipitation)
2 Precipitation Process and Forming the Precipitate (favouring growth over nuclea- RT, CBR
Gravimetric Method tion, coagulating colloid, and minimising impurity)
- Separating and Rinsing Precipitate
- Drying and Igniting Precipitate
- Cooling and Weighing Precipitate
- Composition of Product
3 Precipitating Reagents - Inorganic Reagents RT, MR

- Organic Reagents
4 Special Technique in Gravim- - Homogeneous Precipitation RT, IE, PR

etry - Direct Volatilization
- Indirect Volatilization
5 Application of Gravimetry - Calculation of Gravimetric Analysis IE, MR, PR

- Determination of Sulphur
- Determination of Chloride
- Determination of Nickel
- Determination of Carbon and Hydrogen
RT = routine task, CBR = critical book report, CJR = critical journal/research report, IE =idea engineering, MR = mini research, and PR =
project.
A package of learning material has been developed for Gravimetry topic. Every sub topic has a systematic
arrangement consisting of an introduction, main topics with relevant illustration to support chemistry content,
problem examples and exercises. The chemistry content has been enriched with contextual examples and the
integration of multimedia into learning material. The learning package has been developed as the main learning
resource for teaching and learning activities to complete the topics. The learning material has been developed
from various learning resources such as textbook, the internet, academic journals, and laboratory manual to suit
the need of students in the university. Integration of learning media and multimedia to support chemistry topic,
integration of relevant laboratory works, a variation of problem examples and solution and preparation of evalua-
tion test with the key answer were also included in the learning material package. Moreover, hyperlinks to relevant
websites for future reading to support given tasks were also provided. Furthermore, the instructions for the tasks
were prepared to guide the students to complete their assignments. Chemistry learning package was then made
into flipbook to help students using the electronic material. The brief description of innovation that has been
integrated into chemistry learning materials is summarized in Table 2.
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Table 2. Description of innovation included in the chemistry learning materials for gravimetry topics in
analytical chemistry.
The descriptions of innovation that was integrated into the chemistry learning materials on
No Chemistry Topics
Gravimetry topics
1. Introduction to Pre- The development and innovation of learning material for Introduction to Precipitation was carried out by enriching
cipitation the topic with local contents for the mechanism of precipitation, including the nucleation, crystal growth, aggregate
particle growth and crystal purification via precipitation and post precipitation, followed by the integration of a short
video on crystal growth. The chemistry material was equipped with virtual learning on crystal purification via pre-
cipitation and post precipitation. Learning media and a hyperlink to trusted and relevant websites for future reading
on precipitation were also included, as well as the instructions for guided tasks for RT and CJR.
2. Precipitation Process Chemistry topic of Precipitation Process and Gravimetric Method was developed to enrich the contents on forming
and Gravimetric the precipitate through favouring growth over nucleation, coagulating colloid, and, minimising impurity until the
Method composition of compounds in the yield are known. The technique of separating and rinsing precipitate, drying and
igniting precipitate, cooling and weighing precipitate was also demonstrated by using video and multimedia. The
calculation of the composition of the product and the problem examples were also included. A hyperlink to trusted
and relevant websites for future reading has been given. The instructions of guided tasks for RT and CBR were
introduced. The developed learning material was equipped with test evaluation.
3. Precipitating Reagents The development of chemistry topic on Precipitating Reagents to be used in Gravimetric Method was provided.
Contextual learning was applied to introduce inorganic and organic precipitating reagents. Set of mini research
has also been provided with the use of precipitating reagents. The material was also equipped with a short video
on how the precipitating reagents were selectively precipitate the target compound from mixture solutions. The
developed learning material was equipped with hyperlinks to trusted and relevant websites for future reading on
the application of Precipitating Reagents. The instruction for guided tasks of RT and MR was given.
4. Special Technique in The gravimetric method with the use of the special technique of homogenous precipitation, direct volatilization and
Gravimetry indirect volatilization has also been introduced by using contextual examples. The technique was focused to equip
the students with skills on the gravimetric techniques in real life. The enriched chemistry topic with local contents
has been provided, such as the example of homogenous precipitation, direct volatilization and indirect volatiliza-
tion, and made as a project. Within the project, the students can determine the target analyses in the samples. The
material was equipped with example problem and solution, the evaluation test, and hyperlinks to relevant websites
for future reading on solution Gravimetry. The instructions to do RT, IE and PR were formulated for Gravimetry
Technique.
5 Application of Gravim- The chosen chemistry material related to the Application of Gravimetry has been developed. Among them are the
etry Determination of sulphur, Determination of Chloride, Determination of Nickel, and Determination of Carbon and
Hydrogen. The subject was accompanied by the integration of interactive multimedia as an example before the
students dealing with the chemical on using Gravimetric determination. The enriched chemistry topic with local
contents has been provided such as the example of Gravimetric determination, and the calculation of Gravimetric
Analysis via the small project. Within the project, the students can determine the composition percentage of mix-
ture compounds. The use of spread sheet on calculation process was also introduced. The material was equipped
with example problem and solution, the evaluation test, and hyperlinks to relevant websites for future reading on
solution Gravimetry. The instructions to do MR and PR were formulated.
Standardization of Innovative Learning Material
An innovative learning material with a guided task has been standardised based on the opinion of senior
lecturers as well as senior students based on the procedures explained previously (Situmorang, et al., 2015). All
of the respondents gave a positive response to the developed chemistry learning material (3.88±0.30) of which
was assigned as very good (see the results in Table 3). The learning package has met the standard requirements
of BSNP parameters regarding the content, extension, depth, design, and language.
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Table 3. Respondents’ (chemistry lecturers (L) and senior students (S)) opinion on the developed learning
material of Gravimetry.
Respondents’ opinion* (M±SD)

Brief description of innovative learning material
Components
with guided task
L (n=8) S (n=64) Average
Content - Completeness of chemistry contents 3.88±0.35 3.89±0.31 3.88±0.33
- Accuracy of chemistry content 3.88±0.35 3.94±0.24 3.91±0.30
Extension - Material is extended by integrating local contents, labora- 3.63±0.52 3.89±0.31 3.76±0.41
tory experiment, contextual application, learning media and
strategy
- Chemistry material is clearly derived 3.88±0.35 3.92±0.27 3.90±0.31
Depth - Material is presented in good order: introduction, main 3.75±0.46 3.95±0.21 3.85±0.34
concepts, problem example, drills, quiz, and hyperlink to
trusted website
- Concepts can be applied in real life 3.75±0.46 3.94±0.24 3.84±0.35
Design - Suitability between the design layout with the target 3.88±0.35 3.92±0.27 3.90±0.31
material
- Presentation of illustration, figures, the tables and images 4.00±0.00 3.89±0.31 3.95±0.16
- Involvement of learners in interactive study 4.00±0.00 3.95±0.21 3.98±0.11
Language - Language is in accordance with the development of 3.88±0.35 3.97±0.17 3.92±0.26

learner
- Chemistry material is easy to read, language is simple 3.88±0.35 3.88±0.33 3.88±0.34

and provides communicative massage
- Language is straightforward, accurate on chemistry term 3.75±0.46 3.88±0.33 3.81±0.40

and symbol
Average 3.84±0.34 3.92±0.27 3.88±0.30
*Marking criteria: 4 = very good; 3 = good; 2 = poor, and 1 = very poor
Implementation of Developed Learning Material in Class
The developed learning package has been implemented as a teaching and learning media in the experimental
class, while existing textbook was used in the control class. Pre-test was carried out for both classes before teaching
and learning activities being started. The students’ achievement in the pre-test is presented in Table 4. Students’
achievements in experimental class and control class were almost similar. The results revealed that the students
did not fully understand the chemistry topic and they were ready to involve in different teaching and learning
activities related to Gravimetry topic. Both hard copy and electronic material were distributed to the students in
the experimental class. They were also given the instruction to use the innovative learning material based on the
given guideline. After completing the learning sessions, the students were given the first evaluation test to measure
their achievement on Gravimetry topic as summarized in Table 4.
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Table 4. Students’ achievements in Chemistry based on the ability to solve chemistry problems on pre-test,
post-test 1 and post-test 2 for Gravimetry topic.
Students’ achievements counted as the average score (M±SD) on Chemistry evaluation test
Evaluation Test Experimental Class Control Class
A (n=30) C (n=30) E (n=30) Average B (n=30) D (n=30) F (n=30) Average
Pre-test 22.47±2.01 22.83±2.07 22.83±1.5 22.71±1.86 22.57±1.61 22.87±1.66 22.73±1.57 22.72±1.61
Post-test 1 83.63±4.51 82.67±4.13 83.37±4.1 83.22±4.24 75.60±4.99 77.00±5.86 77.43±4.68 76.68±5.18
Post-test 2 86.70±4.27 86.63±3.35 87.90±4.4 87.08±4.00 72.53±4.65 74.53±6.13 74.63±5.58 73.89±5.45

Learning
104 105 105 105 96 97 96 96
Effectiveness (%)
A = Chemistry Education students in regular A class; B = Chemistry Education students in regular B class; and C = Chemistry Education
students in regular C class; D = Chemistry Education students in non-regular class; E = Chemistry students in regular A class; and F =
Chemistry students in regular B class
The results showed that students’ achievement in experimental class was higher than that in control class.
Students’ answer sheets along with the sheets containing correct answers for solving problems were distributed
to students as a feedback for future study. The announcement of time table for the second formative test was also
given to the students to motivate them to review the subject matter. Students’ results on post-test 2 are summa-
rized in Table 4. The students’ achievement in experimental class was also higher than that in control class. The
effectiveness of the innovated learning material with guided tasks to improve students’ achievement on chemistry
was calculated by comparing their achievement in post-test 2 with post-test 1. In addition, learning effectiveness
due to the use of innovative learning material in the experimental class was higher than in control class. Further-
more, the results indicated that students’ achievement in chemistry, specifically on Gravimetry topic, improved
significantly due to the developed learning package.
Learning Activities with Guided Tasks
The students have involved in the teaching and learning activities by attending the lecture, doing given
tasks, and submitting the reports. Various learning activities have been carried out with the aid of guided tasks
that have been integrated into the learning package. The observation showed that the students have achieved
the knowledge and skills as summarised in Table 5.
Table 5. List of the knowledge and skills achieved by the students from guided tasks on Gravimetric analysis.
The knowledge and skills that have been achieved by the students reflected through their submitted
No Type of Tasks
guided tasks
1 Routine Task •• Searching and using various learning resources to study Gravimetric analysis
•• Improving the knowledge and skills in Gravimetric Technique, starting from preparation of the sample, a selection of
precipitation reagents, purification and calculation of unknown target in real samples
2 Critical Book •• Having the ability to analyse the contents of chemistry topic in various textbooks that are suited to Gravimetric topic
Report and sub topic
•• Being able to review the textbooks and to explain the strength in the contents of the book to be applied in Gravimetric
analysis
•• Having the ability to choose the right textbook as learning resource based on their need
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3 Critical Journal/ •• Having adequate skills to search and to obtain relevant articles on the use of Gravimetry technique in Analytical Chemistry
Research Report •• Being able to read the original article from scientific journals and to share their scientific view based on their reading ability
•• Having the skill to report main scientific contribution and investigation from the research articles
4 Idea Engineering •• Having the ability to explore the scientific view of raw idea on the Technique and Application of Gravimetry in real life
•• Being able to express future development and modification in Gravimetry analysis suited to modern analysis
•• Having the ability to present a sophisticated idea and unexpected scientific view with high dimensional on Gravimetry
analysis
5 Mini Research •• Having the knowledge and skills on Gravimetry Technique in the determination of target analyses in an unknown sample
•• Being able to set Gravimetry method and procedure to determine target analysis from the mixture in the real sample
•• Having adequate knowledge to collect and to analyse analytical data and to write research report from their investigation
6 Mini Project •• Being able to write laboratory procedures for mini research on Gravimetry analysis for special purposes
•• Having skills and knowledge to complete a mini project on Gravimetry analysis and being able to handle the analytical
product correctly
•• Having the knowledge to write a standard report from a mini project
The guided tasks, which are integrated into the learning material, have improved students’ knowledge and
skills in chemistry. The students have submitted their tasks on time and the score of the portfolio has been collected.
The average results for both experimental class and control class are summarized in Table 6. It was found that all
students were able to complete the tasks on Gravimetry topic. The final score of the given tasks in experimental
class (83.43±4.71) was higher than that in control class (74.75±5.31). Integration of guided task in the learning pack-
age was very helpful for students to focus their learning on Gravimetry topic. The assignments reports submitted
by the students in experimental class were systematically prepared. The availability of the tasks in the developed
learning material has driven the students to study independently. The students become familiar in searching and
finding the right documents to be used to support the given tasks. Students’ ability to write and organize their
assignments also improved. The study displayed that the students tended to be self-learners because the facility
provided in the innovative learning material is adequate to help them to improve their competence in chemistry.
Table 6. Students’ performance based on the score given from submitted tasks portfolio on Gravimetric topic.
Students’ performances counted as the average score (M±SD) on guided task portfolio
Type of
guided Experimental Class Control Class
tasks
RT 82.10±16.37 87.17±9.87 83.50±9.71 84.26±11.98 76.63±9.59 81.50±4.71 78.50±9.68 78.88±7.99
CBR 86.63±7.42 83.97±5.44 80.30±6.25 81.63±6.37 72.50±11.10 65.30±10.66 71.43±11.18 69.74±10.98
CJR 88.30±8.45 87.33±8.67 82.43±10.57 86.02±9.23 75.27±6.27 79.57±2.10 75.00±6.61 76.61±4.99
IE 78.33±7.62 81.03±6.81 77.83±6.04 79.07±6.82 70.00±10.07 72.07±14.47 72.43±8.90 71.50±11.14
MR 84.17±8.28 86.47±8.97 81.57±10.99 84.07±9.42 76.90±10.29 74.93±10.15 81.57±11.60 77.80±10.68
PR 84.17±7.14 85.00±9.04 85.47±10.63 84.88±8.94 74.20±11.08 72.13±10.58 75.57±10.91 73.97±10.86
Average 83.28±5.78 85.16±3.48 81.85±4.85 83.43±4.71 74.25±5.13 74.25±5.15 75.57±5.66 74.75±5.31

RT = routine task, CBR = critical book report, CJR = critical journal/research report, IE = idea engineering, MR = mini research, and PR =
project.
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The students were also involved in a progression of learning to complete the task, starting with a simple
and easy task to a complex and difficult task based on the order of Gravimetry sub topics. The average score
of the submitted routine tasks was summarised in Table 6. The students’ performance reflected through the
portfolio of the routine task in experimental class (84.26±11.98) was found higher compared to those in control
class (78.88±7.99). The students in the experimental class were interested in using the developed learning
material in the teaching and learning activities. It was also discovered that the students were able to review
the textbooks based on the given guideline. Various opinions have been reported from the textbook. The
average score of CBR in experimental class and control class were shown in Table 6, where the students in
experimental class (81.63±6.37) scored higher than that in control class (69.74±10.98). The students were also
trained to search and read articles on Gravimetry technique in published journals and were then assigned to
choose three articles on Gravimetric determination and to elaborate their critique regarding those articles
as CJR task. The students were able to analyse the contents of the articles clearly and summarised them on
their own as CJR reports. The score from submitted tasks is presented in Table 6. The score of CJR task in
experimental class (86.02±9.23) was also higher than that in control class (76.61±4.99). It has been noted
from IE report that students suggested a possible modification to be made in Gravimetry analysis to make it
suited to modern techniques. Students’ score for IE task in experimental class (79.07±6.82) was also higher
than that in control class (71.50±11.14). The students’ IE reports in relevance with Gravimetry method were
mostly realistic to be implemented in real life.
Mini research was conducted as a laboratory work on gravimetric analysis. The research was set to improve
students’ skills on gravimetry determination. Sets of gravimetry experiments have been offered in the devel-
oped learning material that needed to be completed in two-to three-hour laboratory work. The students were
using gravimetry technique for determining the target analyses of sulphur, chloride and nickel in a real sample.
Students achievement for mini research in experimental class (84.07±9.42) and control class (77.80±10.68) are
summarized in Table 6. The ability of students to collect the data and to write standard research reports from
their investigation was clearly demonstrated. Marking system for research task was based on the ability to
write a report of an experiment and how close their unknown sample recovery was to a given “target” sample.
The PBL was also applied for the students’ task, where the students were assigned to complete the project
on the application of Gravimetry analysis. The description of the project to be done as well as the hyperlink
to another project were available in the learning package. The students were free to choose the project and
required to submit the report a week after completing the project (Siew, Chin, & Sombuling, 2017). Students’
achievements reflected through the submitted project are presented in Table 6, where the students’ average
score for experimental class (84.88±8.94) was found higher than that obtained in control class (73.97±10.86).
It was found that the students were very interested to do the project for it was designed differently from the
existing laboratory work. The excitement was displayed when they were successful to determine the target
analyses. The PBL was able to equip the student with adequate knowledge of gravimetry technique. The PBL
was believed to be able to give deep understanding on Gravimetric analysis.
Students’ Competence and Academic Attitudes on Chemistry
Students’ competence reflected through the score accumulated from students’ achievements and stu-
dents’ attitudes is presented in Table 7. Students’ achievements are derived from the combination of students’
achievement in post-test 1 and the performance obtained from guided tasks (65:35) (UNIMED, 2016). Students’
achievement in experimental class (85.73±3.87) was higher than that in control class (74.87±5.22). The results
revealed that the improvement in the students’ competence was contributed by the use of innovative learning
material as a learning resource in experimental class. Similarly, both systematic presentation of Gravimetric
topics in developed learning material and the availability of relevant illustrations integrated into a learning
package help the students to learn chemistry effectively. The relevant examples provided at the end of every
subject in the learning package make the chemistry topic easy to understand. Learning facilities – such as
multimedia, hyperlink, illustrations and images – integrated in the chemistry material were able to motivate
the students to maximise their learning potential through the active learning. The strategy provided in the
developed learning material improved the students’ curiosity to learn chemistry. The developed learning
material with guided tasks was also found to be able to shift students’ learning style from lecturer-orientated
to student-orientated learning. The availability of the tasks in the learning package has eased the learner to
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search for relevant materials related to the topic they learned. Furthermore, students’ ability to write, organize
and complete the assignment were also improved.
In addition to students’ competency, the attitudes of the students were also judged subjectively by the
assigned lecturers from cumulative activities during their study time. Students’ attitudes in the class were
observed, whereas some were judged subjectively from their report performance (Alkan, 2013). The academic
attitudes were subject to subjective judgment from ten parameters during the learning activities in the class,
group discussion, self-study, tasks performance and submitted assignments. The average results for students’
academic attitudes are summarized in Table 7. The results showed that students’ academic attitudes in the
experimental (3.52±0.21) and control classes (3.46±0.19) were all categorized as very good.
Table 7. Students’ competence in the Department of Chemistry, FMIPA, State University of Medan at the
academic year of 2016/2017.
Score of students’ competence and academic attitudes (M±SD)
No Outcomes Experimental Class Control Class
Students
1 85.63±4.21 85.25±3.40 86.31±4.01 85.73±3.87 73.59±4.61 75.40±5.89 75.61±5.16 74.87±5.22
Achievement*
Academic At-
2 3.45±0.22 3.56±0.22 3.54±0.18 3.52±0.21 3.41±0.20 3.43±3.53 3.53±0.18 3.46±0.19
titudes**
*Students’ achievement derived from the combination of evaluation test score and the average score of guided tasks portfolio (65:35)
**The academic attitudes are lecturers’ subjective judgment from ten parameters within the criteria of: (4) very good, (3) good, (2)
satisfaction, and (1) very poor/bad.
Discussion
The learning material developed in this study has been designed based on KKNI curriculum (UNIMED, 2016).
Innovation and guided tasks integrated into the learning material have been arranged systematically suited to
the need of university students. The lecturers and senior students agreed to book parameters and gave a posi-
tive contribution to the developed chemistry learning material. A package of learning material was categorised
as very good and has met the standard requirements given by BSNP.
The development of an innovative learning material with guided tasks has a positive impact on the teach-
ing and learning process, specifically on improving students’ achievement (Situmorang, et al., 2015). Learning
innovation conducted in this study has enriched the chemistry contents with contextual examples and the
task instructions have supported the learning activities in chemistry (Onen & Ulusoy, 2014). Implementation of
innovative learning material in the teaching of Gravimetry topic has proven to be able to motivate the learners
to maximise their potential for studying chemistry. The results were similar to other innovations, such as modi-
fication of laboratory experiment, integration of learning media and multimedia (Noor & Ilias, 2013) and the
development of learning method (Yang & Sima, 2013). Innovation was able to make learning activity efficient and
effective to achieve professional skills (Maaß & Artigue, 2013; Trifilova, et al., 2016). Students’ learning potential
has been optimised by the aid of developed learning package (Tomlinson, 2012).
The developed chemistry learning material with guided task has demonstrated to be a good strategy to
improve students’ achievement on chemistry. The task on critical book report has brought students’ compre-
hension on textbooks analysis. The students were provided with the knowledge of detailed explanations from
specific book chapter. Students’ critical thinking was improved significantly due to the developed learning
material (Bailin, 2002; Hager, Sleet, Logan, & Hooper, 2003; Lee, Green, Johnson, & Nyquist, 2010). It has been
evaluated from the submitted tasks which indicated that the students have become familiar with searching and
selecting various learning resources to complete their routine tasks. Most of them only relied on the developed
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learning packages. The availability of problem examples presented in a learning package help the students to
complete their routine task. The drills provided at the end of sub-topic were also sufficient for the students to
self-master the calculation examples which cover the subject of calculation of the composition of the product
by using gravimetric analysis, the determination of sulphur, chloride, nickel, carbon and hydrogen in mixture
compounds, in solution stoichiometry.
Critical thinking is needed in the teaching of science and can be made through the assessment of textbook
(Zempleń, 2007). There are four electronic Analytical Chemistry textbooks used for CBR task in this study. The
chapter of Gravimetric Analysis has been distributed to students for them to analyse the contents of the Gravi-
metric topic and to give critical reports on the strength of every book they read. Many students prepared their
review in short (3-4 pages) reports, while some of them who had critical skills with evaluative writing made
complete and long (6-10 pages) reports. This strategy has familiarized the students to choose the right book to
study chemistry. Critical journal/research report was very important on the students’ preparation for engaging
the primary literature such as current and new articles related to Gravimetry analysis. It has been reported that
reading the primary literature enhances student learning in writing, interpreting the figures and data, as well as
their critical thinking skills from evaluating the evidence and critiquing the arguments (Kovarik, 2016; Tu¨may,
2016). The given tasks have changed students’ approach over the contents of the articles for future application
(Murray, 2014). The students were able to share the scientific view and the contribution given by the research
report. The investigation presented in the article has been clearly described in the report. However, some students
were found having difficulties to express CJR report, and they just rewrote the content from journal abstract and
conclusions. The students were able to express their vision of science through the IE report (Haglund & Hultén,
2017). In this study, the students were given a freedom to express their future expectation on the use of Gravim-
etry in analysis through their idea engineering. The students gave their view on special technique in Gravimetry
and the application of Gravimetry in real life. A few number of students presented unexpected scientific view
with high dimension on Gravimetry topic. Many students expressed their raw idea in normal format and a few
of them gave sophisticated idea which was difficult to be implemented nowadays.
The strategy to introduce a research-oriented subject was successfully conducted by the incorporation of
research experience into the curriculum (Thurbide, 2016) for instance, through guided tasks such as mini proj-
ect and mini research. The task gave practical exposure to work with the analytical instrument on Gravimetry
method, including overcoming troubleshooting problem existed in Gravimetry applications. The students were
very enthusiastic to do the project in the laboratory, so at the end, it contributed positively to the students’
development of knowledge, skills and improvement of learning output (Lakhvich, 2017; Robinson, 2013). The
chemistry which has been taught clearly like a language art makes the students be motivated to learn (Laszlo,
2013). The contribution of developed learning material has been helpful to guide the student to learn chem-
istry systematically. The availability of innovation in the learning package motivated the students to become
independent learners. However, it has been admitted that few students faced some difficulties in studying with
the new learning approach since they preferred their old learning style which was lecturer-oriented learning.
Another problem existed was that some students in a group have submitted works similar from one to another.
Conclusions
An innovative, complete and standard chemistry learning material with guided tasks for the Gravimetric
topic has been developed to suit the need of undergraduate students. Set of learning package contains adequate
chemistry topics accompanied with multimedia and the hyperlinks for self-learning and is prepared as printed
and electronic format. Guided tasks instruction provided in the learning material is found to be able to guide
the students to complete the assignments given for relevant sub-topics. An innovative learning package has
been implemented as learning media to support learning activities to study chemistry. The developed learning
package helps the students to learn chemistry systematically and makes the study become more enjoyable,
resulting in the improvement of students’ competence. Students’ skills in collecting data and writing reports
are developed by completing the guided tasks. It has been observed that the students tend to work together in
discussing the academic ideas and solving problems related to chemistry. The results reveal that both students’
competence and academic attitudes in the experimental class are higher than that in the control class. Learning
facilities provided in the developed learning package make the students become active learners.
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Acknowledgment
This research was supported by Directorate Research and Community Service, Directorate General Research
and Development Reinforcement, Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of the Republic of
Indonesia, Under Tim Pascasarjana, with contract No.045A/UN33.8/LL/2017. The author would like to express
the gratefulness to Nora Susanti, Kawan Sihombing, Anna Juniar, Lecturers in The Department of Chemistry,
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Science (FMIPA), Universitas Negeri Medan who have helped during the
teaching activities, and Isli Iriani Pane from the Language Centre of Universitas Negeri Medan who have helped
in English editing process.
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Received: March 20, 2018 Accepted: June 06, 2018
Manihar Situmorang Dr. Professor. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and

Natural Sciences (FMIPA), State University of Medan, Medan, North
Sumatera, Indonesia, 20221. Phone: (062)-61-6613365, Faximile:
(062)-61-6613319,
E-mail: msitumorang@unimed.ac.id
Marudut Sinaga Ph.D Student, Department of Chemistry Education, Graduate Study
Program (Program Pascasarjana), State University of Medan, Medan,
North Sumatera, 20221 Indonesia.
Jamalum Purba Ph.D Student, Department of Chemistry Education, Graduate Study
Sapnita Idamarna Daulay M.Sc Student, Department of Chemistry Education, Graduate Study
Murniaty Simorangkir Dr. Senior Lecturer, Department of Chemistry Education, Graduate
Study Program (Program Pascasarjana), State University of Medan,
Medan, North Sumatera, 20221 Indonesia.
Marham Sitorus Dr. Senior Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of
Mathematics and Natural Sciences (FMIPA), State University of
Medan, Medan, North Sumatera, 20221 Indonesia.
Ajat Sudrajat Dr. Senior Lecturer, Department of Chemistry, Faculty of
Mathematics and Natural Sciences (FMIPA State University of Medan,
Medan, North Sumatera, 20221 Indonesia.
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THE EFFECT OF VISUALIZATION
TYPE AND STUDENT SPATIAL
ABILITIES ON LEARNING ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
ACHIEVEMENT ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
I Gde Wawan Sudatha, Abstract. Students’ spatial ability plays an

I Nyoman Sudana Degeng, important role in instruction with dynamic
and static visualizations. This research was
Waras Kamdi aimed at describing 1) the difference in
learning achievement between the students
who learned from dynamic visualization
and static visualization, 2) the difference
in learning achievement among students
who have high spatial ability and those
Introduction who have low spatial ability, and 3) the
interaction between type of visualization
Technology can provide more ways of making students learn actively in and spatial ability on learning achieve-
improving learning achievement in science and in promoting scientific ideas. ment. This research used the non-equivalent
Now students become visual information consumers (Lundy & Stephens, control group quasi-experimental design.
2015). According to Linn & Eylon (2011), visualization which uses technologi- The sample consisted of 115 eighth grade
cal development makes it possible for the students to explore phenomena students in Singaraja, Indonesia. The data
which are minute (molecule), quick (electron), abstract, or solar system by were collected by learning achievement
observing them directly. Learning from computer-based visualization has test and Paper Folding Test. The data were
become the main topic in these last few years (Kühl, Scheiter, Gerjets, & analyzed using ANCOVA. The results showed
Gemballa, 2011). that:1) there was a significant difference in
The potentiality of advanced technology to design instruction such as learning achievement between the students
in visualization gives enthusiasm to instructional designers and practitioners. who learned from dynamic visualization
Visualization has long been used in its historical development, it has long and static visualization; 2) there was a sig-
been used in instructional materials, and researches in the past have shown nificant difference in learning achievement
that it is very easy to adapt a visualization to a new technology and in its between the students who have high spatial
turn, it can improve learning achievement. Visualization is a key component ability and those who have low spatial abil-
in multimedia-based instruction. It is defined as all types of non-verbal il- ity, and 3) there was no interaction between
lustrations (both symbols, like as graph, and images of realistic diagram, or visualization type and spatial ability on
animation) (Hoffler, 2010). learning achievement. Therefore, the dif-
Visualization has an important role in instruction (Gilbert, 2005). Visu- ferent combination of the types of visuali-
alization in instruction is a visual-spatial representation which is meant to zation and sequence of presentation and
improve instruction (Mayer, 2011). It has some roles in instruction (Smaldino, relation with individual characteristic can
et al., 2005), i.e., 1) to provide concrete references for ideas, 2) to motivate be elaborated more in the further research.
students by improving attention, maintaining attention, and arousing emo- Keywords: dynamic visualization, learning
tion, 3) to simplify information which is difficult to understand, 4) to help in achievement, science instruction, spatial
organizing materials by illustrating relations among elements in the form of a ability, static visualization.
diagram, and 5) to provide multiple channels or multimodality information to
facilitate understanding. Visualization, especially the computer-based visu-
alization is largely used in instruction which stresses student understanding
I Gde Wawan Sudatha
(Roblyer & Doering, 2010). Ganesha University of Education, Indonesia
Learning from computer-based visualization has become the main topic I Nyoman Sudana Degeng,
in these last few years (Kühl, Scheiter, Gerjets, & Gemballa, 2011). With the Waras Kamdi
State University of Malang, Indonesia
intensive use of digital technology, it is possible to present not only static
visualization but also dynamic visualization such as video and animation
551
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(Kühl et al., 2011) computerized visualization and animation are the promising methods to promote science in-
struction at elementary school, high school and university (Dori, Barak, & Adnir, 2003). Computerized visualization
and animation are used in research and instruction to describe, explain and predict scientific phenomena (Dori &
Belcher, 2005). Studies show that one of successful methods to improve students’ science learning motivation is
by integrating visualization and animation into their learning process (Barak & Dori, 2011). Results in researches on
instruction show that instruction with visualization can improve learning achievement (Lin & Dwyer, 2010; Nguyen,
Nelson & Wilson, 2012; Wu, Lin, & Hsu, 2013; Yarden & Yarden, 2010).
Now dynamic visualization can be readily incorporated into computer-based instructional environment
(Brucker, Scheiter, & Gerjets, 2014). Due to continually rapid developing computer graphic technology, computer-
based learning environment can easily be enhanced with different visual presentation formats (Brucker et al.,
2014). Applying dynamic visualization in computer-based learning environment also makes it possible to visualize
changes in objects that occur in outer space (Rieber, 1990).
Dynamic visualization is an important instrument to present scientific processes that can be observed, such as
mechanical mechanism (Hegarty, 2004). Learning from dynamic visualization can become a challenge. Continuous
and rapid changes put a heavy demand on the student’s working memory (Hegarty, 2004). Now dynamic visualiza-
tion such as animation and video are more and more used to present a process. For example, animation is used to
show the arrangement of light (Mayer & Chandler, 2001), the pumping of blood through the heart (de Koning et
al., 2010). One of the reasons why dynamic visualization is frequently used in instruction is because people think
that it will make it easier for the students to understand the dynamics of a process than through imagining or
concluding the motion from a static visualization (Hegarty et al., 2003).
In science education, dynamic visualization is used to describe, explain and predict scientific process (Barak &
Dori, 2011). Computer-based dynamic visualization is an effective instrument to be used in science instruction to
improve science learning achievement in various science concepts (Ali & Ambusaidi, 2017). Dynamic visualization
is promising enough to be used in science education both at elementary school, high school and university (Barak
& Dori, 2011). Dynamic visualization is an interesting part in science instruction since it presents scientific process
(Wichmann & Timpe, 2015). Visualization is the basic form of cognition and plays an important part in the student’s
image forming ability and activities starting from navigation, memory and problem solving (Barak & Dori, 2011).
Different from static visualization, dynamic visualization can present scientific process and from which changes
can be observed (Wichmann & Timpe, 2015). Some researches indicate difficulties in science teaching and learn-
ing process since they are related to abstract processes and phenomena (Barak & Dori, 2011). Computer-based
dynamic visualization is an effective instrument to be used in science instruction to improve concept understanding
in various different science concepts (Ali & Ambusaidi, 2017).
Some researches do not find that dynamic visualization is superior to static visualization (Lewalter 2003;
Mayer et al., 2005). In a review done by Tversky et al., (2002), many dynamic visualization cases do not benefit
learning more than static visualization. Researches that discuss whether dynamic visualization helps students
in understanding dynamic phenomena have yielded positive and negative results (Ainsworth, 1999; Schontz &
Rasch, 2005). Other researchers claim that dynamic visualization brings the potentiality of misconceptions to a
simple phenomenon (Schnotz & Rasch, 2005). Researches have shown that dynamic visualization does not show
better learning achievement than static visualization (Tversky et al., 2002). According to Ayres & Paas (2007) one of
the reasons why dynamic visualization is not so effective is because dynamic visualization is transient so that the
students need to remember, select and integrate many things at the same time in processing information. Since
students have a working memory with a limited capacity, dynamic visualization tends to create a high working
memory load, hence will cramp learning. However, in a meta-analysis done by Hoffler & Leutner (2007) it is shown
that in some researches dynamic visualization is more fruitful than static visualization, particularly when the in-
struction is about procedural knowledge.
The reason which is often given on the impossibility for dynamic visualization to be more effective than static
pictures is that it does not give permanent information. It only gives transient information (Ainsworth & Van Labeke,
2004; Hegarty, 2004) which may force extraneous cognitive load (that is, cognitive load that is caused by the avail-
able instructional material format) which has to be reduced as much as possible (Ayres & Paas, 2007), because of
the limitation of temporal working memory (van Merrienboer & Sweller, 2005).
An analysis that was done by Hoffler & Leutner (2007) showed the superiority of dynamic visualization over
static visualization. In addition, Hoffler & Leutner (2007) found some moderating effects such as the role of animation
(decorational vs representasional) and level of realism. Other moderating impacts of dynamic and non-dynamic
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visualizations include, for example, cognitive style (Hoffler, 2010), prior knowledge (Kalyuga 2008), and spatial
ability (Hays 1996).
To design good instruction, one needs to consider student ability and student characteristics. Reigeluth
(1983), explicitly places student characteristic as dominant variable in an instructional design. Student character-
istic consists of his or her learning experience that has an effect on the effectiveness of learning process (Seels &
Richey, 1994). Student characteristic according to Degeng (2013) is an aspect or quality of individual student that
he or she already has. Student characteristic that can be identified as the most influential factor in the process and
achievement in learning consists of intelligence, prior ability, spatial ability, cognitive style, learning style, motiva-
tion, and sociocultural factors. Student ability consists of various types, including spatial ability. Spatial ability is
related to instruction which uses visualization (Lee, 2007).
Spatial ability is a point that has to be considered when designing visualization in learning. Spatial ability
has long been recognized as individual ability which is part of general intelligence. Spatial ability is crucial to be
considered when learning from visualization, but even the more important is a good design that supports learning
environment (Hoffler, 2010). Students who have low spatial ability can be reinforced by various modifications of
visualization design (Hoffler, 2010). One of the issues in science instruction research is what instructional condi-
tion, and what knowledge dimension are correlated with student spatial ability and learning achievement (Wu &
Shah, 2004).
Student characteristic needs to be considered in instruction with dynamic and static visualization (Höffler &
Leutner, 2007). Student spatial ability has an important involvement in instruction with dynamic and static visual-
ization (Höffler, 2010). Hegarty & Waller (2005) state that students differ in their internal visuospatial representation
quality depending on whether they have high or low spatial ability. Studies in this domain have shown that students
with higher spatial ability do better than those who have low spatial ability when they learn from visualization. As
an example, Hegarty & Sims (1994) found that students with high spatial ability learn better than those with low
spatial ability. Students with high spatial ability show better performance than those with low spatial ability. This
main effect is conformable with Hoffler’s finding (2010).
Researches on cognitive load show that individual difference can influence learning achievement (de Jong,
2010). The individual characteristic that interacts with the effect of cognitive load is spatial ability (de Jong, 2010).
Some studies reported the effect of student spatial ability, for example, Mayer & Sims (1994) did a study in which
students learned about the function of a bicycle tire pump. A group that saw animations simultaneously with nar-
rations explaining about the mechanism of the pump and another group saw the animations before the narrations.
The group that saw animations simultaneously with narrations did better than the one that saw animations before
narrations. This effect was strong for the high spatial ability students and was not shown by those with low spatial
ability. Another research reported the effect of cognitive load in connection with to spatial ability (Huk, 2006).
In general, instruction with dynamic and static visualization has a positive relation with spatial ability on
learning achievement (Hoffler, 2010). Student’s high spatial ability is very useful in instruction with dynamic and
static visualization. This implies that high student spatial ability enables the student to understand an extract visual
information better in learning with dynamic visualization, and, on the other hand, activate their minds better when
learning than when they learn from static visualization.
In addition, the impact of spatial ability on learning from dynamic and static visualization was tested in a
meta-analysis by Höffler (2010) in which researches that investigated the effect of spatial ability on static visualiza-
tion, or dynamic visualization, or both, dynamic and static visualization. The result showed that spatial ability has
a positive effect on instruction both with dynamic and static visualization. Then, according to the hypothesis that
states that ability is a compensation, the average effect of spatial ability on instruction with static visualization was
higher than that on instruction with dynamic visualization.
Problem of Research
In the research we have studied a spatial ability as a factor that has to be considered in design of instruction
visualization. Students’ spatial ability plays an important role in instruction with dynamic and static visualizations.
In detail, the research questions are: 1) whether there are any significant differences in learning achievement of
the eight grade students between the group of students who learned from dynamic visualization and those who
learned from static visualization?; 2) whether there are any significant differences in learning achievement between
the eighth grade students between the group of students who have high spatial ability and those who have low
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spatial ability?; 3) whether there is an interaction between visualization type (dynamic visualization and static
visualization) and spatial ability (high and low) on learning achievement of the eighth grade students?

Research Focus
The focuses of this research were as follows: 1) investigate the effect of visualization (dynamic visualization
and static visualization) in learning achievement, and 2) investigate the effect of students spatial ablility (high and
low) in learning achievement.
General Background of Research
This research used 2x2 factorial quasi-experiment with non-equivalent control group design. Based on the
procedure, the 2x2 factorial experiment design (Ary et al., 2010) used is as shown in table 1. With the factorial
design such as this, the main effect and the interaction effect of all of the treatment variables can be determined.
Table 1. Pattern of 2 x 2 factorial experiment.
Type of Visualization
Dynamic Static
Spatial Ability High Spatial Group 1 Group 2

Low Spatial Group 3 Group 4
Table 1 shows that the types of visualization used in this research had two dimensions, i.e., dynamic and
static visualization. Spatial ability also had two dimensions, i.e., high and low spatial ability. Thus, the main effect
and the effect of interaction between treatment variables can respectively be found and sorted into two groups.
The main effects, i.e., 1) the effect of the variables of the types of visualization and 2) the effect of spatial abil-
ity variables. In the first main effect, the effect of dynamic and static visualization would be found without looking
at the effect of spatial ability. While for the second main effect, the effect of high and low spatial ability would be
found without looking at the effect of the variables of the types of visualization (dynamic and static visualization)
and spatial ability (high and low). The effect of the interaction of the treatment variables consisted of 1) the effect
of dynamic and static visualization on the group of students with high and low spatial ability and 2) the effect of
high and low spatial abilities on the group with dynamic and static treatment.
Sample of Research
The sample consisted of the students of Sekolah Menegah Pertama Negeri 1 Singaraja, Indonesia (State Junior
High School 1 Singaraja, Indonesia) and the students of Sekolah Menegah Pertama Negeri 4 Singaraja, Indonesia
(State Junior High School 4 Singaraja, Indonesia) with two classes from each school. The sample consisted of 115
eighth grade students (53 boys and 62 girls) State Junior High School in Singaraja, Indonesia. More specifically, 65
of them had high spatial ability and 50 students had low spatial ability.
Instrument and Procedures
This research used two types of instrument, i.e, 1) an instrument for conducting the treatment intervention
and 2) an instrument for measuring prior knowledge (pre-test) and intervention result (post-test). The first type of
instrument was in the form of dynamic and static visualizations, the process of development of which is reported
in another section in this report, that is, in the subheading dynamic and static visualization development. While
the second type of instrument was an instrument to measure the dependent variables as the direct effect of the
treatments. The results obtained (through the post-test) would be used as a research analysis unit. The instrument
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consisted of a learning achievement test. The pre-test functioned as the initial test to collect prior knowledge which
was positioned as covariate variable.
The procedure for developing the two types of test was as follows: 1) identifying basic competencies, 2) iden-
tifying learning achievement indicator, 3) formulating learning objective, 4) designing test items based on learning
achievement, 5) writing the planned test items in a test matrix, 6) writing test items, 7) writing research rubric, 8)
expert judgement, 9) field test,10) analyzing the result of the field test, 11) test item revision, and 12) finalizing the
writing of the instruments. The learning achievement test functioned to measure the students’ learning achieve-
ment on transportation system of organisms and human excretion system. The learning achievement test was
designed in the form of multiple choice test and essay test. The learning achievement test for the pre-test was the
same as the post-test, only the item number and the placement of options were different.
The learning achievement test developed consisted of 52 multiple choice items. The learning achievement
test was a multiple-choice test with four options, in which if the students answered correctly they would get
one score and if the answer was not correct they would get zero. The result of tryout showed that the number of
items which met the level of difficulty and discrimination index was forty with the Alpha Cronbach of the learning
achievement for multiple choice of .78.
Spatial ability was measured using paper Folding Test (Ekstrom, French, Harman, & Dermen, 1976). This spatial
ability test has been used broadly to measure visualization spatial ability. The result of computation showed that
all of the items in paper folding test could be used in the research with the reliability of .82.
The procedure of the experiment was specified as follows: 1) before the treatment was given to all of the
subjects, they were given a spatial ability test and pre-test, 2) after the subjects finished doing the test, the treat-
ment started in the class. Each of the students’ computers had been installed with dynamic and static visualization
instructions, and 3) after being given the treatment, the subjects were given a post-test.
Data Analysis

The data were collected and analyzed using the statistical analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). ANCOVA was used to
test the three-research hypothesis. The pre-test was used as covariate. Before doing the hypothesis testing, variance
homogeneity test and data linearity test were done. The normality testing was done using Kolmogorov-Smirnov
statistical test and Shapiro-Wilk test while homogeneity test was done using Levene’s test method. All of the test
used 5% level of significance (α = .05). All statistical analyses were done by using SPSS 21 for Windows software.
Results of Research
The number of students involved in the sample were 115 students. The distribution of the sample based on
treatment group and spatial ability is presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Distribution of sample of research based on type of visualization and spatial ability.
Visualization
Number
Dynamic Static
High Spatial 31 34 65
Low Spatial 24 26 50
Number 55 60 115
Table 2 shows that the distribution of sample was even enough in each group of treatment. The number
has met the criterion recommended for 2x2 factorial analysis, that is, each cell minimally has a sample of 20 (Hair,
et al., 2006).
The description of the condition of the variable of learning achievement in each group of treatment is pre-
sented in Table 3.
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Table 3. Statistical description of the post-test.
Visualization Spatial Ability Mean Std. Deviation N
Dynamic High 84.52 5.86 31

Low 75.39 6.83 24
Total 80.54 7.73 55
Static High 73.00 5.58 34

Low 70.68 6.19 26
Total 72.00 5.91 60
The result shows that the means in learning achievement in types of visualization (dynamic and static visu-
alization) and levels of spatial ability (high and low) differ. It is shown in Table 2 that learning achievement of the
students who learned from dynamic visualization (M = 80.54; SD = 7.73) was higher than the instruction using
static visualization (M = 72.00; SD = 5.91). The learning achievement of the students who learned from dynamic
visualization was higher than that of those who learned from static visualization.
It is shown in Table 3 above that learning achievement of the students with high spatial ability in the instruc-
tion using dynamic visualization (M = 84.52; SD = 5.86) was higher compared to that of the students who had low
spatial ability (M = 75.39; SD = 6.83). The learning achievement of the high spatial ability students in instructions
using dynamic visualization was higher than that of those who had low spatial ability.
It is shown in Table 3 above that the learning achievement of the students with high spatial ability in instruc-
tion using static visualization (M = 73.00; SD = 5.58) was higher than that of the students with low spatial ability
(M = 70.68; SD = 6.19). The learning achievement of the students with high spatial ability in instruction using static
visualization was higher than that of the students with low spatial ability.
Before doing hypothesis, testing using 2x2 factorial analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), a test was done to know
whether there was a correlation between the Pre-test and the post-test. To determine covariate, Pearson Correla-
tion Test was done. The result of Pearson Correlation Test is shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Result of Pearson correlation test.
Pre-test Post-test
Pre-test Pearson Correlation 1 .378

Sig. (2-tailed) .039
N 115 115
Post-test Pearson Correlation .378 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .039
N 115 115
The result of analysis showed that the pre-test score had a significant correlation with post-test score after the
instruction that used visualization was given (r = .378; p < .05). The correlation showed the pre-test as covariate.
Based on this the hypothesis test used was analysis of covariance (ANCOVA).
The 2x2 factorial ANCOVA test was done by using SPSS 21 for Windows at by 5% level of significance. The
use of ANCOVA based on the result of requirement analysis test had met the requirement. The result of ANCOVA
test was explained based on the result of Test of Between Subject Effects to see whether there was a difference in
dependent variable individually in the treatment group. The test of the effect between variables to test the null
hypothesis, the Test of Between-Subjects Effects was used. The result is shown in Table 5.
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Table 5. Result of tests of between-subjects effects.
Source Type III Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Corrected Model 3340.172a 4 835.043 22.651 .0001
Intercept 5352.808 1 5352.808 145.200 .0001
Pre-test 38.639 1 38.639 1.048 .0001
Visualization 1453.570 1 1453.570 39.429 .0001
Spatial ability 901.741 1 901.741 24.461 .0001
Visualization *
360.880 1 360.880 9.789 .308
Spatial ability l
Errors 4055.166 110 36.865
Total 673160.773 115
Corrected Total 7395.338 114
The result of analysis indicated that there was a significant difference in learning achievement viewed from
the type of visualization (dynamic and static visualization) (F = 39. 42; p < .05). The same result was also found in
learning achievement of the students with high spatial ability and low spatial ability. The result of analysis indi-
cated that there was a significant difference in learning achievement viewed from spatial ability (high and low)
(F = 24.46; p < .05).
The result of the third hypothesis testing showed that there was the effect of interaction between visual-
ization (dynamic and static visualization) and spatial ability (high and low). The result of the Test of Between-
Subjects Effects presented in Table 5 showed that there was no interaction (p > .05).
Discussion
Effect of Visualization (Dynamic and Static Visualization) on Learning Achievement
To understand how visualization can be used effectively in instruction, the type of visualization is an
important parameter and needs to be considered in research. This research was related to the impact of
visualization types used in science instruction at eighth grade and the interaction between the types of
visualization and student spatial ability.
The result of research showed that the use of dynamic visualization was more powerful than the use of
static visualization in instruction on transportation system in organisms and human excretion system. This
research finding is in line with the findings of previous studies (Ali & Ambusaidi, 2017; Barak & Dori, 2011;
Hoffler & Leutner, 2007; Lin & Dwyer, 2010; Schnotz & Rasch, 2005; Schnotz & Lowe, 2008; Wu, Lin, & Hsu,
2013). The superiority of dynamic visualization to static visualization indicates that dynamic visualization
helps students to build a deep understanding (Kühl, Scheiter, Gerjets, & Edelmann, 2011).
The use of dynamic visualization to show changes directly makes it possible for memory to proceed in
students’ cognitive process more easily (Schnotz & Rasch, 2005). Mayer’s cognitive theory (2001) states that
knowledge is presented and manipulated through two cognitive channels, i.e., visual-pictorial and audio
channels. Now instruction with visualization can facilitate cognitive processing and thus it can help students
to get a deeper comprehending of the material (Kuhl et al., 2011). Dynamic visualization can facilitate student
active involvement (Wichmann & Timpe, 2015). Dynamic visualization is an important instrument to present
observable scientific process (Hegarty, 2004). At the time extraneous cognitive load is reduced, by adding
visualization to the text, the students can invest their memory resource in the schemata. In the context of
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cognitive theory this process refers to germane cognitive load investment. The principle of multimedia can
be explained by the reduction in extraneous cognitive load and the growth in germane cognitive load at the
time of adding visualization to the text (Kühl, Scheiter, Gerjets, & Gemballa, 2011). The benefit of dynamic
visualization is that students can directly describe spatial and temporal information changes (Schnotz &
Lowe, 2008). These dynamic features, such as changes in the speed of an object, are the inherent properties of
dynamic visualization which can directly be read, thus it reduces processing demand (Scaife & Rogers, 1996).
Dynamic visualization has a potentiality to describe directly speed, acceleration, etc. reversely proportion-
ate to static visualization in which the dynamic quality of the instructional material has to be concluded by
the students. Students with high ability will process dynamic features actively so that they can build a mental
model (Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer, & Campbell, 2005). This is one of the potentialities of a transient quality (Betran-
court, 2005), since the motion is shown repeatedly, it makes it possible for the students to see it many times.
Static visualization does not provide visual movement information explicitly. With a rapid multimedia
presentation, it may not give enough time to the students process mental animation which can be easily
done based on a verbal narration interpretation of a careful static picture. In line with this result, Hegarty
et al. (2003) found that an understanding of mechanic system was supported by animations and a series of
three static diagrams that represented system phases, both support the understanding more effectively than
the use of a static picture. An arrow button can show movements. In addition, the arrow can show a causal
mechanism. Tversky et al., (2002) showed that the arrow in diagram which displayed a mechanical system
was often interpreted as indication of functional causal and asymmetrical relation. Thus, an arrow might
have caused the students to think of causal relation in the study. Finally, an arrow might function as a visual
sign which led students’ attention to the relevant parts in the display, preventing an unnecessary search (de
Koning, Tabbers, Rikers, & Paas, 2007).
Dynamic visualization is continuous, so that it reduces its transience by providing an access for the
students to the relevant information in its repeated cycle (Kühl, Scheiter, Gerjets, & Edelmann, 2011; Kühl,
Scheiter, Gerjets, & Gemballa, 2011). In addition, dynamic visualization is different from static visualization.
Dynamic visualization cannot only display spatial visual changes continually, but also has properties to di-
rectly display temporary information: for example, dynamic visualization makes it possible to display how
much time is needed by an object to change its position from point A to point B, and whether this change is
constant (Lowe, 2003; Schnotz & Lowe, 2008). In addition, dynamic visualization can exclusively show dynamic
features, such as changes and speed.
According to Ali & Ambusaidi (2017), dynamic visualization helps in conceptualizing abstract concepts
which may be difficult to understand by the students. Dynamic visualization can display observable scien-
tific process (Wichmann & Timpe, 2015). Dynamic visualization makes it easy for the students to be actively
involved through the control by the students such as: the students can start, stop, and this play again the
information needed (Wichmann & Timpe, 2015). Thus, the result of the research is in accordance with the
findings of previous researches.
The use of dynamic visualization to show changes directly makes the work of the memory in cognitive
process in the student easier (Schnotz & Rasch, 2005). One of the potentialities of dynamic visualization lies
in its transient characteristic (Betrancourt, 2005), since movements are displayed repeatedly so that the same
information can be seen by the students over and over.
Visualization added to the text gives a concrete context for understanding words. This is the proof for
the principle of multimedia: people learn better from words and pictures than from words only (Mayer, 2009).
The students can perform better if they learn from printed texts and illustrations than from printed texts only
(Mayer, Bove, Bryman, Mars, & Tapangco, 1996; Moreno & Valdez, 2005) or from narrations and animations
than from narrations only (Mayer & Anderson, 1992; Moreno & Mayer, 1999; Moreno & Mayer, 2002).
Dynamic visualization can give a contribution to the ability to understand learning material in two ways.
First, it makes it possible to represent concepts, phenomena, and process mentally. Secondly, it can be used to
display challenging cognitive processes such as abstraction, imagination or creativity. A researcher who uses
animation in teaching found that the more instruments used, the better the learning process will be (Najjar,
1998). Another study showed that the use of animation and visualization contributed to the student learning
achievement (Barak & Dori, 2005, Dori et al 2003; Dori & Belcher, 2005), spatial ability and motivation to study
(Barak, et al., 2011). Therefore, the finding of this research is in line with the former findings.
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Effect of Spatial Ability (High and Low) on Learning Achievement
In this research, spatial ability refers to knowledge about location, movement, and spatial relation among
objects in computerization model. The result showed that high students spatial ability in the group using
dynamic and static visualization presentation was higher than that of the students with low spatial ability on
transportation system in organism and human excretion. The finding is in line with the findings in (Hoffler, 2010;
Huk, 2006; Mayer & Sims, 1994), in which spatial ability analysis showed that high spatial ability students in the
dynamic group could develop knowledge better of an object in the type of visualization presentation while
low spatial ability students did not have cognitive resources to form relations with the type of visualization
presentation. Students who have high spatial ability got benefits from learning from dynamic visualization
while those with low spatial ability could not (Huk, 2006; Mayer & Sims, 1994). Low students’ spatial ability
may not support dynamic visualization instruction, students who have low spatial ability build a mental model
which is adequate for external represented text (Hays, 1996).
Hegarty & Waller (2005) stated that students differed in their internal visuospatial representation quality
depending on whether they had high or low spatial ability. Studies related to this have shown that students
with higher spatial ability outperformed those with low spatial ability in learning through visualization.
Hegarty & Sims (1994) found that students with high spatial ability outperformed those with low spatial ability.
Generally, instruction with dynamic and static visualization has positive relation with spatial ability on
learning achievement (Hegarty & Kriz, 2007; Hoffler, 2010). High students’ spatial ability is very useful in in-
struction with dynamic and static visualization. This implies that high spatial ability makes it possible for the
students to understand and extract visual information in learning with dynamic visualization, and on the other
hand, activate the students’ minds better than when they learn from static visualization (Hegarty & Kriz, 2007).
In addition, the effect of spatial ability on learning with dynamic visualization or static visualization was
tested by meta-analysis by Höffler (2010). The result showed that spatial ability has a positive effect on instruc-
tion both with dynamic and static visualization. Then, based on the hypothesis which states that ability is a
compensation, the multitude of the average effect for spatial ability in instruction with static visualization is
higher than that in instruction with dynamic visualization. High spatial ability correlate with better learning
achievement, the indication for the high spatial ability gives a benefit in dynamic visualization rather than
static visualization. (Hoffler, 2010).
In line with the previous studies in chemistry education, spatial ability is a factor that influences stu-
dents in solving problems (Wu & Shah, 2004). Students’ spatial ability can influence how they see and settle
a problem (Bodner & McMillen, 1986; Carter et al., 1987).
Students with high ability will actively process dynamic features so that they can build a mental model
(Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer, & Campbell, 2005). The same result was obtained by Schnotz & Rasch (2005), in which
students having low prior knowledge need more time to learn from static visualization than from dynamic
visualization. The reverse is true for students with high prior knowledge.
Students having high prior knowledge tend to have a better cognitive ability to combine verbal and
visual representation, on the other hand, students with low spatial ability have to use their cognitive ability
fully to integrate verbal and visual representation (Lee, 2007). This can mean that high spatial ability makes it
possible for the students to know more and to extract visual information in learning from dynamic visualiza-
tion. Thus, this research is in line with previous findings.
Interaction of Visualization (Dynamic and Static Visualization) and

Spatial Ability (High and Low) on Learning Achievement
The main effect from this research was that visualization presentation (dynamic and static visualization)
shows that spatial ability did not show an interaction with learning achievement in understanding in the
eighth-grade students. The ground for this result may be related to the characteristics of the knowledge and
the characteristics of the visualization presentation. Understanding covers the structure and function of trans-
portation system in organisms and human exertion system that can be represented effectively with words,
pictures, and animations, while scientific principles and concepts behind the movement in transportation in
organism and human exertion system may not be easily understood only by looking at representations with
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visualization (Wu & Shah, 2004). Also, worksheets were given to guide teaching and learning process, support
from teachers, friends and technology may be needed by the students to develop a better understanding
about transportation system in organism and human exertion system (Ainsworth, 2006; Goldman, 2003).
The type of visualization and students’ spatial ability seem to be the determining factors in the effective-
ness of an instruction. Anglin, et al., (2004) state that the effectiveness of the use of the pictures in instruc-
tion depends on how the pictures are applied and the characteristics of the lesson. The visualization which
is characterized as the giving of illustrations in the form of real phenomena or as the strengthening of an
explanation in the text contributes less in helping the students understand scientific concepts behind the
phenomena. Similarly, simple conceptual visualization may not be needed for formal operational thinking
maturity. Studies by Park & Lim (2008), and Rasch & Schnotz (2009) showed that there was a contribution
from the mismatch between type of visualization and students’ thinking maturity level. Spatial ability has an
important role when students learn from visualization, since the students often need formation, retention,
and internal representation manipulation.
Conclusions
Based on the result and discussion, some conclusions can be made as follows 1) learning achievement
of the students who learned from dynamic visualization and that of those who learned from static visualization
had a significant difference. The significant difference shows that instruction with dynamic visualization has
a better impact on learning achievement than the instruction with static visualization; 2) learning achieve-
ment of the students having high spatial ability was significantly different from that of those with low spatial
ability. The significant difference shows that high spatial ability has a better effect on learning achievement
than low spatial ability; and 3) type visualization (dynamic and static visualization) and spatial ability (high
and low) showed no interaction on learning achievement.
There are many things that have to be followed up in this research. Some suggestions related to further
studies are as follows 1) the result of the research showed different types of visualization and different levels
of the students’ spatial ability can influence learning achievement in science. Researchers, teachers, and
instructional designers need to think that types of visualization can influence students’ learning achieve-
ment. A combination of types of visualization and different sequences of presentation and their relation
to individual characteristics can be explored further in further studies, 2) since spatial ability has an effect
on instruction with visualization, further studies have to focus on how to design instructional formats that
encourage students with low spatial ability, and 3) how to involve learners with low spatial ability in helping
them processing information and making relations between representations. It becomes an important issue
in science instruction. Science instruction and instructional material have to consider conceptual ability and
spatial ability to support student’s understanding through visualization presentation.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Menteri Riset, Teknologi, dan Pendidikan Tinggi (The Ministry of Research,
Technology, and Higher Education) through Beasiswa Pendidikan Pascasarjana Dalam Negeri (BPPDN) scholar-
ship. The authors would like to thank the Headmaster of Sekolah Menengah Pertama Negeri 1 Singaraja (State
Junior High School 1 Singaraja) and Headmaster of Sekolah Menengah Pertama Negeri 4 Singaraja (State
Junior High School 4 Singaraja), who have been pleased to provide a place for this research.
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Received: February 07, 2018 Accepted: June 15, 2018
I Gde Wawan Sudatha PhD Student, State University of Malang, Lecture of Educational
Technology, Faculty of Education Science, Ganesha University of
Education, Jl. Udayana No. 11, Singaraja 81116, Indonesia.
E-mail: igdewawans@undiksha.ac.id
Website: http://www.undiksha.ac.id
I Nyoman Sudana Degeng PhD, Professor, Instructional Technology Department, State University of
Malang, Jl. Semarang No. 5, Malang 65145, Indonesia.
E-mail: nyoman.sudana.d.fip@um.ac.id
Website: http://www.um.ac.id
Waras Kamdi PhD, Professor, Instructional Technology Department, State University of
Malang, Jl. Semarang No. 5, Malang 65145, Indonesia.
E-mail: waras.ft@um.ac.id
Website: http://www.um.ac.id
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CONTEXTUALIZATION OF
SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE:
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ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/ SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE,
SPATIAL ABILITY, AND
GEOGRAPHY SKILLS
Ahmad Yani,
Asep Mulyadi,
Mamat Ruhimat
Abstract. This research attempted to
find whether spatial intelligence (without
context) has a correlation to (contextual)
spatial ability and affects geographic skills
as crystallized ability (Gc). It employed the
descriptive method with subjects includ- Introduction
ing students at the primary, junior high,
and senior high schools. The data were As written on the title of the article, contextual means putting things in
collected through two instruments, namely context. Literally, the word “context” means circumstances in which an event
test and questionnaire. Data of test results occurs, while contextual is defined as according to the context (Hornby, 1979,
were processed by tabulation technique p. 130). Rachman analogized the contextual meaning of a yarn in a piece of
and correlated for the scores of spatial cloth (Rachman, 1999, p. 122). Meanwhile, the researchers argue that the
intelligence, spatial ability, and geographic analogy of contextual meanings such as a slice of beef that will change the
skills. The results show that spatial intel- name according to how processed cuisine that can be a steak, beef lasagna,
ligence (Gf) tended to increase from the smoke beef, and others. Thus, contextualization of spatial intelligence is an
level of primary to junior high and to senior effort to implement the real form of spatial intelligence in the spatial capa-
high school level, whereas spatial ability bilities form and geography skills in the real life every day. Although many
(Gc) and geographic skills (Geo-s) tended people assume that spatial intelligence can also be manifested in the form
to decrease. Despite the decline, all three of geometry and engineering drawings.
(Gf, Gc, and Geo-s) had the potentials for To understand the meaning of spatial intelligence contextualization,
improvement. Thus, geography teachers below is shown an example, there is a picture of a child tying his shoelaces.
are encouraged to participate in improv- If you have contextual spatial intelligence, then you can surely estimate
ing students’ spatial and geographic skills, that the child cannot run while tying his shoelaces. Another example, it was
so students can develop their potentials reported that there had been a landslide on a flat land. Surely, the news is
optimally for geographic skills and future confusing and illogical because landslides will not occur in flat areas but will
career development. only occur in mountainous areas and hills.
Keywords: contextualization, crystallized
Contextualization of spatial intelligence can be used to improve ge-
intelligence, geographic skills, spatial intel-
ography skills. The National Geographic Society defines geography skills
ligence, intelligence and skill correlation.
as the tools and techniques necessary to think geographically. Geography
skills make it easy to understand physical patterns and processes, social life,
and be useful in making decisions such as to buy or rent a home, find a job,
Ahmad Yani, determine the fastest route of travel, find a place to shop, vacation, and or
Asep Mulyadi,
Mamat Ruhimat go to school. All of these decisions involve the ability to acquire, organize,
Indonesia University of Education, and use geographic information from data and facts in the form of drawing
Indonesia of symbols, charts, diagrams, and maps (http://www.nationalgeographic.
org/geographic-skills/).
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Previous research on spatial intelligence has been extensively studied, particularly in relation to spatial intel-
ligence with geometric ability, ability to read engineering drawings, and logical abilities. Research conducted by
Yenilmez, K. (2015, p.199) says that students who have visualization skills are more successful in the field of math-
ematics. Yenilmez also cites the results of research from Seng & Chan (2000) which mentions that mathematical
achievement correlates with spatial skill and has a positive significance. In addition, research conducted by Kayhan
(2005) also shows that spatial skills have a correlation to improving mathematical achievement and logical thinking
ability. A recent research conducted by Rochmadi, H. (2015, p.8) showed that there was a positive and significant
correlation between spatial intelligence and the ability to read technical drawings with a correlation coefficient of
0.371. Then, he also showed the correlation coefficient positive correlation between spatial intelligence and logical-
mathematical intelligence together with the ability to read engineering drawing of .440 at significance level α = .05.
Research that has not been done is about the correlation of spatial intelligence with the ability of spatial and
geographical intelligence. This research wanted to know the correlation coefficient between spatial intelligence,
spatial ability, and geography skills based on education level of primary school, junior high school and senior high
school students. This research is useful to strengthen the role of geography learning so it will be more directed to
develop spatial intelligence, spatial ability, and geography skills. In addition, spatial skills are expected to equip
students who will develop careers in the field of geography, geology, astronomy, pilot, and naturalist art (especially
natural landscapes).
Research Focus

The focus of this research is to know the correlation between spatial intelligence, spatial capability, and ge-
ography skills. The assumption is that children with spatial intelligence (in the form of geometry and engineering
drawings) are supposed to have geographical skills and spatial skills. The second assumption, children who have
the spatial ability will have good geography skills as well.
Spatial Intelligence in this research is defined as an innate potential that is measured through the Aptitude
Test. To deal with spatial intelligence test, students do not need to memorize and or practice test questions be-
cause the instrument has been designed not to “relate” to the learning materials. Spatial Ability is defined as the
metacognitive knowledge of students in estimating the condition of a place, space, and time according to the
context of the problem he faced. In other words, the spatial ability is the spatial intelligence that is contextual, real,
and occurs in everyday life. A person who has the spatial ability will be able to predict, associate, analyze, and draw
conclusions from a spatial condition on the earth surface. Spatial ability is the result of learning from a number of
subjects, such as geography, physics, biology, chemistry, sociology, economics, history, social studies, and others.
The geography skills are defined as the ability of students to interpret geographical data in the form of narration,
tables, diagrams, and maps. Geography skills are the result of learning from geography and social studies subjects.
The Development of Spatial Intelligence
In Indonesia, one of the tests used for the selection of prospective civil servants is the Academic Aptitude
Test. The test is divided into four sections: verbal, quantitative, logic, and visual (spatial) tests. Verbal test serves to
measure a person’s ability in words and language, quantitative test to measure a person’s ability in numbers and
mathematics, logic test to measure the ability in reasoning and problem solving logically and reasonably, and vi-
sual (spatial) test to measure a person’s spatial logic. The visual test includes questions on image matching, image
series, image grouping, image shadow matching, and image identification. The visual (spatial) test is identical to the
spatial intelligence test (without context). The Academic Aptitude Test was developed based on a belief that one’s
intelligence is not only influenced by general or “g” intelligence but also by other types of intelligence known as
multiple-intelligences. Psychologists who developed multiple-intelligences were Gardner, Stenberg and Thurstone
(Mandar, 2011, p 57). Thurstone (1887-1955) listed seven mental abilities: verbal comprehension, logical thinking,
numerical, word fluency, associative, perceptual speed, and spatial visualization.
There is a great literature concerning the measurement of spatial intelligence, such as Miller & Bertoline
(1991, p. 9) who argued that visual intelligence is “to visualize the rotation of an illustrated object, the folding
and unfolding of the flat patterns, and the relative positions changes of objects in space”. Thurstone (1950, pp.
518 -519) also identified several definitions of visual intelligence, namely “to recognize the identity of an object
when it is seen from different angles”; “to imagine the movement or internal displacement among the parts of a
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configuration”; and “to think about those spatial correlations in which the body orientation of the observer is an
essential part of the problem”. There are also various ways in developing questions for visual intelligence tests; for
instance, Katsioloudis, Jovanovic, and Jones (2014, pp. 88-199) developed a visual intelligence test through 2D
and 3D technical drawings that were cut through computer engineering. They also developed tests called Mental
Cutting Test, Differential Aptitude Test, Mental Rotation Test, and Purdue Spatial Visualization Test (Visualization
of Rotations). These tests were developed on the basis of a similar assumption that spatial ability is a part of intel-
ligence and useful for solving measurement problems (Battista, 2003), and spatial intelligence has a correlation in
terms of performance with mathematical skills (Casey, Nuttall, Pezaris, & Benbow, 1995).
In the subsequent developments, spatial intelligence is not limited to the ability to imagine the changes in
the rotated and cut 2D and 3D forms, but it has been recognized that visual-spatial intelligence is also related to
one’s ability in using charts, maps, tables, or other illustrations in solving problems. Mc. Kenzie (2005: p. 12) defined
spatial intelligence as “the intelligence of spatial reasoning that can be enhanced through the use of maps, charts,
illustrations, graphics, tables, artwork, crossword puzzles, and other media. Visual intelligence allows students to
simulate ideas or solutions to a problem before attempting to apply.” In the context of geography, spatial intel-
ligence has a different meaning. The objective of spatial thinking in geography is to memorize and analyze the
landscape on the Earth’s surface and to interpret a phenomenon and symptom of the Earth’s surface as a series of
connected events that are also inseparable from the influence of the surrounding environment. The media gener-
ally used to measure spatial intelligence are aerial photography, satellite imagery, maps, and data in the forms of
graphs and tables.
There is a different assumption underlying the tests of spatial intelligence based on absurd 2D and 3D objects
and those of contextual spatial intelligence (such as one that is geographically based). In the theory of fluid ability
and crystallized ability (Horn, J.L. and Cattell, R.B., 1967, pp. 107-138), the “absurd” spatial intelligence test (without
context) references the theory of fluid ability, that is the ability to solve new and abstract problems through the
potential, innate, genetic intelligence based on an individual’s neurological development and is relatively free from
the influence of education and culture. Henceforward, spatial intelligence (without context) in this paper is simply
called “spatial intelligence”. On the other hand, the test of contextual spatial intelligence is based on the assump-
tion of crystallized ability theory, which is the ability to solve problems affected by previously learned experiences.
Crystallized ability is influenced by learning outcomes and culture. Therefore, in this paper crystallized ability is
called (contextual) spatial intelligence which is then called spatial ability.
Then, a question that arises is which one is the most reliable way to predict a person’s ability to learn and
work. Postlethwaite (2011, p.1) stated that “based on research that has been done about neuroscience, crystallized
ability has a greater impact than fluid ability on individual success in solving life problems”. On the basis of this
belief, the researchers are motivated to develop instruments of (contextual) spatial intelligence or spatial ability
measurement in geographical context as an attempt to predict the levels of students’ geographic skills.
What are geographic skills? In the preceding section, it is described that geographic skills are the ability of
a person to make decisions in everyday life that are related to spatial processes such as to buy or rent a safe and
comfortable home, get a job, devise strategies to avoid traffic jams and floods, vacation, or go to school. All of
these decisions involve the ability to acquire, organize, and use geographic information. One’s decision in everyday
life involves systematic thinking in the spatial and environmental contexts. As a process of thinking and process-
ing information, the work process of geographic skills has been described by the National Geographic Society to
consist of five steps (http://www.nationalgeographic.org/geographic-skills/) : (1) asking geographic questions,
(2) acquiring geographic information, (3) organizing geographic information, (4) analyzing geographic informa-
tion, and (5) answering geographic questions. These five steps do not take place formally and rigidly, but flow in
everyone’s thinking process.
In many cases, processing geographic information does not require one to collect data and information
completely, because sometimes one piece of information is already enough to be used as a guide to make associa-
tion in further thinking. For example, to detect flood hazards in the City of Jakarta (the capital city of Indonesia),
Ciliwung-Cisadane River Basin Development Agency (Indonesian, BBWS) under the Ministry of Public Works and
Public Housing only needs to monitor the river levels at Katulampa checkpoint, Bogor City. Katulampa Dam is
located in the upper stream of Ciliwung River that empties into the Bay of Jakarta. Time of Concentration of Cili-
wung is about 8 hours, so there is sufficient time to notify the citizens of Jakarta when the water level of the river
reaches 150-200 cm from the bottom of the dam. This illustration gives an example that one piece of information
is enough to make a decision.
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As a “learned” intelligence, crystallized ability or spatial ability is inherent in every individual. Children will
learn to be careful to walk on slippery floors. Spatial intelligence allows the child to understand the slippery floor
warnings, so they can tread carefully. Then, teenagers can count the number of bus fares based on their distance.
Similarly, newly married couples can choose ideal home locations based on distance to the workplace, potential
natural disasters, good community conditions, and other geographic considerations. Such spatial abilities will
continue to increase with age; on the contrary, fluid intelligence (spatial intelligence without context) will decrease
with age, especially from 40 years and above.
The above explanation is based on research by Bugg’s et al. (2006, p. 15). The research shows that fluid intel-
ligence is affected by age. If the age increase is higher, then the decrease in fluid intelligence is also higher. This
is indicated by the decrease in individual working memory. To better understand this explanation, see figure 1.
Figure 1. Fluid intelligence (Gf) will decrease with age, while crystallized intelligence (Gc) will continue to
increase with age (Postlethwaite, 2011, p. 50).
In the context of education, crystallized intelligence is the concern of teachers because it has the potentials to
be developed through learning processes. The crystallized intelligence can be developed through teacher involve-
ment in the learning process (I Putu, et al 2017). Teachers are partners with students in activities characterized by
exploration, connectedness and broader, real-world purposes (Whiley, et al, 2017). However, teachers need to use
their time, energy and thought to create effective and student-centered learning, but keep in mind that teachers
will not be paid for doing so (Wilson, Leydon, & Winncetak, 2016). If (contextual) spatial intelligence based on
crystallized intelligence can be improved, geographic (thinking) skills will also be easily improved.
In describing spatial intelligence, the learned one or Gc, van Schaik (2008) reinforces that learning can improve
spatial ability, because spatial ability or intelligence is closely related to the way individuals perceive their environ-
ment. It is like a person’s ability to play football, namely to calculate and determine the right angle in kicking the ball,
as well as the amount of force required to score goals. Kicking the ball engages the intelligence of thinking about
space. Another example is from the Aborigines in Australia; this tribe has a painting that represents landscapes of
their environment and bears a resemblance to the real world. In the picture, one can see streams of water, animals
grazing, edible plants, hunting activities, and even hunters spearing their preys. All of these are considered spatial
intelligence and geographic skills.
In another research, Newcombe and Frick (2010) viewed that spatial ability (Gc) undergoes an evolutionary
and adaptive process. Every organism will be able to recognize its environment for survival. According to them,
spatial intelligence (in which the thinking process takes place) is a complement of verbal intelligence. Spatial
thinking helps reasoning in domains related to the environment. In real life, a geoscientist demonstrates his/her
ability to explain the visualization of the formation of the earth’s surface that is affected by various processes, an
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architecture can estimate the design of a building structure based on earthquake potential, and a neurosurgeon
can explain the visualization of the brain’s nerves from the magnetic resonance graph to determine the surgical
procedure to be performed. Therefore, spatial intelligence is the ability to visualize changes in shape and position
of objects in the mind.
Another relatively relevant research mentions that spatial intelligence is intelligence that is closely related
to the space around people. This intelligence can analyze the condition of the surrounding environment even
in a wide range. Maps, satellite imagery and aerial photographs are an effective tool to aid in spatial analysis
(Diezmann & Watters, 2000, p.206). This explanation shows that spatial intelligence cannot be separated from the
context of everyday life and human life. Students are certainly always aware of the existence of objects in a space
of life. Bednarz et al. (2005, pp. 101-112) even argued that spatial (geographical) intelligence and spatial thinking
are important points in the process of geographic skills, especially at the stage of asking geographic questions.
Spatial intelligence is similar to mental map-based thinking (Killworth and Bernard 1982, pp. 307-312), that
is a person’s perception or point of view of a particular area he or she is thinking about. In the process, mental
maps can be built due to spatial data input and spatial data processing which include the process of organizing,
sorting, memorizing, and manipulating data that can eventually be used to make decisions. The function of spatial
intelligence as a “mental map” can certainly help students to understand their position in space and to engineer
the space for their own needs. With this ability, humans can create space merely from the ideas that are still stored
in the memory of their brain, expressed in the form of model drawings (such as maps, models, sketches, and floor
plans), and to be realized in real life, such as making a model of buildings, artificial gardens, and the like.
Research Context
The research aims to determine the correlation of the performance of spatial intelligence (spatial ability based
on crystallized intelligence) and geographic skills. To achieve this aim, a model of test instrument of “contextualiza-
tion” of spatial intelligence relevant to the education level of students was created. After knowing the test results of
the developed instruments, the researchers sought to find the correlation between spatial ability and geographic
skills. Learning strategies developed should attempt to lessen feelings of isolation by handing power back to the
learner, reduce barriers (between teacher and student) and dissonance, and encourage creativity and the explo-
ration of ideas through engagement with the learning process (Whiley, et al, 2017). People with high creativity
will be challenged to explore problems, explore new ideas, take risks and not being satisfied quickly (Suyidno, et
al, 2018). Multiple intelligence-based learning model has a significant role compared with conventional learning
model. This is marked by an increase in student achievement. But this model has no significant impact on their at-
titudes (Gurcay & Ferah, 2017). If the results of this research are reliable, the next step would be to develop learning
strategies to improve spatial intelligence and geographic skills in students of primary school, junior high school,
and senior high school in accordance with the prevailing curriculum in Indonesia.
The instrument model developed as a measuring instrument in this research is divided into three tests, namely
the test to measure spatial intelligence (as Fluid intelligence - Gf ), spatial ability (as Crystallized intelligence-Gc),
and Geographic Skills (Geo-s). The form of spatial intelligence (Gf ) test is similar to the test commonly used in
measuring visual ability in the Academic Aptitude Test, namely image matching, image series, image grouping,
image shadow matching, and image identification. The form of questions in the spatial ability (Gc) test was drawn
from May and Smith’s (1998) in their book Spatial Ability: A Handbook for Teachers. One of the forms of spatial abil-
ity problems discussed in the book is the exploitation of the urban environment (including the ability to read and
use the map). Teachers can organize learning by using augmented reality to improve spatial intelligence (Carrera &
Asensio, 2016). But maybe it will do highly cost a lot. Hence, spatial ability can be measured through a mental map
test, that is the ability to understand the real environment through maps, atlas, globes, and aerial photographs,
including understanding direction, distance, relief, and others. The questions in the test of geographic skills are
directed to measure the ability to acquire, organize, and use geographic information. The abilities measured include
those of reading tables and graphics and interpreting maps.
In addition to paying attention to the specification of the form, the contents of the items also take into ac-
count the subject content students have learned. The theme of the questions is closely related to the subjects of
geography, namely: (1) the maps reading skill; (2) the location and distance awareness, the knowledge of density,
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distribution, and quality of an object on the of the Earth surface; (3) natural features, phenomena, and physical
processes on the Earth’s surface, such as mountains, rivers, lakes, forests, etc.; (4) natural phenomena and social
processes on the Earth’s surface that can be proven by their traces and impacts, and (5) interaction between natural,
physical, and social aspects that can be recorded through visual images such as agricultural, mining, or trading
activities. The questions are in the form of multiple choices. Here are examples of the problems:
1. An example of spatial intelligence (Gf ) question:
(Image source: https://www.slideshare.net/frilisa/soal-tpa).
2. An example of spatial ability (Gc) question:

Look at the contour map below!
(Image source: Sambodo, 2013).
Judging from the contour, which arrow direction is not possible for the development of a settlement?
(a) A
(b) B
(c) C
(d) D
(e) E
3. An example of Geographic Skills question:

David is an American. He would strongly prefer to be contacted by phone from 07.00 – 09.00 a.m. local
time. Therefore, it would be appropriate to call David from Indonesia at. . .
(A) 08.00 Western Indonesian Time
(B) 11.00 Western Indonesian Time
(C) 19.00 Western Indonesian Time
(D) 23.00 Western Indonesian Time
(E) 24.00 Western Indonesian Time
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Population and Sample
The research population of this research were primary, junior, and senior high school students in Bandung,
West Java, Indonesia. The population number is about 2500 students (http://data.bandung.go.id) which is spread
across six schools. The sample was selected purposively based on the title of the best schools in Bandung. Hence,
62 participants were taken from two primary schools (State Primary Schools of Patrakomala and Banjarsari), 68
participants from two junior high schools (State Junior High School of 29 Bandung and 12 Bandung), and 64 par-
ticipants from two senior high schools (State Senior High School 15 Bandung and 4 Bandung).
Table 1. Research sample.
No Education Level Age (years) Male Female Total
1 Primary School 10 - 11 31 31 62
2 Junior High School 14 - 15 31 37 68
3 Senior High School 16 - 18 28 36 64
Research Instruments
The data were collected with two types of instruments, namely test and questionnaire. The test consists of
three types of questions: spatial intelligence, spatial ability, and geography skill. The questionnaire questionnaires
are used to analyze the learner’s tendency toward professions that rely on spatial intelligence. The details about
the research instruments are shown in the table 2.
Table 2. Research instruments.
Number of Questions for each Instrument (items)

No Education Level of Respondents
Spatial Intelligence Spatial Ability Geography Skill Questionnaire
1. Primary School 5 10 10 10
2. Junior High School 5 10 10 10
3. Senior High School 5 10 10 10
The question test of spatial intelligence used is a well-tested question list developed by Taufiqurrohman
downloaded from https://www.slideshare.net/frilisa/soal-tpa. Spatial ability test and geography skills for high
school level were developed by the researchers themselves and have been tested by 40 people. The results of data
processing using ANATES version 4.0.2 developed by Karno To and Yudi Wibisono. The ANATES is an open source
application and can be downloaded for free. Based on the results of processing, obtained analysis of instrument
test with correlation coefficient (x, y) = .58 and test reliability = .73. The test instrument for primary and junior high
school is not directly tested but interpolated from high school level instrument. Interpolation process is done by
lowering the level of difficulty.

Analysis
Data obtained in this research are in the form of test result score and questionnaire. Data analysis is done by
five steps:
1. The test sheets for all levels of education (primary school, junior high school, and senior high school)
are divided into three parts: spatial intelligence, spatial ability, and geography skills with the following
proportions:
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Table 3. The test results of respondents
Questions of
Number of Questions of Geographical Skill
No Education Level spatial intelligence
Questions spatial ability (Gc) (Geo-s)
(Gf)
1 Primary School 15 5 5 5
2 Junior High School 30 10 10 10
3 Senior High School 39 10 10 10
2. Each section of the problem, given a separate score to obtain spatial intelligence score (Gf), spatial ability
(Gc), and geography skills (Geo-s). Score data is tabulated and graphic is made so that the comparison
between scores obtained by students of primary school, junior high school and senior high school.
3. Processed with frequency table and graphics techniques. A series of spatial intelligence, spatial abili-
ties, and geographical skills scores are correlated with one another to obtain correlation coefficient
data among each other.
4. The analysis of the test results is enriched with data obtained from questionnaires on respondents’ trends
in interest in learning and games, their likes for drawing, puzzle, painting, watching movies, drawing
designs, painting, and the desire to become architects and pilots. Spatial intelligence data is correlated
with potential development data obtained from the average score of attitude scales.
Results of Research
The first data processed were the average scores of Spatial Intelligence (Gf), Spatial Ability (Gc), and Geographic
Skills (Geo-s). Table 1 displays a recapitulation of the scores obtained by research participants from primary, junior
high, to senior high school levels. The column labelled “number of questions” and “mean score” (Gf, Gc, and Geo-s)
contains the information about the maximum and average scores. The maximum score is the highest score that
can be obtained by participants, while the mean score is the average score achieved by students at the time of the
research. The “mastery level” column is the percentage of the mean score that is compared to the maximum score.
To see the tendency of the mastery level of Gf, Gc, and Geo-s, a graph of comparison between the scores
achieved by the primary, junior, and senior high school students was made. At the level of primary school, Gf score
tended to be low but progressed in the junior high and senior high school levels, whereas Gc score tended to be
stable at an average of 45% - 55% of the maximum score that students could gain at the primary, junior, and senior
high school levels. In contrast, the score for Geographic Skills (Geo-s) was good at the primary school level but
declined at the junior and senior high school levels.
Figure 2. Graph of Mean Scores of Spatial Intelligence (Gf), Spatial Ability (Gc), and Geographic Skills (Geo-s).
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As shown in Figure 2, the researchers tested the correlation coefficients between Gf, Gc, Geo-s, and their de-
velopment potentials. The potentials for spatial tendency development in this research were derived from the scale
of attitudes filled by students consisting of common statements shown by children who have spatial intelligence
characteristics, namely their hobbies of drawing, daydreaming, puzzle playing, arranging the space, understand-
ing the map images, summarizing the subject matter by creating charts or concept maps, enjoying paintings or
visual art, watching movies or videos, and doodling on textbooks; and the professions they would like to have in
the future, such as a painter, architect, photographer, pilot, geographer, and machine engineer. The potentials for
spatial intelligence development in this research are coded SID (Spatial Intelligence Development). Table 2 and
Figure 3 display the correlation coefficients between spatial intelligence, spatial ability, and geographic skills and
their development potentials. The correlation coefficient was obtained by using the Pearson equation.
Table 4. Pearson coefficients of spatial intelligence, spatial ability, geographic skills, and their development
potentials.
Pearson Coefficients
Gf - Geo-s Gf - Gc Gc – Geo-s Gf – SID Gc-SID Geo-s-SID
Primary Level 0.217261 0.120098 0.359307 -0.02331 0.05644 0.08945

Junior High Level 0.326673 0.054253 0.096848 0.05309 -0.18839 -0.18204
Senior High Level 0.369781 0.445817 0.459315 0.10643 0.18889 0.03863
Notes: Gf = Spatial Intelligence; Gc = Spatial Ability; Geo-s = Geographic Skills
SID = Spatial Intelligence Development Potentials

Based on the data in Table 2 and Figure 3, there are two things to discuss, namely the correlation between
spatial intelligence and geographic skills and the correlation between spatial intelligence and the potential for
spatial intelligence development. Spatial intelligence (Gf ) tended to increase from the level of primary, junior high,
to senior high school level, while spatial ability (Gc) and geographic skills tended to decrease. The researchers argue
that the increase in Gf at a young age (7 - 18 years) is something reasonable and corresponds to the theory stating
that Gf will increase in line with the level of a child’s neurological maturity. Gf intelligence will increase until the
age of 40 years and tends to decrease afterwards.
Discussion
On a different note, spatial ability and geographic skills are outcomes of learning. In this research, the decrease
in spatial ability and geographic skills is assumed to be influenced by two things, i.e. the questions posed were
irrelevant to the subject matters (geography) which the students learned in the school, or the questions were too
difficult. Thus, further investigation is necessary because there is a difference with the results of previous research.
Spatial thinking has an important role in geography learning, as it underlies various skills such as the use of maps,
graphs, images, and diagrams visualizations (Carrera & Asensio, 2016). Nevertheless, the researchers still believe
that spatial ability and geographic skills can be enhanced through effective learning.
The next question to answer is that “Is there any correlation between Gf and Geo-s?” The answer is, as shown
by Table 2, there was a positive and increasing correlation coefficient at the primary (0.217261), junior high school
(0.326673), and senior high school levels (0.369781). This means that spatial intelligence in students has the potential
to help with the improvement of geographic skills. The correlation between Gc and Geo-s fluctuated as shown by
the following scores: primary school (0.359307), junior high school (0.096848), and senior high school (0.459315).
With this data, the researchers are confident that Gf and Gc affect geographic skills (Geo-s).
It should be noted that there are important results, i.e. there is a correlation between spatial intelligence
with geography skills. Initially researchers do not think that spatial intelligence has a correlation with geography
skills. However, the results of the correlation analysis show that these two variables are related and have a signifi-
cant positive correlation. The results of this research (at least until the current time this article published) reinforce
Spearman’s opinion. This opinion is in line with the review of Kaya, et al (2015, p.1061). According to Spearman
(1904), the general intelligence factor or “G”, if coupled with one or more other factors is sufficient to explain a
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person’s performance on intelligence tests. People who have good cognitive aspects will tend to perform well
on other field tests because of the dominant role of factor “G”. Spearman’s opinion was also confirmed by Jensen
(1980) and notes the reinforcement that “G” correlates with some life outcomes including scholastic performance,
reaction time, job performance, employment status, earned income, and creativity (Rich, et al, 2015, p 1061).
The next question is concerned with the correlation coefficient between spatial intelligence (Gf ) and its
spatial intelligence development (SID) potentials. Data on the potentials for spatial intelligence development
were obtained from the results of attitude scale which show that the respondents had an interest or a “liking” in
all the potential characteristics of spatial intelligence. The attitude scale is made in five columns as exemplified
by the Likert Scale (Joshi et al., 2015) with selections ranging from “Strongly disagree, Disagree, Neither agree or
disagree, Agree, and Strongly agree.” The results show that: (a) Spatial intelligence (Gf ) had a correlation to the
potentials for spatial intelligence development (SID); a negative correlation in the primary school level and positive
correlation in the junior and senior high school levels. The researchers are of the opinion that the awareness of the
potentials for spatial intelligence started to grow by the time students reached the age of junior high and senior
high school; alternatively, the education received during junior and senior high school has influenced the students’
career decision and preferences, hence resulting in a positive correlation. This finding reinforces the argument that
at school age, spatial intelligence can be enhanced through students’ educational processes and experience; (b)
The correlation between spatial ability (Gc) and the potential for spatial intelligence development (Geo-s) shows
unique symptoms. There was a positive correlation in primary and senior high school levels, while in junior high
school level the correlation was negative. This symptom is also found in the correlation between Geographic Skills
(Geo-s) and SID, which was found to be negative in the junior high school level. The researchers suspect there was
a gap between the learning experience of students (in the form of materials related to Gc and Geo-s) and their
potentials or interests. The above data indicate that the students’ awareness of their future career expectations
(to be designers, artists, architects, and pilots) was strong enough, but there was still room for improvement for
spatial ability and geographic skills.
To improve spatial ability and geography skills, researchers recommend following Gardner’s (1993) opinion
in Diezmann & Watters (2000, p.212) through four stages: stage 1 is to improve the ability to understand patterns
related to spatial intelligence such as to appreciate the three-dimensional space. Stage 2 involves the use of a
symbol system that provides an initial insight into space. Research on the system of art symbols has been done
by Gardner (1993b), mathematics by Tufte (1983) and science by Baigrie (1996). Stage 3 is the use of a notation
system that applies to certain domains, such as maps and landforms (geomorphology). Stage 4 is an expression
of intelligence in adolescence and adulthood through specific work. For spatial ability and geography skills can
be seen from its ability to read and make maps, determine the direction of the compass, determine the point
coordinates, and others.
Conclusions
The results show that spatial intelligence (Gf ), spatial ability (Gc), and geographic skills (Geo-s) have room for
improvement. Spatial intelligence (Gf) can be increased through the fulfillment of food nutrients and other physical
needs to support children’s neurological growth, whereas spatial ability (Gc) and geographic skills (Geo-s) can be
improved through an effective teaching process. The results also indicate that the potentials for spatial intelligence
development (SID) as students’ awareness of their future career expectations had a correlation to spatial ability
(Gc) and geographic skills. Although in junior high school level, the correlation coefficients of Gc and Geo-s to
SID were negative, at senior high level the correlations of both were positive. With the results of this research, the
researchers conclude good career guidance (especially those directed to careers in the fields of designers, artists,
architecture, pilots, geographers, and the like) can help improve students’ spatial ability (Gc) and geographic skills.
Likewise, if students gain spatial ability (Gc) and geographic skills (Geo-s), they will have a positive perception of and
better confidence to choose a career in the future, such as being designers, artists, architects, pilots, geographers,
etc. If this conclusion is accepted, geography teachers are expected to participate in improving the spatial ability
and geographic intelligence of students and guide them if they have the potentials to pursue careers in the fields
related to spatial intelligence.
This research provides guidance to teachers not to ignore the potential of students’ spatial intelligence. For
primary school teachers, the potential for spatial intelligence can be developed through the concrete things. For
instance, teacher can use globes to show the day and night changes. For junior high school teachers, the potential
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of spatial intelligence needs to be developed through simple abstract things. For instance, teacher can use the
mind map to explain the hydrological cycle. Then, for high school teachers, the potential of spatial intelligence
needs to be developed through high-level order thinking skills in analyzing spatial information. For instance,
teacher can assign to the students to analyze the relationship of international trading between countries and the
implications for each country.
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ACHIEVEMENT IN TIMSS: A
COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN
MALAYSIA AND SINGAPORE
Abstract. The ultimate aim of this research
was to explore the contribution of teacher
preparedness or readiness (in terms of their
academic background, confidence in teach-
ing science and career satisfaction) towards Yoon Fah Lay,
the achievement in science among Malay- A.L. Chandrasegaran
sian and Singaporean eighth-graders. The
TIMSS 2011 international assessment of
student achievement at the eighth grade
comprises written tests together with sets
of questionnaires that gather information
on the educational and social contexts for Introduction
achievement in science. The TIMSS 2011
science achievement scale was used to Singapore schools have consistently been outperforming their coun-
gauge Grade 8 students’ science achieve- terparts in mathematics and science on each and every cycle of the Trends
ment. Confidence in Teaching Science Scale in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) ever since its incep-
and Teacher Career Satisfaction Scale was tion in 1995. The findings of the recent cycle of TIMSS reveal that Korea and
used to explore science teachers’ confidence Singapore are the top-performing countries in science in TIMSS 2011 at the
in teaching science and career statisfac- fourth grade, followed by Finland, Japan, Russian Federation, and Chinese
tion, respectively. Data were obtained from Taipei. At the eighth grade, Singapore had the highest average science
5,733 Malaysian students and 5,927 Sin- achievement. This was followed by the next highest-performing-countries
gaporean students who participated in the for science achievement, namely Korea, Chinese Taipei, and Japan.
TIMSS 2011 study using two-stage random There is growing evidence that teacher preparation or preparedness is
sample design.Higher science achievement a powerful predictor of students’ achievement, perhaps even overcoming
among Singaporean eighth grade students socioeconomic and language background factors. Although a sound knowl-
was related to teachers having more teach- edge of science would seem to be a prerequisite for effective science teaching,
ing experience, being confident in science evidence directly linking teacher preparation in science to the achievement
teaching, and being satisfied with careers of their students is quite limited. A meta-analysis of the effects of teachers’
. However, these findings were not evident subject matter preparation on their students’ achievement in mathematics
in Malaysia. The findings of such a research and science found some studies showing a positive effect, but in general
may help science educators and policy results were mixed (Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundi, 2002). In addition to
makers to identify and nurture the strong the importance of a college or university degree or advanced degree, the
learning prerequisites of early adolescents literature reports widespread agreement that teachers should have solid
in different education systems. mastery of the content in the subject to be taught. In a review of teacher
Keywords: confidence in teaching science, quality research, the relationship between teachers’ advanced degrees
career satisfaction, science achievement, and student achievement was examined and found a positive relationship
TIMSS, teacher preparation between subject-specific advanced degrees and student achievement in
mathematics and in science.
Besides, evidence from recent meta-analyses of research conducted in
Yoon Fah Lay the United States shows that teacher professional development that is fo-
University Malaysia Sabah, Malaysia
A.L. Chandrasegaran cused on science content has a significant positive effect on student achieve-
Curtin University, Australia ment and that the amount of professional development was an important
factor (Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman, & Yoon, 2001; Johnson, Kahle & Fargo,
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2007). Research studies have shown that teachers’ self-confidence in their teaching skills is not only associated
with their professional behavior, but also with students’ performance and motivation (Urdan & Schoenfelder, 2006).
Hence, higher science achievement was related to teachers’ having more teaching experience, being confident in
their science teaching, and being satisfied with their careers.
It is undoubtedly and undeniably that students’ achievements are linked to teacher qualifications. However,
in what way and how much the degree of teachers’ preparedness or readiness affects students’ achievement
remain unanswerable. Furthermore, there is a dearth of research on the predictive effects of teacher preparation
on science achievement among early adolescents in Southeast Asian education systems. Hence, the purpose of
the present research was to examine the predictive effects of teacher preparation (in terms of science teachers’
formal education, teachers majoring in education and science, teachers’ years of experience, teachers’ professional
development, teachers’ preparation to teach the TIMSS science topics, teachers’ confidence in teaching science,
teachers’ career satisfaction) on science achievement among eighth grade students in Malaysia and Singapore who
participated in the TIMSS 2011 assessment. The findings of such a research may help science educators and policy
makers to identify and nurture the strong learning prerequisites of early adolescents in different education systems.
Literature Review
Background and Socio-cognitive Factors Influencing Teachers’ Preparedness
The literature revealed that teachers’ educational or academic background including their qualifications has
great bearing on their preparedness or readiness in teaching science and mathematics. For example, Wenglinsky
(1992) claimed that teachers who have a strong academic background and are qualified to teach in the related
subject are better in the teaching profession and can make a difference to becoming an effective teacher. Among
the sociocultural factors influencing teachers’ preparedness to teach science include their formal education, years
of related experience as well as the major subjects they took during the formal training such as pure science or
TIMSS science related topics and science education. The studies by Monk (1994) as well as Saderholm and Tretter
(2008) showed that the number of science courses taken by a science teacher had a positive influence on students’
science achievement while teacher content preparedness has a large impact on students’ achievement.
Teachers’ preparedness also includes their resourcefulness as well as lesson preparation that is related to a
student’s daily life, their readiness to collaborate with others to improve teaching through regular participation
in Continuing Professional Development (CPD) as well as their ability to evaluate or assess students’ learning. Ac-
cording to the NCATE (2010), knowledge and skill in how to teach are a must. Hence teachers’ involvement in CPD
to develop required knowledge and skills is also an important contributing factor towards teachers’ preparedness.
The taxonomy of educational behaviours for cognitive, affective and socio-psychological domains should be re-
ferred to more often by teachers for better understanding of pedagogical teaching approaches and evaluation/
assessment methods. Teachers’ ability to formulate indicators for the assessment/evaluation of students’ learning
from the aspects of their cognitive (e.g., through Bloom’s Taxonomy) and affective (e.g., using Krathwohl, Bloom &
Masia’s Taxonomy) development should also be enhanced regularly for better preparedness.
Affective Factors and the Relationship of Readiness with Students’ Achievement
Hence, apart from teachers’ qualifications, their preparedness or readiness could also be evaluated from the
perspectives of affective domains or psychological factors such as their confidence levels and career satisfaction.
‘Self-confidence’ is a combination of general self-efficacy as well as self-esteem, i.e., the general feelings of self-
worth or self-value. ‘Self-confidence’ is operationally defined as the belief of oneself towards his/her personal worth
and the likelihood of he / she to be successful. ‘Self-efficacy’ is belief of oneself towards his/her own capacity to be
engaged in and execute a specific behavior. It is the belief that a person has about whether or not he/she can suc-
ceed at completing tasks. There are two types of self-efficacy, i.e., ‘general and specific self-efficacy’. The former is
the belief in one’s general capacity to handle tasks. The latter refers to beliefs about one’s ability to perform specific
tasks (e.g., cycling, studying and so forth) (Lefton, 1991; O’Neill & McMahon, 2011; Weiner, 1979).
How will teachers’ readiness or confidence levels influence students’ motivation to learn for better achieve-
ment? Research has shown that effective teachers understand and are able to apply strategies with confidence
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to help students to enhance their performance. For example, a longitudinal research by Goldhaber (2007) who
examined over 700,000 student records in grades 4-6 and the licensing records for almost 24,000 teachers revealed
positive results in this respect. He found that the students of teachers who are prepared show stronger learning
gains in comparison to unprepared and underprepared teachers. Since teachers’ confidence levels are important
affective factors contributing to students’ motivation levels and their achievement, the indicators in the affective
domain should also be formulated in any evaluative studies of educational programmes focusing on the aspects of
students’ motivation and their achievement resulting from their active engagement in science/mathematics related
activities. For example, the students may find the task inherently enjoyable (i.e., they have intrinsic motivation)
and have an established long-term interest in particular topics (i.e., with personal interest). They will thus believe
that they have the ability and confidence to succeed in the learning task (expectancy and self-efficacy belief ); and
believe that success will be related to effort (an attribution) (Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith & Bem, 1993; Phillips, 2007).
Students are then expected to be more motivated to learn and achieve better academically as according to Keller
(2008), effective instructional pedagogy anchored on e.g., the ‘Attention, Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction’
(ARCS) instructional theory may influence motivation and performance.
Background Information of Malaysia and Singapore in TIMSS 2011
TIMSS is an international comparative study that has been implemented by The International Association for
the Evaluation of Educational Achievement (IEA) since 1995. It was designed to assess the quality of the teach-
ing and learning of science and mathematics among the Grades 4 and 8 students across participating countries.
This research examined the effects of science teacher preparation on the science achievement among Grade 8
students in Malaysia and Singapore who participated in the TIMSS 2011 study. Singapore joined the TIMSS since
1995 at both the fourth and eighth grade levels. However, Malaysia joined the program in 1999 only at the eighth
grade level. A summary of the science performance (Grade 8) of the two countries in TIMSS 1995 to TIMSS 2011 is
provided in the Table 1.
Table 1. TIMSS (Grade 8) Science Scores from 1995 to 2011 for Malaysia and Singapore.
Science Grade 8
No. of Participating Countries Malaysia Singapore
TIMSS 1995 45 - 580

TIMSS 1999 38 492 568
TIMSS 2003 46 510 578
TIMSS 2007 59 471 567
TIMSS 2011 63 426 590
Source: Mullis, Martin, Foy, & Arora ( 2012)
Rationale
There are 11 SEAMEO countries in the Southeast-Asian (SEA) region. Four out of the 11 SEAMEO member
countries participated in TIMSS 2011, namely Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Thailand. However, only Singapore
as the top-performing country in SEAMEO was selected for discussion in comparison with Malaysia based on two
main concerns. First, the purpose of this research was to identify areas in which the Malaysian educational system
could be improved after analyzing eighth grade students’ attitudes toward science in these respective countries;
second, the Malaysian and Singaporean educational systems share some similarities in terms of socio-cultural
background and differences in terms of geographical structures.
Research Questions
In light of the scarcity of empirical research especially on the TIMSS 2011 research, the research question
that underpinned this research was: How well does teacher preparation (in terms of formal education, majoring
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in education and science, years of experience, professional development, preparation to teach the TIMSS science
topics, confidence in teaching science, career satisfaction) predict Malaysian and Singaporean Grade 8 students’
science achievement in TIMSS, respectively?
Research Methodology
TIMSS is one of the projects of the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achieve-
ment (IEA). IEA is an independent cooperative of national educational research institutions and governmental
research agencies dedicated to improve education. TIMSS is conducted every four years on a regular cycle to
assess students’ achievement in science and mathematics at both the fourth and eighth grades. The project is
dedicated to providing participating countries with information to improve teaching and learning in science
and mathematics.
The TIMSS 2011 international assessment of student achievement at the eighth grade comprises written
tests together with sets of questionnaires that gather information on the educational and social contexts for
achievement in science. TIMSS 2011 employed a two-stage random sample design, with a sample of schools
drawn as a first stage and one or more intact classes of students selected from each of the sampled schools as
a second stage.
Data
Data for the research were drawn from the TIMSS 2011 database (http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/timss2011/
international-database.html). A total of 11,660 eighth-graders from Malaysia (n = 5,733) and Singapore (n = 5,927)
took part in the TIMSS 2011 science assessment.
Measures
Science Achievement. The TIMSS 2011 science achievement scale was based on 302 items spanning across
several subject domains (i.e., Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Earth Science) and cognitive domains (i.e., Knowing, Ap-
plying, Reasoning) in science. TIMSS uses an imputation methodology, usually referred to as plausible values, to
report student performance. The plausible values, an approach developed by Mislevy and Sheehan (1987, 1989)
and based on the imputation theory of Rubin (1987), are random elements from the set of scores (i.e., random
draws from the marginal posterior of the latent distribution) that could be attributed to each student. For each
student, the mean plausible value was used as a measure of science achievement. The IEA’s International Database
(IDB) Analyzer for TIMSS, a plug-in for SPSS, was used to combine the five plausible values as well as to produce
their average values and correct standard errors.
Teachers’ Confidence in Teaching Science
To explore teachers’ confidence in teaching science, teachers of students taking the eighth grade TIMSS as-
sessments were asked to indicate how confident they felt about doing each of the following: “answer students’
questions about science”, “explain science concepts or principles by doing science experiments”, “provide chal-
lenging tasks for capable students”, ‘adapt teaching to engage students’ interest” and “help students appreciate
the value of learning science”. All items in the Confidence in Teaching Science Scale were rated on a 3-point Likert
type scale, ranging from ‘1’ (Not Confident) to ‘3’ (Very Confident). The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for
the scale were 0.81 and 0.82 for Malaysia and Singapore, respectively.
Teachers’ Career Satisfaction
To investigate teachers’ career satisfaction, teachers of students taking the eighth grade TIMSS assessments
were asked to indicate how much teachers agreed with each of the following six statements: “I am content with my
profession as a teacher”, “I am satisfied with being a teacher at this school”, “I had more enthusiasm when I began
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teaching than I have now”, “I do important works as a teacher”, “I plan to continue as a teacher for as long as I can”,
and “I am frustrated as a teacher”. All items in the Teacher Career Satisfaction Scale were rated on a 4-point Likert
type scale, ranging from ‘1’ (Disagree A Lot) to ‘4’ (Agree A Lot). The Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients for the
scale were 0.34 and 0.72 for Malaysia and Singapore, respectively. In addition to these measures, teacher demo-
graphic characteristics such as gender (1 = ‘female’, 0 = ‘male’) was included in the research as control variables.
Research Results
Descriptive statistics for the predictor variables (namely teachers’ confidence in teaching science, teachers’
career satisfaction) are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics (Weighted) for teachers’ confidence in teaching science and teachers’ career
satisfaction.
Malaysia Singapore
Variables
M SD M SD

Answer students’ questions about science 2.76 .447 2.80 .402
Explain science concepts or principles by doing science experiments 2.77 .465 2.68 .486
Provide challenging tasks for capable students 2.48 .532 2.46 .546
Adapt my teaching to engage students’ interest 2.60 .502 2.44 .551
Help students appreciate the value of learning science 2.76 .441 2.46 .580
[1 = Not Confident, 3 = Very Confident]
I am content with my profession as a teacher. 3.81 .422 3.41 .672
I am satisfied with being a teacher at this school. 3.69 .539 3.26 .733
I had more enthusiasm when I began teaching than I have now.* 3.07 .885 2.90 .944
I do important works as a teacher. 3.88 .324 3.58 .585
I plan to continue as a teacher for as long as I can. 3.76 .496 3.34 .739
I am frustrated as a teacher.* 1.30 .598 2.19 .880
[1 = Disagree A Lot, 4 = Agree A Lot; * negatively-worded items]
Table 3-10 show the percentage of students based on teachers’ formal education level, teachers majored in
education and science, teachers’ years of experience, teachers’ professional development, teachers’ preparation
to teach the TIMSS science topics, teachers’ confidence in teaching science, and teachers’ career satisfaction with
Malaysian and Singaporean students’ average science achievement, respectively.
Science Teachers’ Formal Education
Table 3 presents teachers’ reports about their highest level of formal education for the TIMSS 2011 eighth grade
assessment. In Malaysia, on average, only 4% of the students had science teachers with a postgraduate university
degree, 82% had teachers with a bachelor’s degree, 12% had teachers who had completed post-secondary educa-
tion, and 1% had teachers with an upper secondary education. In contrast, on average, in Singapore, 13% of the
students had science teachers with a postgraduate university degree, 84% had teachers with a bachelor’s degree,
only 3% had teachers who had completed post-secondary education and none of the students had teachers with
an upper secondary education.
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Table 3. Science teachers’ formal education.
Percentage of Students by Teacher Formal Education Level

Country
Completed Postgraduate Completed Bachelor’s Completed Post- No Further than Upper-
University Degree Degree or Equivalent secondary Education secondary Education
Malaysia 4 (1.6) 82 (2.8) 12 (2.4) 1 (0.9)
Singapore 13 (1.9) 84 (2.2) 3 (0.9) 0 (0.0)
International
27 (0.4) 63 (0.4) 8 (0.2) 2 (0.1)
Average
Reported by teachers; Standard errors appear in parentheses.
Internationally, on average across the eighth grade, 27% of the students had science teachers with a post-
graduate university degree, 63% had teachers with a bachelor’s degree, 8% had teachers who had completed
post-secondary education (usually a three-year teacher education program), and 2% had teachers with an upper
secondary education. However, it is noteworthy that different countries have different educational paths for be-
coming a primary level teacher.
Teachers Majoring in Education and Science
In addition to the importance of a college or university degree or advanced degree, the literature reports
widespread agreement that teachers should have solid mastery of the content in the subject to be taught. In a
review of teacher quality research, Rice (2003) examined the relationship between teachers’ advanced degrees and
student achievement and found a positive relationship between subject-specific advanced degrees and student
achievement in mathematics and science.
Table 4 shows the percentage of students in the TIMSS 2011 eighth grade assessment whose teachers had a
major or specialization in science education and science. In Malaysia, the majority of eighth grade students were
taught science by teachers who had a major in science but not in science education (43%), or who had a major
in science and science education (20%). There were small differences in average science achievement associated
with the majors of the students’ teachers; students taught by teachers with a major in science but not in science
education had somewhat higher achievement (434) than the 19% of students taught by teachers majoring in sci-
ence education but not in science (385).
Table 4. Teachers majored in education and science.
Major in Science Major in Science but No Formal Education

Major in Science and
Education but No No Major in Science All Other Majors Beyond Upper-
Science Education
Major in Science Education secondary
Country
Percent Average Percent Average Percent Average Percent Average Percent Average
of Achieve- of Achieve- of Achieve- of Achieve- of Achieve-
Students ment Students ment Students ment Students ment Students ment
20 19 43 434 16 2
Malaysia 429 (12.0) 385 (15.3) 440 (15.5) ~~
(3.2) (2.8) (4.2) (9.2) (2.9) (0.9)
37 578 2 57 597 4 0
Singapore ~~ 602 (23.4) ~~
(2.8) (7.7) (0.8) (2.7) (5.7) (1.2) (0.0)
Interna-
28 480 11 470 51 478 8 476 2
tional ~~
(0.5) (1.2) (0.3) (2.2) (0.5) (1.0) (0.3) (2.7) (0.1)
Average
Reported by teachers; Standard errors appear in parentheses. A tilde (~~) indicates insufficient data to report achievement.
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The majority of eighth grade students in Singapore were taught science by teachers who had a major in sci-
ence but not in science education (57%), or who had a major in both (37%). There were even smaller differences
in average science achievement associated with the majors of the students’ teachers; students taught by teachers
with a major in science but not in science education had somewhat higher achievement (597) than the students
taught by teachers majoring in science and science education (578).
Internationally, the majority of eighth grade students were taught science by teachers who had a major in
science but not in science education (51%), or who had a major in both (28%). There were only small differences
in average science achievement associated with the majors of the students’ teachers; students taught by teachers
with a major in science and science education had somewhat higher achievement (480) than the 11% of students
taught by teachers majoring in science education but not in science (470).
Teachers’ Years of Experience
Table 5 presents science teachers’ reports about their years of experience in the TIMSS eighth grade assessment.
On average, the Malaysian eighth grade teachers were somewhat less experienced, leading to lower percentages
of students taught by experienced teachers – 47% were taught by teachers with at least ten years of experience.
The relationship between teacher experience and average student achievement was less pronounced among the
eighth grade students. Surprisingly, on average, science achievement was highest for students whose teachers
had less than 5 years of experience (437) compared to students whose teachers had between 5 and 10 years of
experience (416).
Table 5. Teachers’ years of experience.
At Least 10 but At least 5 but

20 Years or More Less than 5 Years
Less than 20 Years Less than 10 Years
Average
Country Years of
Average Average Average Average Experience
Percent of Percent of Percent of Percent of
Achieve- Achieve- Achieve- Achieve-
Students Students Students Students
ment ment ment ment
22 417 25 423 17 416 37 437 11

Malaysia
(2.9) (15.9) (3.6) (11.9) (3.0) (14.2) (3.6) (11.0) (0.6)
13 586 17 578 25 597 46 592 8

Singapore
(1.8) (12.5) (1.8) (14.9) (2.5) (7.1) (2.5) (6.6) (0.4)
International 33 480 29 480 19 475 20 471 15

Average (0.4) (1.3) (0.5) (1.2) (0.4) (1.3) (0.4) (1.3) (0.1)
On average, the Singaporean eighth grade teachers were somewhat less experienced, leading to a lower
percentage of students taught by experienced teachers – 30% were taught by teachers with at least ten years of
experience. The relationship between teacher experience and average student achievement was also less pro-
nounced among the eighth grade students. On average, science achievement was highest for students whose
teachers had between 5 and 10 years of experience (597), compared to students whose teachers had more than
20 years of experience (586), or between 10 and 20 years of experience (578).
On average, the eighth grade teachers were somewhat more experienced, leading to a higher percentage of
students taught by experienced teachers – 62% were taught by teachers with at least ten years of experience. The
relationship between teacher experience and average student achievement was more pronounced among the
eighth grade students. On average across countries, science achievement was highest for students whose teach-
ers had 20 or more years of experience or between 10 and 20 years of experience (480 in each case), compared to
students whose teachers had between 5 and 10 years of experience (475), or less than five years of experience (471).
It is undeniable that it is difficult to examine the effects of teacher experience on student achievement, be-
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cause sometimes more experienced teachers are assigned to students of higher ability and with fewer discipline
problems, and at other times the more experienced teachers are assigned to the lower-achieving students in need
of more help. However, experience can have a large positive impact primarily in the first two years of teaching,
although the benefits can continue beyond the first five years of a teacher’s career (Harris & Sass, 2011; Leigh, 2010).
Teachers’ Professional Development
Table 6 presents teachers’ reports about areas of professional development in science in which they had par-
ticipated in the past two years for the eighth grade TIMSS assessment. On average, science teachers of Malaysian
students reported somewhat lower levels of participation in science professional development. The majority of
students were taught by science teachers who had participated in professional development in science assessment
(48%), science content and integrating information technology into science (44% respectively), or science curriculum
(43%) in the past two years. Slightly less than 40% of the students had teachers with professional development in
science pedagogy/instruction (39%) and improving students’ critical thinking or inquiry skills (38%).
Table 6. Teacher participation in professional development in science in the past two years.
Percent of Students by Teacher’s Area of Professional Development
Improving
Country Integrating
Science Students’
Science Information Science
Science Content Pedagogy/ Critical Thinking
Curriculum Technology into Assessment
Instruction or
Science
Inquiry Skills
Malaysia 44 (3.2) 39 (3.1) 43 (3.7) 44 (3.5) 38 (3.3) 48 (3.7)
Singapore 71 (2.2) 88 (1.6) 67 (2.7) 70 (2.5) 74 (2.1) 65 (2.4)
International
55 (0.5) 58 (0.5) 53 (0.5) 49 (0.5) 43 (0.5) 48 (0.5)
Average
In contrast, on average, science teachers of Singaporean students in the TIMSS eighth grade assessment re-
ported somewhat higher levels of participation in science professional development. The majority of students were
taught by science teachers who had participated in professional development in science pedagogy and instruction
(88%), improving students’ critical thinking or inquiry skills (74%), or science content (71%) in the past two years.
Slightly less than 70% of the students had teachers with professional development in integrating information
technology into science (70%), science curriculum (67%), and science assessment (65%).
Internationally, on average, science teachers of students in the TIMSS eighth grade assessment reported
somewhat higher levels of participation in science professional development, as compared to Malaysia. On aver-
age, across countries that participated in the eighth grade assessment, the majority of students were taught by
science teachers who had participated in professional development in science pedagogy and instruction (58%),
science content (55%), or science curriculum (53%) in the past two years. Slightly less than half of the students
had teachers with professional development in integrating information technology into science (49%), science
assessment (48%), and improving students’ critical thinking or inquiry skills (43%).
Evidence from recent meta-analyses of research conducted in the United States shows that teacher profes-
sional development focused on science content has a significant positive effect on student achievement (Blank &
de las Alas, 2009) and that the amount of professional development (more than 14 hours) was an important factor
(Yoon, Duncan, Lee, Scarloss, & Shapley, 2007).
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Teachers’ Preparation to Teach the TIMSS Science Topics
TIMSS 2011 gathered information from the teachers of students taking the assessment on whether or not
they felt very well prepared, somewhat prepared, or not well prepared to teach the science content topics assessed
by TIMSS. Table 7 presents reports of teachers about their level of preparation to teach the science topics in the
four content domains covered by the eighth grade assessment. The 20 topics are grouped by content domain i.e.,
biology, chemistry, physics, and earth science.
Table 7. Teachers feel “very well” prepared to teach TIMSS science topics.
Percent of Students Whose Teachers Feel “Very Well” Prepared

Country
to Teach TIMSS Science Topics
Overall Science (20 Biology Chemistry Physics Earth Science (4

Topics) (7 Topics) (4 Topics) (5 Topics) Topics)
Malaysia 68 (1.7) 79 (2.3) 84 (2.1) 78 (2.7) 21 (1.9)
Singapore 57 (1.4) 60 (2.8) 80 (2.2) 75 (2.0) 6 (1.1)
International
72 (0.3) 77 (0.4) 82 (0.4) 78 (0.4) 47 (0.5)
Average
In Malaysia, on average, a larger percentage of eighth grade students (68%) were taught by teachers who felt
very well prepared to teach the TIMSS science topics. Across the content domains, most students had teachers who
felt very well prepared to teach biology topics (79%), chemistry topics (84%), and physics topics (78%). However, only
approximately one-fifth of the students (21%) had teachers who felt well prepared to teach the earth science topics.
Conversely, on average, a smaller percentage of Singaporean eighth grade students (57%) were taught by
teachers who felt very well prepared to teach the TIMSS science topics. Across the content domains, most students
had teachers who felt very well prepared to teach biology topics (60%), chemistry topics (80%), and physics top-
ics (75%). However, fewer than one-tenth of the students (6%) had teachers who felt well prepared to teach the
earth science topics.
Internationally, on average, a larger percentage of eighth grade students (72%) were taught by teachers who
felt very well prepared to teach the TIMSS science topics. Across the content domains, most students had teachers
who felt very well prepared to teach biology topics (77%), chemistry topics (82%), and physics topics (78%). Sur-
prisingly, nearly half of the students (47%) had teachers who felt well prepared to teach the earth science topics.
Table 8 shows the eighth grade TIMSS assessment results for the Confidence in Teaching Science Scale. Students
were scored according to their teachers’ responses to how confident they felt in using five instructional strategies on
the Confidence in Teaching Science scale. Students with very confident teachers had a score on the scale of at least
9.3, which corresponds to their teachers being “Very Confident” in using three of the five instructional strategies and
“somewhat confident” in using the other two, on average. All others students had somewhat confident teachers.
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Table 8. Confidence in teaching science.
Very Confident Somewhat Confident

Average Scale
Average Average Score
Country Percent of Students Percent of Students
Achievement Achievement
Malaysia 74 (3.5) 426 (6.2) 26 (3.5) 424 (13.5) 10.0 (0.18)
Singapore 60 (2.5) 595 (5.6) 40 (2.5) 583 (7.8) 9.4 (0.11)
International Average 73 (0.4) 479 (0.7) 27 (0.4) 467 (1.5)
On average, a larger percentage of Malaysian students had teachers who were Very Confident (74%). Students
who had teachers who were Very Confident had higher science achievement (426) than did students who had
teachers who were Somewhat Confident (424). In Singapore, a smaller percentage of students had teachers who
were Very Confident (60%). Students who had teachers who were Very Confident had higher achievement (595)
than did students who had teachers who were Somewhat Confident (583). On average across countries, a larger
percentage of students had teachers who were Very Confident (73%). Students who had teachers who were Very
Confident had higher achievement (479) than did students who had teachers who were Somewhat Confident (467).
Table 9 provides further information about the components of the Confidence in Teaching Science Scale
showing the percentages of students whose teachers reported feeling “very confident” in using each of the five
instructional strategies.
Table 9. Components of confidence in teaching science scale.
Percent of Students Whose Teachers Feel Very Confident to
Explain Science
Country Provide Help Students
Answer Student Concepts or Adapt Teaching to
Challenging Appreciate the
Questions About Principles by Engage Student
Tasks for Capable Value of Learning
Science Doing Science Interests
Students Science
Experiments
Malaysia 76 (3.5) 78 (3.4) 50 (3.8) 61 (3.8) 77 (3.4)
Singapore 80 (2.2) 69 (2.2) 49 (2.5) 47 (2.9) 51 (2.5)
International Average 81 (0.4) 72 (0.5) 57 (0.5) 65 (0.5) 70 (0.5)
In Malaysia, on average, teachers were most often very confident about explaining science concepts or prin-
ciples by doing science experiments (78% of students taught by such teachers), helping students appreciate the
value of learning science (77%). Teachers were less often very confident about adapting their teaching to engage
student interests (61%) and providing challenging tasks for capable students (50%).
In Singapore, on average, teachers were most often very confident about answering student questions about
science (80% of students taught by such teachers), explaining science concepts or principles by doing science ex-
periments (69%). Teachers were less often very confident about providing challenging tasks for capable students
(49%) and adapting their teaching to engage student interests (47%).
On average across countries, teachers were most often very confident about answering student questions
about science (81% of students taught by such teachers), explaining science concepts or principles by doing sci-
ence experiments (72%). Teachers were less often very confident about adapting their teaching to engage student
interests (65%) and providing challenging tasks for capable students (57%).
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The literature had shown that teachers with a strong sense of personal ability to organize and execute their
teaching are more open to new ideas and less likely to experience emotional burnout. Research has shown that
teachers’ self-confidence in their teaching skills is not only associated with their professional behaviour, but also
with students’ performance and motivation (Bandura, 1997; Henson, 2002).
Table 10 illustrates Teacher Career Satisfaction. Students were scored according to their teachers’ degree of
agreement with six statements on the Teacher Career Satisfaction scale. Students with Satisfied teachers had a score
of at least 10.4, which corresponds to their teachers “agreeing a lot” with three of the six statements and “agreeing
a little” with the other three, on average. Students with Less Than Satisfied teachers had a score no higher than
7.0, which corresponds to their teachers’“disagreeing a little” with three of the six statements and “agreeing a little”
with the other three, on average. All other students had Somewhat Satisfied teachers.
Table 10. Teacher career satisfaction.
Satisfied Somewhat Satisfied Less Than Satisfied

Average
Country
Percent of Average Percent of Average Percent of Average Scale Score
Students Achievement Students Achievement Students Achievement
Malaysia 66 (3.6) 429 (6.5) 34 (3.6) 419 (10.6) 0 (0.0) ~ 10.4(0.09)
Singapore 28 (2.3) 592 (8.6) 59 (2.7) 592 (5.4) 13 (1.8) 576 (11.5) 9.2 (0.09)
International
47 (0.5) 481 (0.8) 45 (0.5) 474 (0.8) 8 (0.3) 473 (2.3)
Average
Reported by teachers; A tilde (~) indicates insufficient data to report achievement; Standard errors appear in parentheses.
In Malaysia, the eighth grade science teachers reported somewhat higher levels of career satisfaction with
66% of students taught by ‘Satisfied’ teachers. All of the eighth grade students (100%) were taught science by
teachers who were ‘Satisfied’ or ‘Somewhat Satisfied’ with their careers. The eighth grade students taught by ‘Sat-
isfied’ teachers had higher science achievement (429) than those taught by ‘Somewhat Satisfied’ teachers (419).
In contrast, the Singaporean eighth grade science teachers reported somewhat lower levels of career satisfac-
tion with only 28% of students taught by ‘Satisfied’ teachers. Almost all of the eighth grade students (87%) were
taught science by teachers who were ‘Satisfied’ or ‘Somewhat Satisfied’ with their careers. The eighth grade students
taught by ‘Satisfied’ teachers and ‘Somewhat Satisfied’ teachers had higher science achievement (592 respectively)
than those taught by ‘Less than Satisfied’ teachers (576). It is noteworthy that several of the highest performing
East Asian countries in science at the eighth grade (e.g., Japan and Korea) had among the lowest percentages of
students taught by ‘Satisfied’ teachers (22% and 13%, respectively).
On average, across countries, the eighth grade science teachers reported somewhat lower levels of career
satisfaction with 47% of students taught by ‘Satisfied’ teachers. Almost all of the eighth grade students (92%) were
taught science by teachers who were ‘Satisfied’ or ‘Somewhat Satisfied’ with their careers. The eighth grade students
taught by ‘Satisfied’ teachers had higher science achievement (481) than those taught by ‘Somewhat Satisfied’ (474)
or ‘Less than Satisfied’ teachers (473). Teachers who are satisfied with their profession and the working conditions
at their school are more motivated to teach and prepare their instruction.
To address the purpose of the research, correlation and separate simultaneous multiple regression analyses
were conducted for both education systems to determine whether or not teacher preparation was predictive of
students’ science achievement in the TIMSS 2011 assessment (see Table 11).
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Table 11. Correlations between teachers’ gender, years of experience, confidence in teaching science, and
career satisfaction with students’ science achievement in TIMSS 2011.
Malaysia Singapore
r SE r SE
Teacher’s Gender .12 .08 .10* .05
Years of Experience -.05 .07 -.06 .04
Confidence in Teaching Science -.01 .05 .08* .04
Career Satisfaction .09 .05 .10* .04

*p < or = .05
Teachers’ confidence in teaching science and teachers’ career satisfaction is positively and significantly cor-
related with Singaporean students’ science achievement in TIMSS 2011. Higher science achievement was related
to teachers being confident in their science teaching and being satisfied with their careers.
Table 12. Teachers’ gender, years of experience, confidence in teaching science, and career satisfaction in
predicting students’ science achievement in TIMSS 2011.
Malaysia Singapore
β SE β SE
Teacher’s Gender 29.16 18.57 22.24* 10.26
Years of Experience -.20 .79 -1.08* .53
Confidence in Teaching Science -1.20 2.56 4.03* 1.96
Career Satisfaction 9.18 5.03 4.72* 1.93
Adjusted R2 .03 .03

*p < or = .05
Teachers’ confidence in teaching science and teachers’ career satisfaction positively and significantly con-
tributed to Singaporean students’ science achievement in TIMSS 2011. Higher science achievement was related to
teachers being confident in their science teaching and being satisfied with their careers. However, teachers’ years
of experience adversely contributed to students’ science achievement in Singapore; on average, science achieve-
ment was highest for students whose teachers had between 5 and 10 years of experience, compared to students
whose teachers had more than 20 years of experience, or between 10 and 20 years of experience.
Discussion
This research found that higher science achievement among Singaporean eighth grade students was related
to teachers having more teaching experience, being confident in science teaching, and being satisfied with their
careers. These findings corroborated with previous studies (e.g., Urdan & Schoenfelder, 2006) which have shown
that teachers’ self- confidence in their teaching skills is not only associated with their professional behaviour, but
also with students’ performance and motivation. Effective teachers understand and are able to apply strategies
with confidence to help students to enhance their performance. Students with teachers who are prepared show
stronger learning gains in comparison to unprepared and underprepared teachers (Goldhaber, 2007).
On the other hand, the research results have shown that Malaysian eighth grade students were taught by sci-
ence teachers who had more science teaching experience, more confident in teaching science, and more satisfied
with their teaching career as compared to Singaporean eighth grade science teachers. Despite of these advantages,
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Malaysian eighth grade students did not perform better than Singaporean eighth grade students in TIMSS 2011
science assessment. These unexpected findings challenge the contribution of Malaysian science teachers’ prepared-
ness or readiness in affecting students’ achievement in TIMSS. Seemingly, some other student-level factors (e.g.,
attitudes towards science, readiness to learn science, home environment support) and school-level factors (e.g.,
school climate, school resources for teaching science) might have contributed to Malaysian eighth grade students’
science achievement in TIMSS 2011 (Mullis, et al., 2012).
Conclusions
Based on the secondary analysis using TIMSS 2011 data, it was evident that higher science achievement among
Singaporean eighth grade students was related to teachers having more teaching experience, being confident in
science teaching, and being satisfied with their careers. In contrast, Malaysian science teachers’ years of teaching
experience, confidence in teaching science and career satisfaction did not significantly contribute to eigth grade
students’ science achievement. These contradictory research findings may inspire science educators, curriculum
developers, and policy makers in both countries to identify and nurture more prerequisites of science learning
among early adolescents in the countries. Hence, future researches to explore the contribution of student-level
and school-level factors on eighth grade students’ science achievement seem crucial and warranted for further
investigation. On top of that, the interplay relationships betweem student-level, teacher-level, and school-level
factors in affecting students’ science achievement worth further exploration using advanced statistical procedures
such as Hierarchical Linear Modeling (HLM) in an effort to fill the knowledge gaps in this research area.
Note
Chinese Taipei was listed as one of the 45 countries participated in TIMSS 2011 (Mullis, Martin, Foy, & Arora,
2012).
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L. Chandrasegaran Ph.D, Research Fellow, Science and Mathematics Education Centre,
Curtin University, Perth, Australia
E-mail: a.chandrasegaran@exchange.curtin.edu.au
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SCIENCE TEACHERS’
PERCEPTIONS OF THE
EMERGENCE OF RESPONSIBLE
RESEARCH AND INNOVATION IN
SCHOOL
Abstract. Responsible Research and In-

novation (RRI) has recently gained wider Mirjam Burget,
importance in the European Union (EU)
Emanuele Bardone,
as an emergent framework informing the
governance of science. While a growing
Margus Pedaste,
body of literature describing RRI and its Katrin Saage
main conceptual dimensions has appeared
in the last seven years or so and in several
policy documents, the European Commis-
sion has emphasized the need to promote
science education in the RRI context.
However, there is no theoretical elaboration Introduction
of how RRI can be meaningfully integrated
into the practice of science education. In In the 21st century we live in the era of great challenges, which has
order to address this problem, the present led to greater interest in research and innovation. Responsible Research
research aimed at inquiring into the way in and Innovation (RRI) has become an important part of EU’s research and
which science teachers make sense of RRI in innovation policy, first of all in connection with EU research and innovation
school. Data were gathered with individual programme Horizon 2020 (Forsberg et al., 2015), where RRI is developed as
semi-structured interviews from 29 science a political framework in the governance of science. From an administrative
teachers working in comprehensive schools standpoint, the aim of RRI is described as cooperation of different parties in
and hobby schools. Abductive content the research and innovation process in order to respond to the needs and
analysis combining data and conceptual values of society (European Commission, 2013). Similarly, RRI is defined in
dimensions of RRI was used. In the light the academic literature as ‘an attempt to govern the process of research and
of how the science teachers in our sample innovation with the aim of democratically including, early on, all parties
have made sense of RRI, four theoretical concerned in anticipating and discerning how research and innovation can
categories have emerged: (1) meaning or may benefit society’ (Burget, Bardone & Pedaste, 2017; p. 9). The theo-
making; (2) taking action; (3) exploring; and retical core of RRI is then described by four conceptual dimensions, namely,
(4) inclusion. These findings have important inclusion, anticipation, reflexivity and responsiveness (Stilgoe, Owen & Mac-
implications for developing a theory of RRI naghten, 2013), to which Burget and colleagues (2017) added two emerging
which can be beneficial for researchers as ones: sustainability and care. The role of conceptual dimensions is to specify
well as teachers for meaningfully integrat- the general RRI framework and to enable people to understand the concep-
ing RRI into science education. tual implications of RRI. The RRI dimensions are characterized as follows: (1)
Keywords: abductive content analysis, inclusion is defined as engaging various stakeholders (civil, governments,
responsibility as care, Responsible Research researchers and businesses) in the research and innovation process (Asante,
and Innovation, science education, science Owen & Williamson, 2014; Felt, 2014); (2) anticipation means estimation of
teacher. the long-lasting influences of research and innovation achievements (te
Kulve & Rip, 2011; Owen, Macnaghten & Stilgoe, 2012); (3) reflexivity refers to
reflecting on the needs and values of society (Forsberg et al., 2015; Stilgoe et
Mirjam Burget, Emanuele Bardone, al., 2013; Wilsdon, 2005); (4) responsiveness denotes responding to the needs
Margus Pedaste
University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia and values of society (Maynard, 2015; Schaper-Rinkel, 2013); (5) sustainabil-
Katrin Saage ity refers to establishing and preserving the conditions where humans and
Tartu Art School, Tartu, Estonia nature can exist in concord and which allow fulfilling the social, economic
and other demands for current and future generations (Brundtland, 1987);
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and (6) care means that decisions go along with the public domain so that people by themselves are responsible
for the actions and decisions that are carried out on their behalf (Adam & Groves, 2011).
RRI in Education
The European Commission has proposed six keys of the RRI framework, where science education is one of
the keys listed (Responsible Research and Innovation, 2012). In their studies, various authors (Blonder, Zemler &
Rosenfeld, 2016; de Vocht, Laherto & Parchmann, 2017) have shown RRI in the light of the six keys proposed by the
EU (‘Regulation (EU) No 1291/2013’, 2013). These six keys partially overlap with the aforementioned RRI dimensions
(Burget et al., 2017). Another four dimensions or keys have been proposed in an evolving analytical framework of
Heras & Ruiz-Mallén (2017). When compared with the RRI dimensions, the keys proposed by Heras & Ruiz-Mallén
(2017) include the dimensions of reflexivity and inclusion. Neither the six keys proposed by the EU nor the evolving
analytical framework by Heras & Ruiz-Mallén directly concern the RRI dimensions of responsiveness, anticipation,
sustainability and care.
Concerning EU politics and research and development activities of the projects, there have been attempts
to connect RRI to science education through various methods and approaches such as Inquiry-Based Learning
(Bardone, Burget, Saage & Taaler, 2017; Ješková et al., 2016; de Jong, Lazonder, Pedaste & Zacharia, 2018; Pedaste
et al., 2015b; Yang & Park, 2017), Education on Socio-Scientific Issues (Blonder, Rap, Zemler & Rosenfeld, 2017; Eva-
gorou & Puig Mauriz, 2017), Socio-Scientific Inquiry-Based Learning (Ariza, Abril, Quesada & García, 2014; Blonder
et al., 2017), Citizenship Education (Stilgoe, Lock & Wilsdon, 2014), Citizen Science (Stilgoe et al., 2014) and Nature
of Science (Bardone et al., 2017; Heras & Ruiz-Mallén, 2017; de Vocht & Laherto, 2017); but also by praxis-oriented,
problem-based and real-world learning (Tassone et al., 2017). Due to the higher level of engagement and cross-
curricular nature of RRI, it has been suggested that RRI is integrated into science education through informal
learning (Bardone et al., 2017; Gorghiu, Anghel & Ion, 2015). To sum up, previous studies have tried to elaborate
the concept of RRI through the existing approaches but have not connected it explicitly to the RRI dimensions.
Taking into account the definition of RRI, it can be said that the aim of RRI is to form citizens of the future society
who can take responsibility for their actions (Bardone et al., 2017). Therefore, the current research is paying more
attention to responsibility. Here, the meaning of responsibility should be explained: on the one hand, responsibility
means ‘liability’ or ‘accountability’ (Lucas, 1996) and, on the other hand, ‘care’, which refers to understanding humans
as ‘caring’ people who can take the responsibility by themselves (Adam & Groves, 2011; Bardone et al., 2017; Bardone
& Lind, 2016; Noddings, 2005). In education, care is considered as providing learners opportunities to care for the
future in research and innovation practices (Tassone et al., 2017), or – on a more analytical level – making sense of
RRI in science education (Barone et al., 2017). Therefore, this research offers some important insights into how to
understand the conceptual framework of RRI in practice and how to make the framework relatable to education
without providing concrete instructions to science teachers on how to ‘do RRI‘ in school (Bardone et al., 2017).
Research Problem
RRI has been seen as the main approach in guiding the research and development process in the future, but
in this case, science education in schools should also change. However, it is not known what changes are needed,
as there are no studies about application of RRI principles in science education classrooms today. This research
focuses on filling this gap. In order to integrate RRI effectively into education, future citizens should be aware of
the challenges of today’s society and familiar with the nature of RRI (Owen et al., 2012). The EU has also empha-
sized the need to promote science education in the context of RRI (Responsible Research and Innovation, 2012).
On the basis of literature it can be said that RRI should be considered more widely than allowed by various previ-
ous methods and approaches and conceptualized more significantly in the educational context (Bardone et al.,
2017; Heraz & Ruiz-Mallén, 2017; de Vocht & Laherto, 2017;). Therefore, theoretical elaboration of how RRI can be
meaningfully integrated into the practice of science education is necessary. In order to make the RRI conceptual
framework relatable to education and thus establish meaningful connections between RRI and education, it is
necessary to understand how science teachers make sense of research, innovation and responsibility as well as RRI
dimensions in the school context.
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Research Focus
The current research attempts to inquire into the way in which science teachers make sense of RRI in school,
show which meanings science teachers attribute to the terms responsibility, research and innovation and also how
RRI dimensions emerge in school from science teachers’ point of view. The key research questions in this research
are as follows: (1) How do science teachers perceive research, innovation and responsibility in school as part of
the RRI conceptual framework? (2) How do science teachers perceive the emergence of RRI dimensions in school
as part of the RRI conceptual framework?
General Background of the Research
The current research was qualitative in nature with an aim to figure out how RRI can be meaningfully integrated
into science education. Individual semi-structured interviews were conducted to answer the research questions;
the interviews were analysed using abductive content analysis. The interviews were conducted during the period
of October 2015 – March 2018.
As this research used a qualitative approach, first, a description of the researchers is provided, which allows
getting acquainted with the researchers’ background, as is suggested for qualitative studies (Levitt et al., 2018).
The first three authors have elaborated the concept of RRI by publishing RRI-related articles (Bardone et al., 2017;
Bardone & Lind, 2016; Burget et al., 2017). The same authors have developed the concept of RRI in the EU project
Ark of Inquiry, which aimed to promote inquiry-based learning and raise 7–18-year-old learners’ awareness of RRI
(Pedaste et al., 2015a). The authors contributed to developing the concept and carried out in-service trainings
for science teachers in order to include the science teachers in RRI activities in education. The last author of the
research has previously contributed to developing the framework of RRI (Bardone et al., 2017) and was involved
with an aim to include the view of a practising teacher in the current research.
Sample of the Research
A total of 29 Estonian science teachers voluntarily participated in the research: 24 women and 5 men with
the age range of 24 to 64 years. The interviewed teachers had been practising teachers for 1–32 years (13 years on
average) and taught learners aged 7–18. Nineteen science teachers taught in basic school (learners aged 7−15),
five in upper secondary school (learners aged 16−18), one in both basic and upper secondary school, and four in
hobby school (learners aged 7−18). According to the Estonian Hobby Schools Act § 3, a hobby school is an edu-
cational institution which provides a basis for the acquisition of hobby education of youth for diverse personal
development, including the practice of native language and culture (e.g., nature houses, music schools). Some
teachers in the general education system followed a particular curriculum (e.g., Waldorf school or International
Baccalaureate). The following subjects were taught: biology, geography, chemistry, physics, basics of research, and
environmental studies. Most teachers taught in Estonian, but one teacher taught in English.
As the current research is qualitative aiming to collect examples of teachers’ practices with maximum vari-
ation, the maximum variation sampling method was used (see Patton, 1990; Patton 2002). The main variations
that were taken into account in the current research were a) various types of schools (comprehensive schools and
hobby schools), b) teachers who taught learners in different ages c) locations of schools (rural and urban schools).
The snowballing and convenience-based sampling techniques were combined in the current research in
accordance with the maximum variation sampling method. The researchers involved teachers they knew already
as well as their acquaintances and previous colleagues who met the criteria of the sample. In addition to that, the
following teachers were involved: those who were associated with the projects of the research group where the
authors of this research were working, and those who were included through visits to nearby schools. The earlier
relationships the authors had with some teachers facilitated the process of finding participants and enabled free
conversations on the topics. The authors of the research did not identify any ethical dilemmas concerning includ-
ing teachers the authors already knew. Most science teachers who participated in the research had no previous
experience with the concept of RRI: only a few of them had previously heard of the concept.

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An additional criterion for the selection of the sample was that the science teacher practises inquiry-based
learning. The criterion was necessary, because in inquiry-based learning, a learner is given the opportunity to take
ownership of the process, which is translated as a way to ‘do RRI’ (Bardone et al., 2017). Inquiry-based learning has
been part of Estonian national curriculum since 2002 (Põhikooli ja gümnaasiumi…, 2002) – all formal education
teachers who participated in the research followed the national curriculum. In hobby schools, teachers did not
follow the national curriculum: the curriculum was mainly developed by the teacher. It was made clear to research-
ers that both the hobby school curricula and other curricula contained inquiry-based learning and teachers were
actively using it in practice.
Semi-structured and open-ended interview was used in the current research. Before the main research, a
pilot study was conducted with three science teachers. The aim of the pilot study was to practise the interview
technique and to select the questions appropriate for the current research. Prior to the final interview plan, the
interview questions were discussed with the authors of the research in order to form the final interview ques-
tions. The questions were modified so that the wider meaning of responsibility, research and innovation would be
considered, following with the teachers’ perception of the concept of Responsible Research and Innovation and
the RRI dimensions (Table 1).
Table 1. Examples of interview questions in accordance with the research questions.
Research question Example question in the protocol Examples of clarifying questions
How do science teachers perceive research, How can science be brought to school? When you teach children, how much do you use
innovation and responsibility in school as part science in school?
of the RRI conceptual framework? How do you practise inquiry-based learning?
How do science teachers perceive the emer- Reflexivity can be interpreted as discussing the How do you offer children topics for discussion?
gence of RRI dimensions in school as part of values, needs and problems in society. How Which discussion topics have children brought
the RRI conceptual framework in school? does reflexivity appear in school? to class?
The way in which the interviews were carried out was always the same: the interviewer and the interviewee
were the only people present during the interviewing process. The interviews began with a short introduction
explaining the aim of the research and its ethical principles. The aim of the first part of the research (Appendix A, I)
was to find out the meaning that science teachers give to the terms responsibility, research and innovation and how
the concepts can be implemented in school. Secondly, teachers were asked about their perceptions of the concept
Responsible Research and Innovation in the school context. The aim of the second part of the research (Appendix A,
II) was to ask about teachers’ perceptions of RRI dimensions in the school context. The interviews were conducted
first with 20 teachers (questions about the terms responsibility, research and innovation and responsible research and
innovation in Appendix A, I), then with 10 teachers (questions about and definitions of RRI dimensions in Appendix
A, I and II). After that, additional data were collected from the same 20 teachers (definition of RRI dimensions in
Appendix A, II). The first interviews with 20 teachers indicated that the concept of RRI should be considered more
deeply, and, therefore, the next interviews incorporated the RRI dimensions, which gave a broad-based view of
the concept from teachers’ perspective.
The researcher posed the same questions to all interviewees, but, at the same time, the interviews were also
flexible. The additional questions asked were as open as possible so that the interviewees could choose the ap-
propriate viewpoint and the answers would not be influenced in any way. Only in questions about RRI dimensions,
examples were given when teachers did not understand the meaning of a dimension. During the interview the
interviewer reflected the answers of the interviewees, which helped to keep the flow of the interview and to make
the answers more clear to the interviewer. To develop the topic, additional questions were asked in order to better
understand if the interviewer understood the interviewee correctly. The topic was also developed particularly from
the angle of RRI dimensions – for example, if the interviewee was talking about inclusion, the interviewer tried to
develop the topic from this viewpoint.
The interviews lasted from 31 to 132 minutes (70 min on average). All interviews were recorded. When similar
patterns started to appear and the saturation point was reached, no additional data were gathered. The interview
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recordings were partially transcribed: the first 20 interviews were fully transcribed (McLellan, MacQueen & Nei-
dig, 2003) and the rest of the interviews were analysed in audio format. After transcribing and analysing the 20
interviews, similar patterns started to emerge, and, therefore, selective transcription was employed for the rest of
the interviews (Gilbert, 2001). The interviews were listened to in full several times, and the relevant passages were
transcribed: this was regarded essential for confirming the categories based on the research questions.
Data Analysis

Abductive content analysis was used for the research. As noted by Timmermans and Tavory (2012, p. 174), ab-
ductive analysis aims at ‘generating novel theoretical insights that reframe empirical findings in contrast to existing
theories’. Therefore, abductive analysis contains elements that have not been formerly included in the theory and
allows creating a new interpretation of the phenomenon, comparing the findings with existing theory. Abductive
analysis is suitable for the current research, as the RRI dimensions have been defined in academic literature, but in
other disciplines than education. Abductive analysis helps to see the data through the lense of the RRI dimensions,
and, additionally, bring up new interpretations of the phenomenon in the field of education.
For the current research, the conceptual framework of RRI was derived prior to the abductive analysis (Figure
1; 0). The abductive reasoning started from a point where the data collected from the interviews did not go along
with the prior conceptual framework (see e.g., Dubois & Gadde, 2002; Kovács & Spens, 2005). The continuous flow
between the empirical and theoretical world started to find a ‘matching’ framework (Dubois & Gadde, 2002; p.
556) that means: the empirical data (Figure 1, 1) was observed through the lense of RRI dimensions (0) which led
to theory matching (2). The process finished with a theory suggestion (3): the categories and subcategories in the
current research.
Figure 1. The abductive research process (Kovács & Spens, 2005).
An analytic schema was created before the analysis which included the six RRI dimensions. The data were
coded both by two researchers, working independently, and discussed together after the process of forming
categories. In analyzing the data, attention was paid to how RRI appears in school, at the same time taking into
account the responsibility as care. The aspect of responsibility as care appeared in a previous research (Bardone et al.,
2017) and was considered as a way of interpreting RRI in science education. In the analysis, all answers connected
to everyday school activities where the aspect of responsible research or responsible innovation was not consid-
ered were left out of the research. Additionally, those general opinions of teachers that were not connected to the
everyday activities at school were not considered in the research. Both authors identified comparable categories.
Unclear conceptions were reread and rephrased until consensus was achieved. In addition, discussions were held
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together with three or four researchers in order to analyse the comprehensibility and logic of the categories. After
labelling and describing the categories, the transcripts were read and the recordings were listened to again in
order to complete the analysis.
Results of the Research
The data analysis indicated that RRI appears in school in the following ways:
1) meaning making
(1a) responsible collection of scientific information and discussion
(1b) taking into account ethical considerations in research
2) taking action
(2a) responding to the needs and values of the community
(2b) considering the importance of the environment
(2c) considering the importance of equipment
3) exploring
(3a) carrying out explorations in science lessons
4) inclusion
(4a) teachers and learners
(4b) learners within one class
(4c) teachers and learners inside and outside the classroom
(4d) cooperation between teachers
(4e) teachers, learners and parents
(4f ) teachers, learners and specialists/researchers
In the next paragraphs the rationale for formulating the categories is given. The results are presented in cat-
egories and subcategories. In order to illustrate the text, examples from the interviews are included. The quotations
were slightly edited to decrease the amount of filler words and repetitions. Numbers were used in order to protect
the identity of the interviewees.
Meaning Making
Meaning making can be characterized as collecting information responsibly, discussing and reflecting on
the questions or problems in research (and innovation) and taking into account ethical consideratons concerning
research in school.
Responsible Collection of Scientific Information and Discussion
The sources that teachers brought out and where they got their information were popular science in nature;
only some teachers – especially teachers who taught 15–18-year-old learners – declared they used scientific re-
sources in school. As one interviewee said:
/.../ but last year, there was /.../, whatever the magazine is called, not ... Science Illustrated, that’s it. It had a story about
these DNA boxes, you know, and then we tried to understand how they work /.../, it [these topics] usually comes from the
topics of these usual popular magazines, right, they [learners] don’t read this deep science anyway, right, but the kind that
is a simplified version, this kind still reaches the learners. (7)
Only some teachers mentioned how they critically analyse the information before using it and which chan-
nels are more trustworthy than others. The informants reflected that pupils should learn how and where to find
the suitable information and how to critically evaluate the information before using it.
In addition to finding the sources, teachers pointed out that the results of research cannot be brought to
the classroom word for word and that learner’ age should be taken into account. Here, the higher responsibility
rests with the teacher. Particularly teachers who taught grades 1–6 were cautious about bringing research topics
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directly to the classroom. Attention should be paid to maintaining learners’ interest and making sure that research
is not too forced. Additionally, the current theme raised the issue that necessary topics should not be left out when
teaching learners, otherwise they might not later understand the science topic.
The knowledge teachers got from popular science or scientific resources was used in teaching: for example,
to get learners’ attention; to introduce the topic; to open up the problem; or the information was used in discus-
sions. In order to carry out the discussions, teachers encouraged learners, already at a young age, to read the
newspapers, popular science sources or scientific articles and urged them to share the news with each other
at school. For instance, in one school, knowledge is shared in ‘morning circles’ that take place every day before
the lessons. Such practice gives the learners the chance to share the news immediately after reading them and
to compare and contrast the information with others. The informants emphasized that when learners read, the
discussions are also more lively.
Learners like to read when they are interested in a topic. The interviews revealed that when learners are
interested, their sense of responsibility also increases. Some teachers stated in their interviews that when learners
were more interested in some science-related topics, the teachers elaborated the discussions based on learners’
interest and also valued learners’ own initiative to discuss or bring up problems. Some teachers even admitted
that it was not a problem for them to discuss themes during the lesson that they had not planned ahead but
that learners found interesting and could learn from.
Taking into account ethical considerations in research
The ethical aspects were considered spontaneously as cross-curricular topics. Topics such as irresponsibility in
research and ethical considerations in research and innovation in general were under discussion in this subcategory.
Discussions about RRI and how to practise it in school often led to the topic of irresponsibility or unethical
aspects in research. Considering irresponsible research (and innovation), teachers described how unreliable data
has entered the school and their reactions to it. The examples included how learners have brought along articles
from unreliable sources; thus, teachers stressed the importance of discussing source reliability. In order to avoid
unethical behaviour, teachers introduced to learners’ trustworthy sources where they could find reliable data. In
teachers’ opinion, it is important to be critical and not trust the data until proven reliable. The informants also
mentioned discussions where they brought out negative aspects of research in the past. However, the informants
did not elaborate on the topic of teaching the methods of critical analysis of data and resources.
Ethical considerations in research in general were also discussed. The examples included discussions about
unethical studies or argumentation about unethical behaviour of scientists. For example, one interviewee argued
as follows:
It’s very important, because when it turns out that scientists have done some irresponsible things or have lied about some-
thing or manipulated the data, then people’s faith in science decreases and it’s more difficult for me as well to talk about
it convincingly […]. (3)
The ethical usage of digital devices was another topic that emerged from teachers’ answers. Teachers said that
they assign tasks to be carried out on digital devices only moderately and brought out that using a lot of digital
devices would get learners stuck to their screens and make them too passive.
Turning to the research activities in school, the ethical aspect concerning conducting research appeared.
Experiments have to be safe both for the teacher and for the learners. Informants emphasized that learners should
not get injured and the equipment should not be damaged when doing experiments.
Taking Action
Concerning taking action, the aspects of responding to the needs and values of the community and consid-
ering the importance of the environment and (technological) equipment in carrying out the research activities
were brought out. Taking action requires taking into account the environment and the equipment necessary for
research activities, as action cannot be taken effectively without these components.
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Responding to the needs and values of the community
When teachers were asked about responding to the needs and values of the community, a dichotomy appeared
in their answers: some teachers valued learners’ initiative to be responsive to various problems, whereas others
found that learners should not be so responsive. Concerning teachers’ responsiveness, teachers have organized
research-based events or taken part in them together with their learners. This, in general, is a basis for learners to
become responsible citizens.
Here, responding to the needs and values of the community can be compared to active citizenship. Some
teachers found that learners should not be responsible and take action, because teachers or parents are responsible
for them. At the same time, there were teachers who emphasized certain areas where responsibility was shared
between the teacher and learners or where learners took the initiative themselves and were responsive to problems.
Talking about this issue, an interviewee said the following:
/…/ the learner starts ... they find it by themselves from their own surroundings, the problem that they want to, for
example, investigate, that has sort of caught their eye in their own living environment, and when they take it up and
start investigating, then they show, indeed, responsibility, I think. The things in the context of life, context of everyday
life is what speaks to the child, the learner. (12)
As for learners as active citizens, teachers had different opinions. Some teachers emphasized that teachers have
to ‘push’ the learners to do something and that learners rarely engage in something on their own. In other schools,
opportunities and support to learners for carrying out activities was provided by the school administration. It is
important to note that sharing responsibility depends on teachers: how they take into account the opportunities
and the age of their learners.
The activities that science teachers had initiated themselves included various research-based events (e.g.,
conferences, project days, the Researchers’ Night Festival, the World Week initiative). In one school, for example,
teachers organize so-called project days where learners of different ages are given a number of tasks that they
have to complete by themselves during a certain amount of time. This, in general, teaches learners how to be re-
sponsible. Another way to give learners the chance to take higher responsibility is to conduct research or creative
work. In this type of work learners can choose a problem to solve by themselves.
In addition, teachers have encouraged learners to take part in citizen science: they mentioned certain citizen
science projects their learners had participated in, e.g., Globe, or projects where data were collected about bird
species. Some teachers admitted that learners were perceiving their own work as more valuable when the data were
actually used in everyday practice and were therefore feeling a stronger sense of responsibility towards their activity.
Considering the importance of the environment
The environment for completing science activities comprises the space both inside and outside the classroom.
Concerning the rooms inside, teachers found physical environment to be essential for learning: e.g., how the room
looks like or if there is a laboratory in the school. In some schools, for example, there are innovative open learning
rooms, which means that the classroom is built in a way that allows learners to take responsibility for their own
learning.
It is possible to use the rooms inside for learning, but the learning process can also take place outside. Teachers
whose school was situated in the countryside valued the environment around them and also carried out their lessons
outside. The environment was valued more, as there were not so many opportunities to visit museums or science
centres located in towns (owing to lack of time and financial resources). Teachers mentioned that teaching inquiry-
based learning lessons outside is fine, but challenging, as an unknown environment requires more preparation.
Teachers found it important that learners contribute to the school’s overall well-being. For instance, a teacher
pointed out that both the teacher and learners are responsible for the climate they create in the classroom, a good
athmosphere for learning. Additionally, one interviewee, when asked about taking responsibility, valued learners’
actions on how to make the rooms in their school more useful, smart or beautiful and how to bring more science
to school.
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Considering the importance of equipment
The equipment for carrying out research activities effectively at school is of significant importance and should
be purposeful. There should be enough tools, the tools should be contemporary and in use. Here, lack of equipment
was pointed out too. For instance, some teachers mentioned that it is not easy to teach when some equipment is
missing, e.g., data projector or materials for an inquiry-based learning lesson, and that research cannot be done
‘with pen and paper only’. Here, the responsibility of the school management in these issues was emphasized. How-
ever, the data revealed that teachers are creative – when a tool is missing it can be replaced with something else.
As for IT facilities, a variety of perspectives was expressed. The majority commented that a supportive IT en-
vironment and IT tools for learning are essential. Concerning technological equipment, teachers value tablets or
other devices in the classroom and find them innovative. However, not all schools have digital devices for teachers
and learners. To overcome the absence of computers, lessons have been carried out with learners’ smartphones.
Concerning technological equipment, teachers were also concerned about their ability to use the devices.
Informants mentioned fears that learners know more about computers than teachers. However, from the positive
side, they mentioned that learners can teach them and this can raise learners’ self-esteem and sense of responsibility.
Exploring
The third category – exploring – was characterized by carrying out explorations in inquiry-based learning
lessons, taking into account how a teacher will share the responsibility with learners during the inquiry-based
learning process.
Carrying out explorations in science lessons
An inquiry-based learning lesson can be viewed by some teachers merely as following the rules which lead
to a certain conclusion, or by some other teachers as a creative process where the conclusion is also unknown for
the teacher (Bardone et al., 2017). For instance, a teacher described a process of inquiry-based learning where both
the teacher and learners reached the point where they could not explain what exactly happened. This, in general,
gives both the teacher and learners the chance to make discoveries.
The most interesting finding in the current research was to see how science teachers paid attention to respon-
sibility in inquiry-based learning lessons. Explorations are appealing to learners and learners want to act to carry
them out. It was important for some teachers that learners take responsibility for the entire research process that
they were engaged in. Prior to the inquiry learning process, teachers created the conditions so that learners could
take the responsibility. The innovative results of the research work can be shared with a wider audience, which
also makes the research work more meaningful for learners.
Some interviewees argued that when learners are interested they also feel the responsibility. Teachers be-
lieve that in this way, learners will reach better results in their research work. When there is more room left for
responsibility, both learners’ interest as well as ownership of the work will grow. Research work in school allows
learners to know some topics more thoroughly and understand more about the nature of science. For example,
one interviewee said the following:
[…]I let learners, when they’re doing an experiment, choose all things themselves and then it’s so weird that then their at-
titude does indeed completely change, for example, when I tell them that for an osmosis experiment, pick all concentrates
yourself, that it’s not a big deal if the experiment doesn’t work out because you chose the wrong concentrations. Then
they have a totally different attitude, because then they have made all things by themselves […] they feel that they are
responsible, that it was their experiment, that they are interested in the result and they understand that it was their work. (3)
When responsibility increases, learners’ motivation will also grow and learners work more productively.
Higher responsibility allows learners to choose which research work or experiments they want to carry out. When
learners take the initiative, they will also care more about the topic. It was mentioned that there should be even
more chances for learners to decide which experiment to perform. Additionally, it was pointed out that sometimes
school rules do not enable doing certain experiments and that the possibilities of doing experiments should be
negotiated between teachers and learners.
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Inclusion
The fourth category of RRI was related to inclusion and means involving various parties in the research and
innovation process. The category inclusion was devided into six subcategories: 4a) teachers and learners, 4b) learn-
ers within one class, 4c) teachers and learners inside and outside the classroom, 4d) cooperation between teachers
4e) teachers, learners and parents, and 4f ) teachers, learners and specialists/researchers. Concerning the category
inclusion, the relationships between different parties were observed. Teachers pointed out that inclusion is working
well with earlier contacts and that the support of the school management is also important here.
The informants emphasized that all parties should be involved in the research and innovation activities and
that here the higher responsibility lies on the teacher − how the teacher guides the process. In the cooperation
between teachers and learners, teachers see themselves as facilitators of the process, but at the same time there are
also teachers who view themselves as equal partners: teachers teach learners and learners teach teachers. Although
it is possible to involve all learners at the same time in the research activities, it was mentioned that introducing
research to a large number of learners differs from introducing research to smaller numbers of learners who are
really interested. Learners who are more interested in the topic are more involved. However, when teachers are
interested, they can include learners in science activities more easily.
Moving now to cooperation between learners in one class, inclusion is necessary, as research is not done alone.
Inclusive practice between learners emerged by including learners in the research process in school. In this process
the interviewees valued group work. Group work is an important part of increasing the sense of responsibility, as
then learners understand that their work is connected to other learners’ work. In groups, learners can create the
conditions for synergy; they have to reach agreements on how to solve a problem together.
/…/ responsibility is also, for instance, being in a group, making your contribution and not letting the people in your
group down. And this is indeed the advantage of group work, that they learn to make their contribution, that they ...
they can’t really stay away much, because the others would disapprove. (12)
The cooperation between learners may emerge both between learners of the same class and between learners
of different classes. A teacher mentioned here the so-called project days or one class teaching a lesson to another
class, which were enjoyable for both younger and older learners. Cooperation between older and younger learners
was encouraged with an aim to grow more caring citizens who would also understand each other. Cooperation with
schools outside Estonia was mentioned, drawing a parallel with researchers, who have to communicate over long
distances. In addition to that, hobby schools and hobby groups were mentioned, which enable involving interested
learners of different ages. In some schools, teachers found cooperation between older and younger learners a good
opportunity for learning, but in others (especially in large schools) still something that is not so easy to organize.
Turning now to cooperation between teachers, divergent discourses emerged. On the one hand, teachers
valued cooperation between one another. They had planned project days or lessons together, participated in
round tables, carried out lessons together via Skype, connected various subjects in one lesson or co-organized
various events. Teachers found sharing ideas and discussions a good basis for innovative ideas. They also found
that supportive groups and support by the school management are necessary. The cooperation between teach-
ers included mainly science subjects, but some examples emerged where cooperation between subjects of ‘soft’
and ‘hard’ sciences had taken place. On another hand, cooperation with one another is sometimes challenging for
teachers. Here, failures connected to the size of the school and finding common timeslots or common ‘language’
were brought out.
The data revealed that teachers had involved parents in several activities. Parents had been involved in
inquiry-based learning lessons, where they saw how learners worked individually as well as together with other
learners. As one interviewee said:
Whenever I do the day of learning hubs [Goodstart method], I have parents visiting, so it’s hard for me to divide myself
between four or five hubs. And the parents are usually happy to come, because then they see their children cooperating
with others, they see their children, how they can work individually, how they can work in a group, how they come to those
conclusions, it’s a very good experience for the parent as well. (13)
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The interviews revealed that teachers valued cooperation with parents, although in some examples it remained
modest. When learners do their research work, teachers support learners’ and parents’ cooperation, because this
way it is possible for learners to become more aware of their possibilities for a future career. In engaging parents,
both the support of the school management as well as the school as a community are important.
Including specialists from outside the school is innovative in teachers’ opinion; specialists can make a topic
more meaningful for learners and help them understand that research is not done somewhere far away but close
to us. For example, teachers have asked various specialists or researchers to come and visit their school. Teachers
pointed out that cooperation with universities has occurred when learners have done their research work and that
this is also encouraged by the teachers. Teachers have used the knowledge they have gained in their lessons and
searched for cooperation possibilities with researchers in order to support learners’ interests.
Inclusion outside the school environment is connected to various institutions. Teachers have visited laborato-
ries with their learners. Visiting laboratories gives learners an overview of how research is done in reality. Teachers
value visiting such institutions with their learners, as it gives teachers the chance to become more familiar with
specialists’ everyday work, integrate different subjects and offer learning opportunities to learners who are more
interested in a certain subject. When learners visit different institutions, they will get a better overview of their
future career possibilities. Teachers also commented that discussions between teachers and specialists are neces-
sary before the visit so that welcoming institutions can bring out parallels with different subjects taught at school.
Science centres, museums and nature schools offer educational programmes for learners. Teachers admit that
taking part in programmes enriches the learning process more than learning at school and that these lessons are
more interesting for learners than normal school lessons.
In general, teachers are waiting for cooperation possibilities with various institutions and find that coopera-
tion possibilities with institutions should be made easier for teachers. In addition to cooperation with institutions,
the desire and need for creating a community of RRI was brought out.
Discussion
The current research tries to find the answers to questions of how science teachers perceive the emergence
of research, innovation and responsibility and the dimensions of RRI as part of the RRI conceptual framework in
their work. It appeared that all RRI dimensions emerged in the research, but most of them had to be translated
into the language of science education. The dimensions inclusion and care appeared clearly and could be found
among all other dimensions. In the current research, the dimension care was considered as a way of responsibility
where teachers’ or in teachers’ view the learners are by themselves responsible for their actions (Adam & Groves,
2011). The dimension sustainability was left out of the research. Although teachers considered the aspects of
sustainability, the area deserved to be studied in depth. The other three dimensions – reflexivity, responsiveness
and anticipation – needed rephrasing, as in the school context they emerged differently than described in the
conceptual framework.
Concerning the category meaning making, the research showed how a teacher can practise reflexivity with
learners. A teacher can critically analyse the sources, develop the ability to discuss in the research and innovation
process, but also recognize or bring up ethical questions if appropriate. According to our results, this is the meaning
of reflexivity in school practice. So the school has to promote reflexivity at a feasible and relevant angle and thus
develop learners’ ability to be more reflexive as future citizens. In addition, it is obvious that teachers cannot bring
reflexivity to school as it is stated in academic literature – reflecting on the values and beliefs during the research
and development process (Wilsdon, 2005). Bringing the RRI dimension directly to school would be questionable
especially for teachers who teach grades 1–6, as young learners might not understand research in this sense. The
research showed that research activities with younger learners start with small inquiries and learners at this age are
not able to see the far-reaching impact of research. Therefore, science teachers can consider how to treat reflexivity
in school by analysing their practices and discerning to what extent the dimension needs to be more considered.
Considering the category taking action, the research revealed two topics. Firstly, the data revealed how
responsibility for taking action is perceived or negotiated between teachers and learners, and, secondly, how a
teacher perceives the responsibility for choosing the research-based activities, environment or equipment for
learning. However, in academic literature, responsiveness is described as noticing and reacting to the problems
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or risks in society (Maynard, 2015; Schaper-Rinkel, 2013). Education is not obliged to deal with problems and risks
in society but respond to the problems or needs in the school context. Therefore, teachers did not have a different
conception as to what responsiveness in the school context means, but the difference rather occurred on the types
of problems responsiveness was applied to. Teachers play an important role in taking responsibility for issues con-
nected to bringing research and innovation to the school context and thus ensuring better conditions for carrying
out research and innovation activities in school. The activities where learners took the lead were predominantly
not science-based in nature but still serve as a basis for forming active and responsible future citizens who can
also respond to the needs and values of society in research and innovation activities.
Anticipation in academic literature denotes adopting a future-oriented view that concerns opportunities or
risks in research and innovation activities (te Kulve & Rip, 2011; Owen et al., 2012). In education the dimension
is named exploration – the process where a learner takes the opportunity to explore for him- or herself what is
unknown (Pedaste et al., 2015b). So the knowledge a learner will get is directed to the future – something that
is unknown and needs to be investigated. In the field of education, anticipation can have another meaning:
teachers’ answers revealed that learners are ready to explore, but are not, especially the younger ones, able to
analyse the forward-looking concerns or opportunities in society. Since exploration is less related to risk manage-
ment, it places more emphasis on openness and discovery – both a distinctive trait of innovation. In the current
research the exploration to inquiry-based learning was linked, as exploration is also treated as a core element
in the inquiry-based learning process (Pedaste et al., 2015b). The inquiry-based learning method encourages
learners to be active in this process in discovering something unknown for them and to take responsibility for
their inquiries (Bardone et al., 2017; Pedaste et al., 2015b). It should be noted that implementing inquiry-based
learning depends highly on how teachers interpret inquiry-based learning for themselves and how teachers
perceive responsibility as a dynamical process. Letting learners take greater ownership of their work allowed
learners to participate in a way of ‘meaningful engagement’, because they were given the opportunity to con-
tribute and take the responsibility (Bardone et al., 2017, p. 303). Thus, giving learners the possibility to contribute
in the inquiry-based learning process allows them to ‘do RRI’ in education (Bardone et al., 2017).
In this research, inclusion is not treated as including various parties in the research and innovation process at
early stages in order to reach the socially desirable outcomes (Asante et al., 2014; Owen et al. 2012), as it appears
in academic literature. Instead, the actual relationships were observed in and outside the school which would
lead to the development of learners’ cooperation abilities in the future. It is important to note that inclusion
appeared in all categories of meaning making, taking action and exploring and can therefore be considered a
central part of RRI. The principal question that teachers posed was about how to include the learners as well
as various parties in the research process in school. It was evident that including various parties and therefore
combining different disciplines was complicated for teachers. The same problems evolve between researchers
concerning RRI (Felt, 2014). Including various parties in the school context requires at least three persons: a
teacher, a learner and a specialist outside the school. Thus, a teacher as a carer cared for the learners as cared-
fors (Noddings, 2005), trying to provide them with possibilities to acquire knowledge or work together with a
specialist as a third party. Thus, teachers should make conscious efforts to overcome obstacles in combining
different disciplines.
Conclusions
The aim of the current research was to find out how science teachers perceive the emergence of RRI in
their work. RRI in education was conceptualized by the following four categories: (1) meaning making; (2) taking
action; (3) exploring; and (4) inclusion. The research showed that the meaning of RRI dimensions in academic
literature and the categories that emerged in the school context did not coincide unambiguously. However, a
point of contact between the academic RRI dimensions and the empirical evidence of science teachers’ perspec-
tives was proposed. Thus, this research has demonstrated, for the first time, how the RRI dimensions presented
in academic literature can be interpreted in the school context.
The limitation of the research was that data collection was done through interviews only. Triangulation of
data would have provided a perspective that remained hidden in the current research – how teachers practise
RRI in reality and which RRI dimensions appear in school. The next studies should be carried out involving other
parties (e.g., learners, parents, researchers) together with teachers in the research process by conducting par-
ticipatory research and observing the emergence of inclusion as part of RRI.
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This research has several practical applications. First, the results can form the basis of advice on possible
changes in the national curriculum in order for education to better respond to the needs of the future society.
Secondly, the content of RRI can be introduced in in-service courses provided by universities. In such courses,
it is possible to show to teachers how their current practices are connected to RRI and which RRI aspects in
education are not addressed yet and need more attention.
Acknowledgements
This research was conducted in the context of the European project ‘Ark of Inquiry: Inquiry Awards for Youth
over Europe’, funded by the EU under the Science in Society (SiS) theme of the 7th Framework Programme (Grant
Agreement 612252). This document does not represent the opinion of the EU, and the EU is not responsible for
any use that might be made of its content.
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Appendix A
I The questions in the semi-structured interviews about research, innovation and responsibility and responsible
research and innovation
1) What role does science play in your everyday life?

2) How can science be brought to school?
3) What does innovation mean to you?
4) How can innovation be brought to school?
5) What does responsibility mean to you?
6) How can responsibility be brought to school?
7) What does responsible research and innovation mean to you?
8) How can responsible research and innovation be brought to school?
II The way RRI dimensions were explained to the teachers during the interview
1) Reflexivity can be interpreted as discussing the values, needs and problems in society.
2) Responsiveness can be explained as taking responsibility for the concerns or problems in a wider social
context and taking appropriate action.
3) Anticipation means foresensing and preventing the long-term impacts of research and innovation
outcomes.
4) Inclusion denotes including various parties in the research and innovation process at its early stages.
5) Sustainability is described as a development path where the needs and efforts of the current genera-
tion are covered without limiting the interests of the future generations.
6) Care is characterized by decisions that are connected to public interests and where a person is taking
responsibility for own actions by themselves.
Received: May 17, 2018 Accepted: July 01, 2018
Mirjam Burget MA; Junior Researcher of Educational Technology; University of

Tartu; Salme 1a, Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: mirjam.burget@ut.ee
Website: https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Persons/Display/a3fd6446-
22f5-47dc-9cb7-8a16ae5ea20a?lang=ENG
Emanuele Bardone PhD; Senior Research Fellow in Educational Technology, University
of Tartu, Salme 1a, Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: emanuele.bardone@ut.ee
Website: https://www.etis.ee/Portal/Persons/Display/dc8572f5-
4398-42f4-a0e5-799e84e79668?lang=ENG
Margus Pedaste PhD; Professor of Educational Technology, University of Tartu, Salme
1a, Tartu, Estonia.
E-mail: margus.pedaste@ut.ee
Website: www.ut.ee/pedaste
Katrin Saage MA; Biology and Chemistry Teacher, Tartu Art School; Eha 41, Tartu,
Estonia.
E-mail: katrinsaage@gmail.com
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Burcu Anilan Abstract. The research aims to determine

the experiences and views of the science
pre-service teachers on the use of the sci-
ence stories. In this research, among other
qualitative research types, phenomenol-
ogy research was used to obtain data.
Introduction The research has been carried out with
71 pre-service teachers studying in the
With the advances in science and technology, competencies and quali-
science education program of educa-
ties required in individuals as the building stones of a society also change. The
tion faculty. The data has been analyzed
change in qualities required in individuals in the modern world has naturally
based on the content analysis technique.
an impact on the approach to education and the use of different methods
and techniques in teaching-learning processes becomes important. The views of the pre-service teachers on
The thought system related to knowledge and knowing has begun to the use of stories in science courses have
change with the contemporary teaching methods, and the ability to access been categorized under 6 themes. It has
knowledge or to use knowledge has gained more importance rather than been concluded that teaching science
knowing knowledge (Çalışkan, 2008). Since the fact the teacher describes a with stories shall contribute to knowledge
course only by using the direct instruction method in the traditional learning and competencies of both teachers and
environments allows a learning environment, where the teacher is active and students, the science courses shall become
the student is passive, the students do not find an environment to apply any more entertaining, joyful and interesting.
information learnt by the student and a possibility to structure such informa- In addition, it has been emphasized that
tion and the effective learning environment is not provided (Unal & Akpinar,
creativity of students shall develop in the
2006). In the field of education, the traditional learning methods have been
story composition process, their imagina-
replaced by the new methods, techniques, strategies and approaches, and
tion shall increase, they shall configure
the methods and techniques, in which students have active roles and which
ensures interpreting and configuring knowledge with mental activities in- their knowledge associating it with the
stead of directly taking them, have become usable. daily life, meaningful learning shall be
An effective science education can be achieved by ensuring meaningful ensured by concretizing mostly abstract
learning and internalization of concepts rather than encouraging students science subjects and concepts through
to memorization. Because knowledge learned by memorizing shall not be stories, and a learning environment to
remembered for a long time, and it shall adversely affect learning of new ensure memorability of knowledge shall be
concepts (Maskan & Maskan, 2007). Ayas (1995) argues that science has great prepared.
importance in development of the countries, and for this reason, different Keywords: phenomenology, science
approaches are experienced in development and application of science teach- teaching, science stories, science pre-
ing programs. The main purpose of the curriculum of science courses is to
service teachers.
train all students in science literacy regardless of their individual differences.
According to the educational program of science courses, audiovisual aids
used in education with a learning objective which is one of these aids is one
of the most effective ways to ensure permanent learning (Köklükaya, 2015). Burcu Anilan
On the other hand, Appleton (2003) emphasizes that the practical activities Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Turkey
are the most convenient time frame for understanding a subject. In this
context, it can be stated that it is quite important to benefit from different
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methods, techniques and approaches for a more quality education-teaching process in science courses (Ayvacı &
Şenel Çoruhlu, 2009).
Another method consisting of the practical activities that can be effectively used in order to enable students
to configure knowledge and interpreting it by using in daily life is the narration method (Akçay, Özyurt & Akçay,
2014). The narratives that can be used in other fields as well as in science and have an important place in the inner
world of the individual since childhood affect learning positively (Milne, 1998). The stories have become one of the
most frequently used educational methods in daily life from past to present. Many researchers have supported the
use of stories and storytelling both as a strong and also as an entertaining tool to explain science in a convincing
way to people (Avraamidou & Osborne 2009; Negrete & Lartigue 2010; Dahlstrom, 2014; Kaplan & Dahlstrom 2017;
Martinez-Conde & Macknik 2017; as cited in Kirby 2018).
Strauss (2006) defines a story as a narrative of a real, fictional, or mythical event. The tales develop a fictional
world for students as directed by new heroes (Ødegaard, 2003). Story has been described by Oğuzkan (1987) as
“short texts narrating a realistic event experienced by several persons at a certain time and place or drawing the
character of some people and often making up of just a few pages”. Stories can be handled as narrative, fiction
and literary text. Fictional texts vary from other text types with their characteristics such as form, content, fiction,
narration, metaphor, etc. (Dilidüzgün, 2003). According to Sever (2003), the text should address students in terms
of age, interest and need, and students’ imaginary and emotion world should be in harmony with the content pat-
tern of texts. In addition to these, “the messages that could affect students negatively should not contain violence,
pessimism, etc.”The studies on multiple writing activities carried out in science courses contain the multiple writing
types such as writing stories, letters, poems, reports, explanations, diary on the subject, preparing brochures, post-
ers, diagrams and concept maps. Studies have been performed on these types of writing activities at home (Akyol
& Dikici, 2009; Çardak, 2010; Duru & Gürdal, 2002; Günel, Atila, & Büyükkasap, 2009 and abroad Akkuş, Günel, &
Hand, 2007; Hand, Hohenshell & Prain, 2004; Hohenshell & Hand, 2006; Mason & Boscola, 2000 (as cited in Akçay,
Özyurt, & Akçay, 2014).
While writing the tales to be used in courses, teachers should prepare their main ideas, the list of concepts or
facts, storify them in a creative style by choosing specific places, events and heroes (Saban, 2001). Stories issued
in a way, in which students shall enjoy learning as much as possible and develop positive attitudes, make up good
methods to use while narrating about the concepts and inter-conceptual relations (Demircioğlu, Demircioğlu, &
Ayas, 2006). The listener is often in a passive position in use of story in education. Although the listener is in a passive
position, he/she can perform learning at the level of understanding and comprehension. However, the individual
writing the story learns his/her story and the lesson (knowledge) embedded in the story more permanently. In this
way, higher level cognitive learning such as synthesis and assessment can be performed (Turgut & Kışla, 2015). Tales
also help us connect with our previous knowledge, and accordingly, it strengthens our memory (Schank 1990).
Consequently, well-prepared tales are remembered by learners (Lowenthal & Dunlap, 2010). In this context, the
tale narration method can help facilitate learning, and make such learning permanent. Teachers may require their
students to create stories in line with certain limitations according to the learning needs of their students and the
nature of the subject to be narrated. The fact that the students are involved in tale creation, narration and within
the tale itself allows them to be involved in a learning-teaching process, in which they form and configure their
learning themselves. As they think about the subject and evaluate it on their own, effective learning is achieved.
In addition, the ability of students to think, evaluate and criticize also develops (Uluğ, 2004). Thanks to the tales,
courses become more interesting and enjoyable. Tıngöy, Güneşer, Öngün, Demirağ and Köroğlu (2006) argue
that narration allows the students to interact as listeners or narrators, and in both cases, narration encourages
the students to increase their listening, reading and comprehension abilities (as cited in Duman & Göçen, 2015).
The story activities enable children to solve problems, demonstrate their imagination, develop their creativity,
and reflect their inner world experiences (Zembat & Zülfikar, 2006). Stories enable teachers to bring humanistic
aspects into the science classroom. Moreover, stories can also be used to create controversies in the classroom as
a good story contains also a conflict situation in which the protagonist has to make a crucial decision (Heering,
2014). Researches indicate that stories do not just support the child’s language development, but also affect social
development positively (Isbell, Sobol, Lindauer, & Lowrance, 2004; Morris, Taylor & Wilson, 2000).
Osborne (1997) claims that there are many strategies that can be used by science teachers in classrooms. One
of these strategies is story-telling. Stories are one of the strongest tools that can potentially be used when teaching
science. There are many benefits for science teachers in using stories as an alternative tool in the learning-teaching
process (Kumari, 2014).
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When the literature studies on use of stories in science courses are examined, in their studies, Orçan and İngeç
(2016) have stated that science fiction stories developed with comic book technique in physics teaching are effective
in development of students’ creative thinking skills. In their studies on purposes of story-based teaching program,
explanatory stories and use of the chemical stories in the learning environment, Demircioğlu, Demircioğlu, and Ayas
(2006) have concluded that the chemical stories increase students’ willingness to learn and carry out meaningful
learning. In Tao’s (2002) research conducted with the 7-year-old students, it has been seen that the scientific stories
are handled as an explanatory story-telling method, and its effect especially on the opinions on the nature of science
has been researched. At the end of his research, the researcher stated to have observed that the students were highly
influenced by the scientific tales, and that their views on its nature have changed. Ayvacı and Şenel-Çoruhlu (2009)
have examined the effect of the explanatory story-telling method in correcting the misconceptions on physical and
chemical change subjects. Erten, Kıray, and Şen-Gümüş (2013) have aimed to determine the scientist image through
scientific narration method. Çıralı and Usluel (2015) have researched the effect of digital story-telling method on stu-
dents’ visual memory and writing skills. Bostan Sarıoğlan (2014) has examined the relationship between pre-service
teachers’ high cognitive abilities and their scientific stories writing abilities. Mutonyi (2016) has researched the effects
of stories, proverbs, and anecdotes on configuring scientific concepts. The results obtained from of Gölcük’s (2017)
research based on the qualitative data also indicate that students have developed a positive view on the science course
supported by scientific stories. When all these studies are examined and the spread of use of stories in science courses
and their contributions to learning are taken into consideration, it is clear that the views and experiences of teachers
and pre-service teachers on use of stories in science teaching, one of the most important elements of education, are
important in carrying out an effective educational activity.
On the other hand, the organic chemistry courses, which create a practice base for the views and experiences
of pre-service teachers on use of stories in science teaching, have an important place in science teaching programs.
Because, in daily life, we encounter many organic compounds in the neighborhood. First of all, the proteins,
carbohydrates, enzymes, RNA, DNA that constitute our bodies are organic, and all the reactions occurring in our
bodies are formed with organic compounds. For this reason, a good understanding of organic chemistry is also
quite important for creation of a view on the life. Because if students can interpret the information they learn in
the organic chemistry courses in their daily lives, science literacy gain, one of the aims of science education, shall
be achieved a little more. For this reason, the courses can be supported with model use, computer animations
display, group and project studies and inquiry-based experiments, so that students can learn concepts related
to the organic chemistry course more easily and meaningfully (Ghaffari, 2006). This research aims to determine
the experiences and views of the science pre-service teachers on the use of the stories created as part of organic
chemistry courses in science courses.
General Background
This research focuses on the original stories that pre-service teachers create about organic chemistry and
on how these stories can be used in their teaching profession. Within this framework the experiences that pre-
service teachers have during the process of creating stories are considered to be important. A research has been
conducted in qualitative design employing phenomenology approach. Phenomenology focuses on the human
experiences that this reality brings about in order to understand the social reality. A phenomenological study is
based on concentrating on how people describe something they experience and how they experience (Merriam,
2013, Patton, 2014). Phenomenology provides a wide range of ideas about how we can interpret and examine
experiences (Smith, Flowers & Larkin, 2009). According to Moustakas (1994) in phenomenology what is experienced
about a phenomenon and what kinds of context or situation affect the experience about this phenomenon are
studied (as cited in Cresswell, 2007).
In this context, experiences related to phenomena are inquired (Ersoy, 2016), and here, the way how people
experience the relevant phenomena is described in a methodological, elaborate and in-depth manner, and the
perceptions and meanings they develop through their experiences are attempted to be understood (Patton, 2014).
This research has also accepted the phenomena attempted to be examined in-depth as science teaching together
with the stories and tried to determine the experiences and views of the science pre-service teachers on the use
of the stories created as part of organic chemistry courses in science courses.
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Research Group
The research has been carried out with 71 pre-service teachers, who study in the science education program
of a faculty of education in a city located in the Central Anatolian region of Turkey and learn General Chemistry
IV (Organic Chemistry) course. Research groups are in the faculty of education founded twenty-one years ago
which currently has 2500 students and 92 professors in a university with a history of 50 years which currently has
approximately 35000 students. On the other hand, the department of science education programme has been
available since the faculty of education was founded. Therefore, it is possible to claim that the research groups are
in a well-established and experienced institution. Teaching science inherently includes multidisciplinary and a
wide variety of courses. One of these courses is General Chemistry IV (Organic chemistry). This research was con-
ducted with the focus on this course. As there were 71 students enrolled in this course at the time of this research,
71 pre-service teachers participated in this research.
The participants of the research have been determined according to the convenient sampling method, one
of the purposeful sampling methods. All pre-service teachers were willing to and volunteered to participate in the
research. 18 of the volunteers were male, 53 were female and the age range was 19-20. These teacher candidates,
who participated voluntarily in the research, are required to give a statement that they participated voluntarily and
intentionally in the research, and a written commitment is given to the teacher candidates that any information
and documents obtained from them shall not be shared with the third parties, shall be used only in this research.
The parties have mutually signed these documents. Furthermore, the researcher has taken all kinds of precautions
to ensure that all information and documents that may reveal the participants’ personal information are secured
and that they are not disclosed to the wrong person.
Collecting of Data
Firstly, at the beginning of the research, a sample course has been lectured with a story for the pre-service
teachers in the organic chemistry course. Afterwards, a presentation containing sample stories and related to the
story creation process has been performed for the pre-service teachers, and the pre-service teachers have been
given a 3-week period to create sample stories to be used in teaching organic chemistry subjects. These stories
prepared by the pre-service teachers have been collected from them after the required examination, arrangement
and classification, and they have been used as “documents and papers” for the data of this research. In addition to
this, the experiences of the pre-service teachers in creating the sample stories and their views on this have been
obtained through a survey consisting of open-ended questions. This form prepared by the researcher has been
applied after it has been shaped by the views and suggestions of the field experts.
Analysis of Data
The raw data obtained from the surveys and documents have been analyzed and interpreted using the
“content analysis technique” (Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2005). In the research, firstly, the answers given to each question
have been brought down. Following breakdown of the data, the themes have been accessed through the answers
given to the questions by the pre-service teachers. In this context, the views of the pre-service teachers on the
use of stories in science courses have been categorized under 6 themes including “entertaining and enjoyable”,
“increasing imagination and creative thinking”, “better understanding and catchy”, “interesting”, “abstract-to-
concrete”, “associating with the daily life”. The themes obtained have been broached to two field experts, who
are competent in qualitative research, and a consistency study has been conducted. Afterwards, agreements
and disagreements have been fixed, and reliability of the research has been determined using the reliability
formula of Miles and Huberman: P (Consensus percentage)=Na (Agreement)/Na (Agreement)+Nd (Disagreement)
x100. It has been determined that the harmony between the experts’ and the researcher’s evaluations is 93%.
As this value is over 90, accordingly, it has been accepted that a high degree of reliability has been achieved.
In addition, students’ views have been directly and frequently cited in order to increase the internal reliability
and validity of the research findings.
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Results of Research
In this research, which has been carried out to determine the stories by the science pre-service teachers in
the organic chemistry course and their views on the use of the story in the science courses, a result of the stories
created, the findings obtained from the data have been explained with examples of stories, figures and direct
citations from the students’ statements.
The story created by one of the pre-service teachers in the organic chemistry course is presented below as
an example.
Organic Compounds at School
On one Monday, Sude does not want to go to the school. However, she has to. Because her teacher has told that he/she
is going to teach a very important subject. When Sude goes to the school, she sees that many organic compounds, which
she does not know, are written on board in the classroom. All of them have names below. She wonders how these names
are assigned. Later on, the teacher comes to the classroom. He/she says that the subject to teach today is naming alkenes,
which are among organic chemical compounds. He/she explains that the alkenes are made up of carbon and hydrogen
atoms, and it is identified with the general formula “CnH2n+2”, where n represents the number of carbon atoms. And then he/
she makes students write a lot of rules about naming the alkenes. Sude does not understand how these rules will be applied.
At that very moment, the school bell rings to end the course, and she goes home as it is the last course.
When she comes home, her mother realizes that Sude is said. She tells her mother that she did not understand today’s
subject, cannot use and remember its rules. Her mother suggests her daughter another way so that she can understand
it. Let’s think of naming the organic compounds as a game. There are rules for naming just as the games have. Sude tries
to dramatize the naming rules. Sude considers every carbon as a child, every hydrogen as a baby doll and names the alkyl
groups like methyl 1 child, ethyl 2 child. Firstly, she chooses the most crowded one among the lined-up children. Because
she knows that when it is crowded, the game will be more enjoyable. Children, who do not participate in the game, should
get the minimum score. For this reason, they give them the smallest number value. When naming is considered in this way,
it gets easier for her and thanks her mother. Now, Sude impatiently waits for the school day.
The views of the science pre-service teachers on the use of stories in science courses have been evaluated
and categorized under themes. As is shown in Figure 1, the views of the pre-service teachers on the use of sto-
ries in science courses have been categorized under 6 themes including entertaining and enjoyable, increasing
imagination and creative thinking, better understanding and catchy, interesting, abstract-to-concrete, associating
with the daily life.
Entertaining and Enjoyable
When the views of the science pre-service teachers on the use of stories in science courses are examined, some
sample statements (T1, T6, T9, T10, T18, T19, T23, T24, T25 T26, T27, T29, T32, T34, T37, T40, T42, T44, T45, T51, T52, T59,
T68), in which the pre-service teachers identify the use of stories in science courses as “entertaining and enjoyable”,
are presented below.
“…I think that the tale creation activities will make a great contribution to my teaching abilities. Because storifying any
information to make it more entertaining rather than telling it in a straightforward way increases the interest of students on
the course, and allows that information to be kept in the memory for a longer period of time...” (T10)
“…By designing such tales for my students, I can make them learn in an enjoyable way and make them like the course…” (T18)
“…I think that the tale creation activities will make the courses enjoyable, and it brings in lecturing ability in an instructive
method, and it will be an activity that will make the students like the course indicating that course is not something made up
of theoretical information…” (T19)
“…While I created this tale, I thought about how I can explain this subject in an easier way and make it more enjoyable so
that my students can like the course…” (T23)
“…I am sure that particularly starting the courses with such stories makes the course more entertaining by attracting
students’ attention far better…” (T24)
“…This is a teaching method, which I will be able to use in my future teacher career to make my students learn by enjoy-
ing…” (T26)
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Figure1. Themes of views of science pre-service teachers on the use of stories in science courses.
“…I believe that I will use the tale creation activities in my future teacher career. Because it is entertaining both while writing
and reading…” (T27)
“…Giving a lecture in a way attracting attention of students and arouse curiosity among students will make the course
interesting and entertaining…” (T52)
The pre-service teachers have stated that teachers will make science courses entertaining by giving a lecture using
stories in their careers. In their statements, the pre-service teachers have expressed that an entertaining course with
students will make learning easier, arouse curiosity, increase the memorability of knowledge, and increase the interest
and attitude of the students on the course by making it easier. It is seen in the statements of the science pre-service
teachers that lecturing in an entertaining way by using stories in science courses make contributions on lecturing abili-
ties and teaching abilities, and that they will use the stories in science courses in the future when they become teachers.
Increasing Imagination and Creative Thinking
Another theme formed based on the statements of the science pre-service teachers on the use of stories in sci-
ence courses is the theme “Increasing imagination and creative thinking”. In their statements, the science pre-service
teachers (T1, T4, T6, T8, T9, T11, T12, T13, T16, T17, T22, T32, T43, T44, T47, T49, T58, T60, T65, T71) have expressed that
the use of stories in courses increases imagination and brings in creative thinking ability.
“…I think that writing stories helps me activate my imagination in order to put forward a creative idea…” (T4)
“…You needed to have information, have imagination and think in order to write a story. I have thought about how I can
create different points of view, I think that my imagination has developed thanks to this…” (T8)
“…I have seen how much I can use my imagination …” (T9)
“…Although many other stories come to my mind when I write a story, selecting the most convenient one develops imagi-
nation ability…” (T11)
“…Giving a lecture, which I have command, by using imagination and storifying it has made me think that if I explain a
subject that my students cannot understand in the future by using this method, it will be more permanent and effective…” (T44)
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The pre-service teachers have stated that while creating stories, they transfer their knowledge to their students
with a different point of view by using their creativity and imagination and emphasized the importance of imagination
while creating stories.
“…I did not like writing stories much and did not think in a creative way, but now I think in a wider perspective, it has con-
tributed to my creative thinking ability…” (T6)
“…My multilateral thinking ability has developed, and I have overcome the prejudice that I cannot ever write stories and I
have a very poor imagination…” (T16)
“…The story I have written has made me think in some more creative way. Because writing this story means creating some-
thing in your mind, and writing it down based on this creation process. Although I am not very good at these subjects, it helped
me force my mind and brain. It was a good experience for me to write this story…” (T32)
Prior to the story creation process, the pre-service teachers were seen to be prejudiced about, did not like and
felt themselves insufficient in writing stories, however, following the story creation process, they have stated that it
contributes to creative and multifaceted thinking, they have realized their imagination, and in this context, writing
stories has become a good experience for them.
“…In the future, I may make my students write stories. This will develop their imagination…” (T12)
“…As I have developed my own imagination, I think that I will also develop my students’ imaginations by transferring this
to them…” (T43)
“…I have thought that the subject will be understood much better by entering the imaginary world of children and telling
about the hydrocarbons, which actually seem to be very complex, in a story…”(T47)
“…Describing the incomprehensible subjects with representations makes them more comprehensible. For this reason,
storifying the subjects that we cannot understand will certainly make it easier to comprehend the subject. This is a more useful
method for the primary school students. Since their imagination is more advanced, it is easy for them to imagine it and thus, it
is understood better…” (T60)
The science pre-service teachers participating in the research have stated that in their career, they will apply
teaching with stories in science courses, make their students write stories, this will contribute to development of their
imaginations, the complex subjects will be simplified by way using imaginations through stories, and the courses will
become more understandable.
Better Understanding and Catchy
The science pre-service teachers participating in the research have stated that teaching science with stories has
a positive effect on better understanding the subjects and concepts, and also on their memorability (T1, T2, T3, T6, T7,
T9, T10,T11, T13, T14, T15, T16,T17, T18, T19, T22, T23, T24, T28, T,29, T32, T33, T35, T37, T38, T39, T40, T44, T45, T46, T47,
T50, T51, T55, T56, T57, T59, T60, T61, T62, T63, T65, T68, T69, T71).
“…It is important to create a tale. Ultimately, the age range we will teach is very convenient for this, I may have difficulties in
explaining children some tough subjects or the children may not understand them at all. At that very point, it can be very useful
for me to explain the subject with stories…” (T3)
the course, and allows that information to be kept in the memory for a longer period of time…” (T10)
“…I think that it would be more memorable to tell the students something in different ways by storifying them rather than
only by way of presentation. For this reason, it is more logical to explain the students hardly memorable topics in a way to at-
tract interest of them…” (T16)
“…While creating my story I formed an opinion that this method can be used as well so that the subjects become more
memorable for the students. By designing such tales for my students, I can make them learn in an enjoyable way and make
them like the course...” (T18)
“…I have seen that if the hard and complicated subjects are explained or lectured by storifying them, both apparent and
more memorable knowledge shall be achieved…” (T33)
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“…I think that when an incomprehensible subject or a new subject is explained to students by creating a story, it shall be
more memorable…” (T56)
The pre-service teachers have stated that in the courses to be lectured using the stories, the stories make the
courses more interesting and entertaining as compared to the straight narrative style, and that, thanks to this, knowl-
edge of the students will be more memorable.
“…The most important task of the stories is to maintain, transfer and disperse thoughts, and to this end, the tale I have
written has enabled me to command on the subject...” (T28)
T28 has expressed that it is necessary to think much while writing, thus, it enables to maintain thoughts and it is
possible to apply through writing in teaching science.
“…It has become good experience to rescue the course from boringness in the future by telling a catchy story while lectur-
ing…” (T19)
“…I think that when I become a teacher, I will ensure my students to learn in an easier and entertaining way by storifying
the hard subjects with story creation activity and to make the subjects catchier through stories…” (T37)
“…I have visual intelligence, imagining and storifying things provides me with memorability. I can say that it is what I have
needed so far. I have realized my imagination and creativity, which shall be useful both for me and for my students…” (T65)
The science pre-service teachers have the opinion that when they become teachers in the future, they shall give
lectures to their students in a catchier way and without getting bored.
“... I think that the subject will be catcher when the teacher explains the abstract things by concretizing or in a way as the
student can imagine. I think that it will help me make the complicated subjects more concrete and make the knowledge I teach
more permanent. Perhaps the story creation activity will save me from being exposed to the phrase “Our teacher knows the
subject well, but she cannot explain anything...” (T39)
In his/her statement, T39 has emphasized that just having knowledge is not sufficient, the important thing is that
this knowledge is explained in a way and through as the students can understand it.
Interesting
Some of the pre-service teachers participating in the research (T1, T2, T10, T13, T14, T16, T19, T23, T25, T30, T31,
T34, T35, T36, T44, T47, T48, T52, T57, T68, T70) have the opinion that using such activities in courses in teaching science
with stories increases interest to the course.
“…As using the direct instruction technique with our students makes the subject boring, it decreases interest to the course.
For this reason, I think that preparing the subjects in stories will be a plus for us when we become teachers in the future, as we
have already learned about it…” (T2)
the course, and allows that information to be kept in the memory for a longer period of time...” (T10)
“…The story creation activity ensures me to develop my abilities such as conceptual organization, effective communication,
sufficient content knowledge, expression uniformity, and most importantly, my attraction getting abilities. Consequently, the
activity becomes both entertaining and educational by ensuring the students to focus on the course…” (T34)
The statements of the pre-service teachers indicate that story writing in science will make great contributions
to them in their careers. They have stated that their teaching abilities have increased, and conceptual organization,
effective communication, expression uniformity, and most importantly, attraction getting abilities have developed.
They have also stated that interest of students to the course shall increase thanks to stories.
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“…I think that it would be more memorable to tell the students something in different ways by storifying them rather than
only by way of presentation. For this reason, it is more logical to explain the students hardly memorable topics in a way to at-
tract interest of them…” (T16)
“…Interesting methods should be found in order to transfer the acquisitions at the knowledge level to the children. I think
that storifying is one of these methods…” (T30)
“…It will be easier to adapt the students to the course by decreasing to their level, and consequently, its interesting side of
narration will not bother the children…” (T44)
“…Giving a lecture in a way attracting attention of students and arouse curiosity among students will make the course
interesting and entertaining…” (T52)
“…If I explain the courses with stories when necessary, the course will be very entertaining. When my students listen to the
courses in a willing and interesting way, they will never forget that subject…” (T68)
T1 has stated that teaching science with stories shall contribute not only to science courses but also to the inter-
disciplinary students, the interest of students to literature will increase by way of writing stories.
“…I think that it will help increase interest of children to literature, although it is not related to our field. I think that this
method is a quite effective method…” (T1)
Abstract-to-Concrete
Some of the science pre-service teachers (T4, T8, T16, T22, T29, T32, T39, T66) have stated that the abstract concepts
that we encounter in the science subjects can be lectured with stories by way of concretizing.
“…We know that learning level or course perception level, level of concretizing abstract concepts and their problems ex-
perienced vary. For this reason, I can start story creation activities with my students having such problems and try to provide
equivalent learning…” (T4)
“…When we become teachers, we will have to tell and transfer something to the students. However, the things that we will
tell will not be concrete all the time, but we will also tell about abstract things. Thanks to narration, we can help the children
understand more easily by imitating the abstract things to concrete ones…” (T8)
“…If we consider that we will give lectures to the primary school students, we can decrease to the level of these students thanks
to narration. Or I think that it will enable us to tell about the abstract events in an easier and permanent way by concretizing...” (T22)
“…If the teacher tells about an abstract subject by way of concretizing, it will be more memorable for the students. He/she
can do that in an entertaining way by way of narration. The students can both entertain and learn the complicated subjects. In
this way, it will be more memorable…” (T29)
“…I think that trying to instruct a subject to my students with more concrete things will be more effective and memorable
for them, and at the same time, this narration activity will make the course more entertaining and fascinating...” (T32)
“…I think that the subject will be catcher when the teacher explains the abstract things by concretizing or in a way as the
student can imagine. I think that it will help me make the complicated subjects more concrete and make the knowledge I teach
more permanent. Perhaps the story creation activity will save me from being exposed to the phrase “Our teacher knows the
subject well, but she cannot explain anything...” (T39)
In the statements of the pre-service teachers specified under this headline, it is expressed that it shall be an ef-
fective method to concretize the abstract concepts in teaching science by using stories. It has been emphasized that
in this way, the students shall have a more effective and memorable learning in a more entertaining and fascinating
course environment.
Associating with the Daily Life
The statements of the pre-service teachers (T14, T17, T22, T46, T55) on “associating with the daily life”, the last theme
formed based on the statements of the pre-service teachers on the use of stories in teaching science, are presented below.
“…I think that I enable the students to understand better and I develop them by attracting their attention by combining the
daily life with the course through story creation activity…” (T14)
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“…As pre-service teachers, we can make the courses more understandable both through the real life and such stories. The
knowledge and ability level of the students can be developed more…” (T17)
“…Writing the story, I got influenced by many things happening around me. I think that I have written a different story
thanks to my sibling’s book, vegetables in the kitchen, advertisements on TV and similar events…” (T22)
“…When the children do not understand the subject, we can instruct them by performing such different applications. The
more you associate a subject with the normal life, the more it will contribute to the students…” (T46)
“…If we perform more association and adaptation with the daily life by way of writing stories, and provide the students
with the real- life stories related to the subject, I believe that we will receive very useful results…” (T47)
The pre-service teachers have emphasized that the subjects are associated with the daily through teaching with
stories, and they constitute a bridge between theoretical knowledge and practical knowledge, and consequently,
these concepts and subjects become more understandable and interesting. They have pointed out that associating
with the daily life shall make positive contributions to learning, and it shall develop students’ knowledge and abilities.
Discussion
As a result of this research, the views of the science pre-service teachers on the use of stories in organic chemistry
courses and their views on the use of story in the science courses a result of the stories created have been evaluated
and categorized under themes. The views of the pre-service teachers on the use of stories in science courses have been
categorized under 6 themes including “entertaining and enjoyable”, “increasing imagination and creative thinking”,
“better understanding and catchy”, “interesting”, “abstract-to-concrete”, “associating with the daily life”.
Under the “entertaining and enjoyable” theme, the pre-service teachers have expressed that they shall use stories
in their careers, and through this method, the science courses shall be more entertaining, the interest and attitude of
the students on the course shall increase. The story telling method is one of the methods that have frequently been
applied in many areas of education for very long years. Considering the fact that stories are loved by children (Rose,
2017), it is almost certain that lessons given through stories would create a fun learning environment.
One of the most important reasons of this is that the stories have an entertaining part. The students learn in an
active way in an entertaining learning environment (Gölcük, 2017). In a similar research, although the students see it as
an entertainment opportunity without realizing that they learn new concepts while having joy, they have understood
that they have internalized the scientific events thanks to the stories, and that the stories have a teaching effect. It has
been seen that the scientific stories make a significant difference on learning process of the students (Akarsu, Kariper
& Coşkun, 2015).
Educational sciences have long used stories as an educational tool. Evidence demonstrates that not only an
interesting and intriguing story itself but also using this technique supports learning and remembering (Rose, 2017).
The science pre-service teachers participating in the research have stated that they shall improve the lecturing abilities
giving lectures in an entertaining way by using stories in science courses, and that when they become teachers, they will
apply teaching with stories in science courses. Although the use of stories in teaching science was theoretically justified
by Bruner (1985, 1991 in the past, it is not used in a widespread fashion in teaching science. However, it is believed that
the unique qualities of stories can positively contribute when teaching science. As a result of their research, Kariper
and Coşkun (2015) have stated that teaching with stories has brought in the teachers a new perspective, and that it
has affected the classroom environment in a positive way. The studies conducted also indicate that learning with joy
affects the education-training process in a positive way.
In the statements of the pre-service teachers under the “increasing imagination and creative thinking” theme,
the pre-service teachers have stated that while creating stories, they transfer their knowledge to their students with a
different point of view by using their creativity and imagination and emphasized the importance of imagination while
creating stories. Creativity is a way of thinking and it is closely related to imagination. In fact, each individual has his
own unique creative qualities. However, these qualities should be improved using various ways. Creativity has always
been a source of wonder and joy. It will also be an important factor in schools in the future therefore creative skills of
young people should be improved (Gibson, 2005). Creativity has been defined as “Being sensitive against problems,
malfunctions, lack of knowledge, lost elements, inadaptability, seeking solutions for difficulty and foretelling” (Özden,
2003; Torrance, 1966). The stories develop imagination of the students with its transfusion characteristic (Egan,1992;
Yakıncı, Almış, & Kavruk, 2012). Therefore, storytelling activities in schools can contribute both to the development of
imagination and creativity of students. According to Sever (2003), the story text should address students in terms of
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age, interest and need, and students’ imaginary and emotion world should be in harmony with the content pattern of
texts. Since such learning environments shall be more sincere and familiar for the students, learning shall be realized
in an easier way.
Teaching science is always based on reasoning, experimental and analytical thinking. Since students usually see
science lessons as boring and difficult to understand, there is a risk that their interest in learning science and their
creativity may gradually decrease. Stories can be used to teach science in order to prevent this. However, story and
storytelling are not used extensively in science lessons (Rose, 2017). The science pre-service teachers participating in
the research have stated that in their career, they will apply teaching with stories in science courses, make their students
write stories, this will contribute to development of their imaginations, the complex subjects will be simplified by way
using imaginations through stories, and the courses will become more understandable. It is an important requirement
for the individuals to make attempts to reveal and develop their creativity power, so that our country can have a place
among the developed countries. For this reason, the constructivist approach, in which the activities revealing creativ-
ity are in the forefront, has a place in our education system (Pekmezci, 2014). Because learning is something which a
person can do on his own and according to his competencies.
Prior to the story creation process, the pre-service teachers were seen to be prejudiced about, did not like and
felt themselves insufficient in writing stories, however, following the story creation process, they have stated that it
contributes to creative and multifaceted thinking, they have realized their imagination, and in this context, writing
stories has become a good experience for them. There are many scientific studies which intend to establish a theoreti-
cal background using science stories (Klassen 2006; Kubli 2001; Metz, Klassen, McMillan, Clough & Olson, 2007; Norris,
Guilbert, Smith, Hakimelahi & Phillips, 2005). Klassen (2009) conducted a research about how a science story can be
researched, written and analysed and how students can react to and interpret a story in order to provide a basis to write
effective science stories. Norris et al. (2005) developed some criteria to evaluate science stories. This actually shows
that the challenges and worries that pre-service teachers experience when writing stories are normal in the beginning.
Senemoğlu (2007) has emphasized that first of all, teachers should be trained as equipped with these properties and
they should have creativity properties, so that creativity can be developed. Bringing up creative generations is pos-
sible through the teachers, who can think fluently, flexibly and originally and who can organize such environments
as required for this purpose. In this context, it is important for the pre-service teachers participating in the research to
realize their imagination and creativity and declare positive opinions.
The human brain is believed to store the information presented in a story format longer than when given as a
list of unrelated facts (Haven, 2000; Weaver, 1994). The stories are very important tools, which try to make information
meaningful, and are made up of associated and consistent information (Millar & Osbome, 1998). Under the “better
understanding and catchy” theme, the pre-service teachers have stated that students shall understand the concepts
and subjects better in the courses conducted using stories and things learned through this method shall be more
memorable. In their papers, Demircioğlu et al. (2006) have stated that the chemical stories increase students’ willingness
towards learning and realize meaningful learning. In another research, it has been concluded that the stories develop
problem-solving abilities and imagination of the individuals and support their creativity, affect their language and
social development in a positive way, and also explaining a complex event with stories shall activate emotions of the
individuals in their fantastic worlds and realize meaningful learning (Turgut and Kışla, 2015). As the students discover
things through the story creation method, they better understand the concepts, and their learning environments are
more sincere and familiar for the students. Ritchie, Rigano and Duane (2008) created a story titled “ecological mystery”
together with fourth grade students and teachers in their research. They reached the conclusion that the support the
students received from their teachers when creating the story helped them to understand and learn the science concept
better which led to permanent learning. Going ahead from this point of view, it can be said that storifying is used as an
effective and permanent teaching method. In the same way, many studies indicate that meaningful and permanent
learning shall be ensured thanks to learning with stories (Banister & Ryan, 2001; Fensham, 2001). Again, a research by
Ramsden (1997) found that learning activities using explanatory tools when teaching topics such as chemical changes
and conservation of mass in chemical reactions contributed significantly to learning.
Under the “interesting” for them, the pre-service teachers have stated that the story creation method has made
positive contributions for them. They have stated that their teaching abilities have increased, and conceptual organiza-
tion, effective communication, expression uniformity, and most importantly, attraction getting abilities have developed.
They have also stated that interest of students to the course shall increase thanks to stories. An important advantage
of the stories is that the students can become parts of a story as an actor or they help telling a story. In this respect, the
stories can increase interest of the students, especially those with low motivation (Barry et al., 2005). Being the oldest
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tool of communication, story-telling can make the information, events and learning related to science more enjoyable
and desirable by contributing to science.
It is important to simplify the meaningful ways of transferring knowledge to the children, who are especially in
the concrete procedures period. It is one of the most important duties of teachers within this process to concretize
a course in which abstract concepts are taught, to use the knowledge learned by the students with stories and as-
sociate them with the daily life, to develop enjoyable learning environments while learning and applying by getting
away from the traditional teaching understanding (Şahin, 1998; Üstünoğlu, 1990). The students included in the 9-12
age group can comprehend ideas through symbols, and learn the basic abstract concepts, whose contents they can-
not fully understand, only with the help of concrete concepts (Erden & Akman, 2005). Stories can be used to explain
abstract ideas and concepts. Abstract concepts are the most effective tools in making stories meaningful. (Wells, 1987)
In the statements of the pre-service teachers specified under the “abstract-to-concrete” theme, it has been em-
phasized that the problems shall be concretized by using stories in teaching abstract concepts and that in this way, the
students shall have a more effective and memorable learning in a more entertaining and fascinating course environment.
The results specified under the “abstract-to-concrete”, in our research resemble with the results of another research
carried out on the use of stories in medical education. According to the research, when the knowledge provided during
medical education is not associated with the daily life events, it has been observed that the students, who have received
this education, often memorize this knowledge only for the exam and it turns it into abstract concepts being forgot-
ten after the exam (Yakıncı, Almış, & Kavruk, 2012). It has been concluded that the knowledge can be concretized by
applying to the simplifying and mnemonic methods, and during this process, the story texts have such characteristics
that motivate and increase the learning desire. Science, especially chemistry, is seen as a difficult discipline to be hardly
understood by students as it contains very abstract ideas. For this reason, it can be thought that the use of storifying in
science teaching can be effective. Banister and Ryan (2001) reported that there was an increasing concern in expand-
ing the ways of teaching science to children and conducted a research about the use of stories to improve children’s
ideas about water cycle and found that children remembered information longer when they learned through stories.
Under the theme of “associating with the daily life”, the pre-service teachers have emphasized that the subjects
are associated with the daily life through teaching with stories, and they constitute a bridge between theoretical
knowledge and practical knowledge, and consequently, these concepts and subjects become more understandable
and interesting. They have pointed out that associating with the daily life shall make positive contributions to learning,
and it shall develop students’ knowledge and abilities. Bostrom (as cited in Avraamidouve Osborne, 2009) reported
that stories created by students and teachers made lessons in the schools more meaningful for students. It is easier for
the people who have strong social skills to connect science to the real world. Studies demonstrate that stories support
language development but also can have a positive effect on social development of children (Isbell, Lindauer, Lowrance
& Sobol, 2000; Morris, Taylor &Wilson, 2000).
One of the most important aims of education and training is to ensure that the students inquire knowledge
with a critical point of view, integrate it with their own lives, and bring the students up as scientific literates with high
scientific thinking power. The use of stories in science education is among the methods in which the students can
actively participate, which explains any science they see around them, and increases their interests towards science
(Demircioğlu, Demircioğlu, & Ayas, 2006). It is important to use the stories in the courses so that the students can in-
terpret the events they encounter in their daily lives in order to contribute to the excitement of solving the problems
(Demircioğlu, Demircioğlu, & Ayas, 2006; Pekmezci, 2014; Türkmen & Ünver, 2012).
Conclusions
When all the results obtained under these themes are evaluated in a holistic way, it is seen that the views of the
science pre-service teachers on the use of the stories created as part of organic chemistry courses in science courses are
positive. Teachers candidates also reported that they would use stories when teaching science. It has been concluded
that teaching science with stories shall contribute to the knowledge and abilities of both teachers and students, and
consequently, the science courses shall be more entertaining, enjoyable and interesting. In addition, it has been un-
derstood from the statements of teacher candidates that creativity of students shall develop in the story composition
process, their imagination shall increase, they shall configure their knowledge associating them with the daily life,
meaningful learning shall be ensured by concretizing mostly abstract science subjects and concepts through stories,
and a learning environment to ensure memorability of knowledge shall be prepared.
Pre-service teachers had prejudice about and did not like writing stories and even thought themselves as incapable
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before they started to write stories. However, it was observed that they realised their creativity and imagination skills
through divergent thinking in the story creation process; they could connect stories to real life experiences and enjoyed
writing stories and that the whole story writing process was an effective and fun experience for them.
As a result of the study, it is seen that the use of the stories in science teaching will lead to an effective learning
of science. The stories describe the real parts of human life or an event that people have associated with their lives.
Thus, the creation of science stories by associating the universal tools of the stories with the universal nature of science
is an effective method that can be used in science teaching in almost all countries. Since the stories are related basi-
cally to everyday life, the fact that science subjects can also be associated with the daily life is a method that teachers
and students can prefer in science education. Since scientific teaching is fun and provides memorability through the
stories, it is thought that the learning with stories is an effective tool to structure and use the science subjects by the
students, and it is possible to use them in every country and culture because of their characteristics. For this reason, it
is also important that the stories are included in the science education in order to create an environment, where the
students can use their creativity and imagination in the science courses. Especially, it will be useful for both the teacher
candidates and science education students that, in the future, the teacher candidates, who will take the science courses,
will be able to improve themselves, when they start teaching.
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Received: March 30, 2018 Accepted: July 02, 2018
Burcu Anılan PhD, Assistant Professor, Eskişehir Osmangazi University,

Faculty of Education, Department of Mathematics and Science
Education, Eskişehir, Turkey.
E-mail: anilan.burcu@gmail.com
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FOURTEEN-YEAR-OLD
STUDENTS’ MISCONCEPTIONS
REGARDING THE SUB-MICRO
AND SYMBOLIC LEVELS OF
SPECIFIC CHEMICAL CONCEPTS
Abstract. Learning and presenting chemi-

cal concepts at the triple level of chemical Miha Slapničar,
concepts provides opportunities for the de- Valerija Tompa,
velopment of misconceptions. The research
aimed to identify potential misconceptions
Saša A. Glažar,
of chemical concepts: the states of matter, Iztok Devetak
a pure substance, a mixture, an element,
a compound, a physical change, and a
chemical reaction at the sub-micro level
when solving problems incorporating
sub-microrepresentations. A total of 188
14-year old students, attending six different
primary schools, participated in the re-
search. A chemistry achievement test com-
prising five problems at the macroscopic,
sub-micro, and symbolic levels was used
to obtain data about students’ miscon- Introduction
ceptions of selected concepts. The results
showed that the majority of students had Chemical concepts are abstract for learning, since they can be repre-
formed inadequate mental models (mis- sented at three different levels: i.e., at the macroscopic, sub-micro, and sym-
conceptions) for the chemical concept of bolic levels, presenting the so-called triangle of the triple nature of chemical
the liquid state of water (66.5%). The lowest concepts (Johnstone, 1982) (Figure 1). The macroscopic level comprises
level of misconceptions is related with the
observable chemical concept presentations (e.g., experiments, movies, pho-
gaseous state of matter, because almost all
tos). At the sub-micro level, observations are explained by particle theories
students (98.5%) solved the problem cor-
rectly. It can be concluded that the results
of matter. When the students understand the sub-micro level, the translation
of the research are significant for chemistry to symbolic level can be accomplished by using various chemical symbols,
teachers because they can: select and apply formulas, and equations (Devetak & Glažar, 2010; Slapničar, Svetičič, Torkar,
adequate educational strategies to avoid Devetak, & Glažar, 2015; Wu, Krajcik, & Soloway, 2001).
the deepening or development of miscon- Chittleborough (2014) stated that the understanding of the connection
ceptions and make the courses practically between all three levels of the representation of chemical concepts is not
oriented by analysing students’ misconcep- always adequate, since it can lead to the development of misconceptions.
tions and develop teaching strategies to She believes, similar to Johnstone (1982), that it is necessary to include the
minimise these problems in the chemistry macroscopic level in the teaching process. The other two levels of chemical
classroom.
concepts should be included in relation to the students’ mental abilities and
Keywords: chemical concepts, primary
their pre-knowledge.
school, misconceptions, sub-micro level,
symbolic level.
Chittleborough’s models (2014) (see Figure 1b, c), founded on John-
stone’s original triangle (1982) (see Figure 1a), show students’ development of
mental models as ‘an expanding triangle’ (the students’ depth of knowledge
at each corner of the triangle grows). Simultaneously, ‘the iceberg model’
Miha Slapničar, Valerija Tompa,
Saša A. Glažar, Iztok Devetak serves as an analogy for students moving to higher levels of understanding
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia as more of the symbolic and sub-micro level can be introduced when the
horizontal line (‘the sea level’) moves towards the sub-micro and symbolic
levels of understanding, as more of the iceberg is exposed above the sea level.
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a b c
Figure 1. a - Johnstone’s triangle of the triple nature of a chemical concept (Johnstone, 1982); b - Chittlebor-
ough’s ‘expanding triangle’ and c - Chittleborough’s ‘rising iceberg’ (adapted from Chittleborough,
2014).
In chemistry teaching, the integration of the triple nature of chemical concepts and the use of diverse
educational materials and teaching approaches are essential for the adequate development of mental models of
chemical concepts, which also affect problem-solving abilities (Slapničar et al., 2015, Slapničar, Devetak, Glažar, &
Pavlin, 2017). Students successfully solve chemical problems when they can simultaneously and properly associate
all three levels of chemical concepts (Taber, 2013). The success in solving chemical problems is also influenced by
the students’ pre-knowledge and experiences in a particular field (Avramiotis & Tsaparlis, 2013). Teachers ought
to, for that matter, use appropriate visualisation tools to illustrate the correct connections between three levels of
the representation of chemical concepts (Devetak & Glažar, 2010; Wu et al., 2001) and develop the ability to apply
successful chemical problem-solving strategies (Turkoguz, 2012). Teachers can use animations of particles’ interac-
tions to present the sub-micro level (Kelly, Akaygun, Hansen, & Villalta-Cerdas, 2017). Such representations, also
called sub-microrepresentations (SMRs), used as 2D or 3D static or dynamic aids, are analogous models of elements
or compounds (Harrison & Treagust, 1998). Researchers (Bunce & Gabel, 2002; Devetak & Glažar, 2010; Eskilsson &
Hellden, 2003; Kelly et al., 2017; Slapničar et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2001) have shown that chemical concepts are most
often represented only at the symbolic level, which poses a greater possibility for students to develop misconcep-
tions (Devetak & Glažar, 2010). However, students also have problems in understanding symbols derived from SMRs
(de Berg, 2012; Falvo, Urban, & Suits, 2011; Johnstone, 1982; Stains & Talanquer, 2008).
Primary school students also have problems understanding the SMRs of matter and changing states of matter
(Özmen, 2013). Ahtee and Varjola (1998) concluded that one quarter of 13- and 14-year-olds could not distinguish
between the concepts of chemical and physical change. Schollum (1981) also stated that 70% of 14-year-olds could
not recognise a physical change. Tóth and Kiss (2006) found that 13- to 17-year-olds had problems distinguishing
between heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures, pure substances and mixtures, as well as elements and
compounds at the sub-micro level.
Furthermore, it has been well documented that Slovenian students have developed different misconceptions
of chemical concepts at the sub-micro level, including the states of matter (Devetak, Drofenik Lorber et al., 2009;
Devetak, Vogrinc et al., 2009). In a research by Devetak, Šket, Pozderec Intihar, and Glažar (2007), 13-year-old Slo-
venian students’ understanding of the concepts element, compound, mixture, and state of matter presented at a
sub-micro level was examined: 85.4% of students were successful in identifying a solid substance at the sub-micro
level. Students were less successful in determining the SMRs of the compound (47.6%), the element (46.8%), the
mixture of gases (41.5%) and the mixture of element and compound (39.0%). The results showed that 13-year-old
students have the greatest difficulties in simultaneously determining two or three variables (e.g., a mixture and
gaseous state of matter; a mixture, element and compound) (Devetak et al., 2007).
To avoid the formation of misconceptions, stimulating students’ interest in learning chemistry is essential.
Teachers can use different learning strategies to make those students who are not interested in chemistry but in
other aspects of human activities aware that chemistry is a significant part of their lives. One such possibility is
applying teaching in context (Parchmann, Blonder, & Broman, 2017), in which students can learn chemistry by
making themselves aware that is a part of history and modern society (Milanovic & Trivic, 2017), industry (Marion
et al., 2017), etc. Some studies have already been done (Parchmann et al., 2017; Milanovic & Trivic, 2017) showing
that some contexts are more interesting than others for students, but further research is needed.
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Research Problem and Research Focus
According to the Slovenian curriculum in science, 11-year-old students (Grade 6) learn that matter consists of
particles. They also learn about the distribution of particles in a specific state of matter. They know how to deduce
the state of matter from the SMRs. Twelve-year-old students (Grade 7) learn about the concepts of physical change,
chemical change, reactant, product, pure substance, mixture, element and compound, and their SMRs within the
subject of science (Skvarč et al., 2011). Within the subject of lower secondary school chemistry, 13-year-old students
(Grade 8) learn about the distribution and movement of particles in specific states of matter, the nature of particles
in the element and the compound, the atom and molecule, and the symbols presenting elements and formulas
presenting compounds. In Grade 9 (14-year-olds) learn about chemical reactions; balancing chemical equations,
and translating SMRs to chemical equations (Bačnik et al., 2011).
From the presented theoretical background, a research problem arises, related to how 14-year-old students
understand chemical concepts: 1) the states of matter, 2) a mixture, 3) a pure substance, 4) an element and a com-
pound, 5) a physical change, and 6) a chemical reaction at the sub-micro and symbolic levels of representation. The
research aimed to identify potential misconceptions of selected chemical concepts at the sub-micro level when
solving problems incorporating SMRs.
From the research problem, one research question was formed: Which misconceptions about the state of matter,
the pure substance, the mixture, the element, the compound, the physical change (at the sub-micro level) and the
chemical reaction (at the sub-micro and symbolic levels) most frequently occur in Slovenian 14-year-old students?
Research Methodology
General Background
A quantitative (empirical) research approach with descriptive and non-experimental methods was used in this
research. The data were collected by solving achievement test identifying the understanding of selected chemical
concepts. The achievement test was applied in six Slovenian primary schools in April 2017.
Research Sample
Altogether 190 students were selected for the research. The non-random sample included 188 students (99.0
% - the percentage of the sample approached that participated) (90 girls and 98 boys), aged 14 years (M=14.0 years;
SD=7.2 months), Grade 9, from six different primary schools located in Ljubljana and its surroundings. The students
were selected from a mixed urban population. To ensure anonymity, each student was assigned a code consisting
of a serial number. The students were selected based on their previously expressed interest in chemistry, their aver-
age achievements in science (their minimum grade was 3, whereby a grade of 5 represents excellent knowledge),
and their communication skills. All participating students had learned chemical concepts for four years (primary
school Grades 6 to 9; see the above description of courses in the subsection Research Problem and Research Focus).
A chemistry achievement test was used in this research. Three experts from the field of
chemical education developed the test, which consisted of eight problems at the macroscopic, sub-micro,
and symbolic levels (the problems are presented in detail in the section Results of Research). Table 1 represents the
structure of the achievement test, including the type of problem (task), problem number and Bloom’s taxonomy level
(BTL), variables of problems, concepts needed to solve the problems, difficulty (p) and discriminatory indexes (D).
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Table 1. Structure of the achievement test.
Type of Problem number Concepts needed to solve the

Variables p D
problem (BTL) problem
3 (part 3.1: first BTL; 3.1 - .53

Pure substances Pure substance, mixture, particle arrange-
parts 3.2 and 3.3: 3.2 - .76 3rd problem: .66
and mixtures ment and characteristics
second BTL) 3.3 - .75
Molecules, formulas of reactants and prod-

5.2 (third BTL) Chemical reactions .09 5th problem: .58
Short answer ucts, excess reactant, chemical equation
6.1 - .48
Changing states of 6.2 - .43
6 (second BTL) Freezing, melting, vaporisation 6th problem .44
matter 6.3 - .89
6.4 - .76
Particle arrangement, particle characteris-

1 (first BTL) States of water tics, molecules, solid, liquid and gaseous .29 .56
state of water
2a - .59
Multiple-choice
Mixture of gases, element in solid state of 2b - .98
with 1 correct Pure substances 2nd problem: .54
2a-d (first BTL) matter, mixture of elements, compound, 2c - .35
answer and mixtures
particle arrangement and characteristics 2d - .51
Changing states of Sublimation, melting, boiling, heating,

8 (second BTL) .67 .39
matter particle arrangement
Gaseous state of Gas, atoms, molecules, particle arrange-

2e (first BTL) .99 2nd problem: .54
matter ment in a gas.
Particle arrangement, physical and chemi-

4 (second BTL) Physical change .57 .53
Multiple-choice cal change.
with more
than 1 correct Molecules, reactants, products, excess 5th problem: .58
answer 5.1 (second BTL) Chemical reactions reactant, elements, gas, formula of the .46
product
Particle arrangement in a gas, mixture

Pure substances
7 (second BTL) of element and compound/compounds/2 .37 .59
and mixtures
gases
The achievement test is reliable because its’ internal consistency (Cronbach a = .65) was satisfactory. Discrimi-
natory indexes for every problem (task) were higher than .40 (excepted for problem 8) and statistically significant -
p <.0001. In almost all cases, the difficulty indexes were satisfactory (between .15 and .90), except for the problems
2b, 2e and 5.2. The content validity of the instrument was confirmed by three independent experts in chemistry,
chemical education, and educational psychology, and the instrument checks the operational learning objectives
listed in the curriculum of the subjects science and chemistry. The instrument was designed specifically for this
research. The achievement test is economical, since it contains multiple-choice tasks and short answer tasks that
can be quickly and easily evaluated.
Before the achievement test was applied, it was necessary to obtain consent from the students’ parents,
chemistry teachers and primary school boards. The research was conducted in six primary schools in April 2017.
Students were given 30 minutes to complete the achievement test. All participants had the same test conditions
(a quiet, relaxed environment).
Regarding the research problem presented in this article five problems from the achievement test have been
chosen.
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Data Analysis
The relative frequencies of individual misconceptions of chemical concepts were determined for 14-year-
old students. For the purposes of the conventional content analysis (coding categories derived directly from the
text data) of misconceptions, students’ responses to problems were converted into codes which were then used
to form categories. As a criterion for identifying potential misconceptions of selected chemical concepts at the
sub-micro and symbolic levels, an explanation was used that students misunderstand the chemical concept when
they understand it in a way that does not correspond to its scientific explanation (Hasan, Bagayoko, & Kelley, 1999).
Student responses were encoded to facilitate data processing and statistically processed using SPSS.
Results of Research
With the first problem, it is possible to determine whether students can correctly attribute macroscopic rep-
resentations of specific states of water to the corresponding SMRs. The particles of water are represented as single
circles in the SMRs, and not as water molecules (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Problem 1 in the knowledge test – correct answer: water vapour in the air - SMR C, iceberg; solid
state - SMR A, sea water; liquid state - SMR B.
Table 2 shows that the students (96.3%) were most successful in determining the SMR (C), characteristic of
the gaseous state of water. In selecting the sub-micro representation for a liquid (B) or solid state (A), less than one
third of students were successful.
Table 2. Relative frequencies of correct, wrong answers and no answers for Problem 1.
SMR for specific state of water Correct answers (f %) Wrong answers (f %) No answers (f %)
C (gaseous state) 96.3 3.2 .5
A (solid state) 30.9 69.1 0
B (liquid state) 30.3 69.7 0
The most common misconceptions of the solid, liquid, and gaseous states of water at the sub-micro level are
represented in Table 3. It is evident that most of the 14-year olds (68.6%) have developed a misconception about
the solid state of water, because they did not distinguish between the arrangements of particles in a liquid and
solid state of water. However, fewer students (66.5%) had difficulty in determining a representation typical of the
liquid state of water. These students selected an SMR of the solid state of water. The incorrect selection of SMR for
the gaseous state of water was very rare (3.2%).
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Table 3. Relative frequencies of common misconceptions of the states of water.
Chemical concept Misconception f%
Non-differentiation between SMRs of a liquid and solid state. 68.6

Solid state of water
Non-differentiation between SMRs of a gaseous and solid state. .5
Non-differentiation between SMRs of a liquid and solid state. 66.5
Liquid state of water
Non-differentiation between SMRs of a liquid and gaseous state. 3.2
Non-differentiation between SMRs of a gaseous and solid state. 1.6
Gaseous state of water
Non-differentiation between SMRs of a gaseous and liquid state. 1.6
In Problem 2 (Figure 3), students had to choose among one of six SMRs that correspond to a mixture of gases,
an element in a solid state of matter, a mixture of elements, a compound or gases.
Figure 3. Problem 2 in the knowledge test – correct answer: a – SMR B; b – SMR D; c – SMR B; d – SMR C; e – SMRs
A, B, C and E.
Table 4 shows that slightly more than half of the 14-year-olds selected the appropriate SMR for the mixture of
gases and the compound. A little over a third of the students chose the appropriate SMR for a mixture of elements.
Almost all students were successful in determining the SMR for an element in a solid state of matter and SMRs for
gases. When solving problem 2e, 71.3% of students selected only SMR (A) which shows the distribution of particles
in a gas. SMRs A and B were selected by 2.1% of students, while A, B, C and E by 6.4% of students.
Table 4. Relative frequencies of the correct, wrong answers and no answers for Problem 2.
Wrong answers No answers

Problem SMRs Correct answers (f %)
(f %) (f %)
2a Mixture of gases 58.5 41.0 .5

2b Element in a solid state of matter 98.4 .5 1.1
2c Mixture of elements 35.1 63.3 1.6
2d Compound 51.1 47.8 1.1
2e Gases 98.5 .5 1.1
Table 5 presents the most common misconceptions about mixture of gases, element in a solid state of matter,
mixture of elements, compound and gases (at the sub-micro level) and their relative frequencies. The highest total
percentage (59.0%) of misconceptions of individual chemical concepts is related to the mixture of elements. Among
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these, the most common misconception (35.1%) suggests that students do not distinguish between the concepts
of mixtures of elements and compounds; however, another misconception indicates that 23.9% of students do not
differentiate between the chemical concepts of element and the mixture of elements. Most students, therefore,
have difficulty in defining two variables (mixture and element) and in distinguishing between pure substances
(element and compound) and a mixture of elements at the sub-micro level. Misconceptions about compound are
quite common, as they occur in more than a half of all students. The most common misconception is the non-
differentiation between the molecules of the element and the molecules of the compound (38.8%). A total of 41.0%
of students have developed misconceptions about the concept of a mixture of gases, which indicates difficulties
in simultaneously determining two variables (the mixture and the gaseous state of matter).
Table 5. Relative frequencies of the most common misconceptions of concepts tested in Problem 2 at the
sub-micro level.
Non-differentiation between the compound in the gaseous state and mixture of gases. 13.3
Non-differentiation between element in the gaseous state and mixture of gases. 12.2
Mixture of gases
Non-differentiation between element in the solid state and mixture of gases. 10.6
Non-differentiation between a mixture of gases and gas. 4.9
Element in a solid state of matter Non-differentiation between an element in the solid state and mixture of gases. .5
Non-differentiation between the mixture of elements and the compound. 35.1
Mixture of elements
Non-differentiation between an element and the mixture of elements. 23.9
Non-differentiation between the molecules of the element and the molecules of the compound. 38.8
Compound Non-differentiation between the mixture of elements and the compound. 7.4
Non-differentiation between the atoms of the element and the molecules of the compound. 1.6
Gases Non-differentiation between gas and solid substances. .5
In the third problem (Figure 4), students had to determine the state of matter, represented on two SMRs
(problem 3.1) and that they represent a pure substance (problem 3.2) and a mixture (problem 3.3). From the key,
it was possible to discern what particles are represented in sub-micro representations.
Figure 4. Problem 3 in the knowledge test – correct answers: 3.1–Substances in the first and second SMRs
are in a liquid state; 3.2–The first SMR represents a mixture, mixture of substances or two elements;
3.3–The second SMR represents the pure substance or element.
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Table 6 shows that three quarters of 14-year-olds in problem 3.2 and 3.3 identified a pure substance or mix-
ture from SMRs of substances. More than half of the students found that the substances shown in the SMRs are
in a liquid state.
Table 6. Relative frequencies of correct, wrong answers and no answers for Problem 3.
Problem Correct answers (f %) Wrong answers (f %) No answers (f %)
3.1 52.7 43.6 3.7

3.2 75.5 16.0 8.5
3.3 75.0 12.8 12.2
Table 7 presents the relative frequencies of common misconceptions of the concepts of the liquid state of
matter, a mixture, and a pure substance. From the table, it is clear that the misconceptions of the concepts of pure
substance and mixture are very rare; 6.3% of students do not distinguish between the mixture and the compound
at the sub-micro level. Misconceptions about the liquid state of matter are quite common. Most often, the mis-
understandings (38.8%) indicate that students do not distinguish between the SMRs of the liquid and solid states
of matter.
Table 7. Relative frequencies of the most common misconceptions of the concepts of the liquid state of mat-
ter, mixture, and pure substance.
Non-differentiation between the liquid and solid state of matter. 38.8

Liquid state of matter
Non-differentiation between liquid and gaseous state of matter. 3.2
Mixture Non-differentiation between a mixture and compound. 6.3
Non-differentiation between a mixture and pure substance. 2.7
Pure substance Non-differentiation between a compound and element. .5
Non-differentiation between an element and various elements. .5
In Problem 4 (Figure 5), students had to recognise physical change and its properties from an SMR. In the case
of a physical change (heating), there is no change in the substance but only in a redistribution of particles, which
is a result of change in the state of matter.
Figure 5. Problem 4 in the knowledge test – correct answers: b and d.
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With Problem 4, 57.4% of the students answered the question correctly. They had chosen the answers related
to the process of physical change and the change in the distribution of particles as presented with the SMR: 10.1%
of the students chose only answer b (change in the distribution of particles), while 3.2% of the students only answer
d (physical change). Therefore, 67.5% of students determined the characteristics of a physical change, while 60.6%
of the students recognised the process of physical change from the SMR.
From Table 8, it is clear that most students have developed a misconception of the properties of physical change,
related with the changing of matter. Students (6.4%) who wrote that physical changes do not influence the distri-
bution of matter do not differentiate between the concepts of distribution of matter and distribution of particles,
which means that they have difficulties in separating the macroscopic and sub-micro levels of the representation.
Table 8. Relative frequencies of the most common misconceptions of physical change.
Changing of matter. 21.2

Physical change
No change in the distribution of matter. 6.4
In Problem 5.1 (Figure 6), students had to determine from the SMR of a chemical reaction that the reactants
are two elements and that the gas is a product of the chemical reaction. In Problem 5.2 (Figure 6), students wrote
the chemical equation based on the SMR of a chemical reaction and key.
Figure 6. Problem 5 in the knowledge test – correct answers: 5.1 b and c; 5.2 A2 + 2 B2 → 2 AB2.
For Problem 5.1, two students did not give an answer, while for Problem 5.2, 46 students (24.5%) did not write
a chemical equation. For Problem 5.1, both correct answers (b and c) were given by 45.7% of students; 4.8% of
students chose only answer b, while 9.6% of students only answer c. For Problem 5.2, 9.0% of the students wrote
down the appropriate chemical equations; 43.0% of the students wrote the appropriate reactants of a chemical
reaction, while 25.0% of students its appropriate products.
Table 9 represents the relative frequencies of the most common misconceptions of the chemical reaction
at the sub-micro level (for Problem 5.1); 18.2% of students answered that in a chemical reaction both reactants
reacted completely. Other misconceptions about chemical reaction were less frequent.
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Table 9. Relative frequencies of the most common misconceptions about the chemical reaction at the sub-
micro level.
Both reactants reacted completely in the chemical reaction. 18.2

Molecules with the formulae A2B were formed. 12.3
Chemical reaction
Molecules with the formulae A2B were formed. Both reactants reacted completely in the
.5
chemical reaction.
Table 10 presents the relative frequencies of the most common misconceptions of chemical reactions at the
symbolic level (for Problem 5.2). It can be concluded that the most common misconception is that the chemical
equations were completely miswritten (19.1%); 12.8% of students wrote the incorrect formulae for the products,
and 12.2% of students also took into account the excess of reactant A2 when writing down the chemical equation.
Other misconceptions associated with the chemical equation are less frequent (7.0% of students or less).
Table 10. Relative frequencies of the most common misconceptions of the chemical reaction at the symbolic
level.
An incorrect chemical equation. 19.1

Incorrect products in the chemical equation. 12.8
An excess reactant (A2) in the chemical equation. 12.2
Chemical reaction One of the reactants in the chemical equation was written incorrectly, while the
7.0
products were written correctly.
Incorrect chemical equation, written according to the SMR by counting of molecules
5.9
in the SMR.
Unbalanced chemical equation with correct reactants and products. 4.8
The most of chemical concept misconceptions were presented in less than a fifth of 14-year-olds, which means
that they were not frequent.
Discussion
The results have shown that 14-year-olds have developed misconceptions of concepts at the sub-micro level
(the states of matter, a pure substance, a mixture, an element, a compound, a physical change) and the concept
of chemical reaction at the sub-micro and symbolic levels. Almost all 14-year-olds have developed appropri-
ate mental models of the gaseous state of water (96.3%) and the gaseous state of matter (98.5%), which is not
consistent with the results of other research (Devetak et al., 2009), which stated that understanding the gaseous
state of matter is difficult for students. Less than one third of 14-year-olds completely understand the concept
of liquid and solid states of water at the sub-micro level. The most common misconception of the solid state
of water (68.6%) is related to the non-differentiation between SMR of the liquid and solid states. Slightly fewer
students (66.5%) selected the SMR of the solid state of water as the SMR representing the liquid state of water.
A little over a third of 14-year-olds identified a mixture of elements at the sub-micro level. More than half
of the 14-year-olds correctly selected the SMR of the compound and mixture of gases (compound - 51.5%,
mixture of gases - 58.5%), which is more than shown in previous research (Devetak et al., 2007), which included
13-year-olds (compound - 47.6%, mixture of gases - 41.5%). It can be concluded that students also have prob-
lems in determining two variables (mixture and two elements, mixture and two gases), as was also shown by
Devetak et al. (2007) (mixture and two gases). When identifying an element in a solid state of matter, most of
the students had no problem (98.4% of students answered correctly). Students often expressed a misconcep-
tion of a compound, related to the non-differentiation between the SMR of molecules of an element and the
molecules of a compound (38.8%). This is in accordance with other research (Tóth & Kiss, 2006), which showed
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that students, aged between 13 and 17, had developed misconceptions about the concepts of element and
compound at the sub-micro level.
A total of 35.1% of 14-year-olds did not distinguish between the mixture of elements and the compound
at the sub-micro level (when selecting the SMR of the mixture of elements), meaning that they have difficulty
understanding the concepts of a pure substance (element, compound) and mixture (mixture of elements). A
lower percentage of 14-year-olds (23.9%) did not differentiate between the element and the mixture of ele-
ments at the sub-micro level (when selecting an SMR of a mixture of elements). Three quarters of 14-year-olds
recognised a pure substance and mixture from an SMR, which is similar to the results obtained by Tóth and Kiss
(2006). A total of 60.6% of students recognised the process of physical change, which is somewhat less (by 9.4%)
than in the research (Schollum, 1981). Our research showed that 67.5% of 14-year-olds were successful in de-
termining that particles are rearranged during physical change, but fewer students (60.6%) recognised that the
SMR represents physical change. The most common misconception of physical change (21.2%) is related to the
fact that students think that physical change is actually a chemical reaction. 18.2% of the students thought that
both reactants completely reacted during a chemical reaction, which is the most common misconception of the
concept of this specific example of chemical reaction at the sub-micro level. The most common misconception of
the concept of a chemical reaction at the symbolic level (19.1%) is related to the completely incorrectly written
chemical equations. The results also showed that 14-year-olds have problems in identifying the products of a
chemical reaction from the SMR (12.8% - incorrect formulas of the product in the chemical equation; 12.2% - the
unreacted reactant as the product of a chemical reaction). These results are consistent with the results of other
researches (de Berg, 2012; Falvo et al., 2011), which showed that students have difficulties using the symbolic
level (writing chemical equations) based on SMRs.
Therefore, most of the obtained results are consistent with the fact that the sub-micro level is more dif-
ficult for students to understand, which is related to the invisibility of the particles in matter (Herga, Glažar, &
Dinevski, 2015; Mumba, Chabalengula, & Banda, 2014). Particles of matter would be better presented with 3D
dynamic SMRs instead of 2D static SMRs (representation of particles with circles). This kind of representation
promotes the development of an adequate mental model of the chemical concept (Olakanmi, 2015). It can be
concluded that using information technology (ICT) is crucial in creating a better understanding of chemical
concepts (Machková, & Bílek, 2013; Sarabando, Cravino, & Soares, 2016).
Conclusions and Implications
The research aimed to identify potential misconceptions of 14-year old students of basic chemical concepts:
the states of matter, a pure substance, a mixture, an element, a compound, a physical change, and a chemical
reaction at the sub-micro level of chemical concepts when solving problems incorporating SMRs. The results of
the research have shown that students have developed misconceptions about all researched chemical concepts
at the sub-micro level. On the basis of the obtained results of the research, teachers can teach selected chemical
concepts to 14-year-olds in a way that prevents the development or deepening of misunderstandings. All this
leads to the higher quality of students’ further education.
If the sub-micro level is excluded, the majority of students (91.0%) have developed misconceptions about
the concept of a chemical reaction at the symbolic level, which is the most abstract level of understanding. Based
on these results, it can be concluded that 14-year-olds are not yet able to understand the concept of a chemical
reaction at a symbolic level or the concept is not adequately taught in school chemistry.
For the development of appropriate mental models of chemical concepts, it would be necessary for chemistry
teachers to use different learning approaches. In this context, the use of visualisation tools (especially dynamic
SMRs) is crucial, as is an appropriate explanation of the key features of representations. It is also necessary that
teachers stimulate students’ interest by applying context and inquiry-based chemical education. Such approaches
would undoubtedly contribute to students’ higher achievements in chemistry. The poor understanding of cer-
tain concepts can also be influenced by the fact that most Slovenian textbooks for chemistry are designed to
contain most representations at the symbolic level, which is the most complex for understanding. It would be
sensible that all teaching materials contain many more representations of chemical concepts at all three levels
simultaneously, as this would improve the understanding of chemical concepts.
Limitations of this research are: 1) the chemistry achievement test should include more problems with
different chemical concepts at all three levels of representation to identify more specific misconceptions, 2) the
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chemistry achievement test could be multi-tier so that misconceptions could be identified more objectively,
and 3) the research sample was small.
Future research in the field of misconceptions should be regarding the triple nature of chemical concepts
and involve: 1) the analysis of the problem-solving strategies in relation to the development of abstract think-
ing, which is essential in identifying the level of understanding of abstract chemical concepts (sub-micro and
symbolic levels of representation); 2) a comparison between urban and rural schools and between female and
male students; 3) a triangulation of data collection; 4) using 3 or 4-tier test questions would shed more light on
specific misconceptions and diminish the possibilities of false positive or false negative answers; 5) using eye-
tracking methodology for identifying students’ information processing during problems solving.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the project Explaining Effective and Efficient Problem Solving of the Triplet
Relationship in Science Concepts Representations (J5-6814), financed by the Slovenian Research Agency (ARRS).
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Received: March 23, 2018 Accepted: July 08, 2018
Miha Slapničar PhD Student and Teaching Assistant of Chemical Education, University
of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Department of Biology, Chemistry
and Home Economics, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
E-mail: miha.slapnicar@pef.uni-lj.si
Website: https://www.pef.uni-lj.si/1089.html
Valerija Tompa MS Student, University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Education, Kardeljeva
ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
E-mail: valerija.tompa@gmail.com
Saša A. Glažar PhD, Full Professor of Chemical Education, University of Ljubljana,
Faculty of Education, Department of Biology, Chemistry and Home
Economics, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
E-mail: sasa.glazar@pef.uni-lj.si
Iztok Devetak PhD, Associate Professor of Chemical Education, University of Ljubljana,

Faculty of Education, Department of Biology, Chemistry and Home
Economics, Kardeljeva ploščad 16, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
E-mail: iztok.devetak@pef.uni-lj.si
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IDENTIFYING INDONESIAN
UPPER-SECONDARY SCHOOL
STUDENTS’ ORIENTATIONS TO ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/
LEARN SCIENCE AND GENDER ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
EFFECT THROUGH THE USE

OF STRUCTURAL EQUATION Abstract. The purpose of this research is
MODELING to examine Indonesian upper-secondary
school students’ learning orientation in
science via generating structural equation
modeling of conceptions of, approaches to
and self-efficacy in learning science, and
seeking whether the model is significantly
Arif Rachmatullah, different based on gender. A total of 600
Sariwulan Diana, (63% females) Indonesian upper-secondary
school students completed a questionnaire
Minsu Ha with three constructs – conceptions of,
approach to and self-efficacy in learning sci-
ence. Rasch analysis was conducted before
testing the hypothesized model to examine
Introduction the psychometric aspects of the instruments.
Structural equation modeling featured
Recently, attention to students’ affective constructs in learning science is with multi-group analysis-based gender
increasing in the body of science education research. The increasing attention was used to respond to the main research
on students’ affective constructs in learning science is due to the suggestions purpose. Findings indicated that the Indone-
sian upper-secondary school students had
that affective constructs are positively influencing students’ science learning
multiple conceptions of as well as multiple
processes (Osborne, Simon & Collins, 2003; Schumm & Bogner, 2016). Several
approaches to science learning that led to
notable constructs that recently have been scrutinized by science education different senses of self-efficacy. Multiple
researchers by displaying in the form of inter-correlation model are concep- conceptions and mixed approaches are the
tions of, approaches to and self-efficacy in learning science (e.g. Lee, Johanson characteristics of students with achieving
& Tsai, 2008; Shen et al., 2016; Zheng, Dong, Huang, Chang & Bhagat, 2018). orientations. Most importantly, the current
These three constructs are also known in determining a student’s learning research found that conceiving learning sci-
orientation in science subjects (Shen, Lee, Tsai & Chang, 2016). ence as memorizing was considered as the
Students’ conceptions of learning science (COLS), determined by stu- basis for the higher level of conceptions. The
dents’ previous experiences in learning science, have been evidently impact- model significantly differed based on gen-
ing the type of motive and strategy that students use in learning, or known as der. Three main differences were Indonesian
female students tended to be more conceiv-
approaches to learning science (ALS) (Kember & Kwan, 2000; Lee et al., 2008;
ing science learning as memorization, using
Marton, Dall’Alba & Beaty, 1993; Nijhuis, Segers & Gijselaers, 2008; Tsai, Ho,
more surface motive and their self-efficacy
Liang & Lin, 2011; Yang & Tsai, 2010). COLS and ALS are composed of factors was more impacted by their higher level of
that are hierarchically distinguishable. In terms of COLS, Tsai (2004) based conceptions – applying and understanding
on his phenomenological analysis of Taiwanese upper-secondary school than males. Based on findings, gender issues
students, suggested that students conceive learning science as six different in orientations to studying and Indonesian
conceptions, categorized into two larger groups – reproductive or lower science education curriculum are discussed.
level conception and constructivist or higher-level conception. Regarding Keywords: learning strategies, conceptions
“approach to learning” suggested by Marton (1983) and modified by Lee et of learning, gender, learning orientations,
al. (2008) for science context, students’ approaches to learning science are multi-group analysis, self-efficacy.
divided into two types of approaches, surface approach, and deep approach. Arif Rachmatullah
Together, these COLS and ALS concepts, have gained evidence in quantitative Kangwon National University,
and qualitative studies that students conceiving learning science as repro- Republic of Korea
Sariwulan Diana
ductive use the surface approach, while those conceiving learning science Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
in higher level of conception, use the deep approach in learning science Minsu Ha
Kangwon National University,
(Crawford, Gordon, Nicholas & Prosser, 1998; Marton et al., 1993; Lee et al., Republic of Korea
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2008). A higher hierarchy of approaches that students use, the higher confidence that students had to be successful
in science instruction, and vice versa for the lower one (Chin & Brown, 2000; Ellis, Goodyear, Calvo & Prosser, 2008).
However, Koballa, Graber, Coleman, and Kemp (2000), Tsai (2004) and Tavakol and Dennick (2010) claimed
that there might be a possibility of a student having more than one conception of learning in different contexts. In
the later research, Lin and Tsai (2008) found that students also have multiple conceptions and mixed approaches
to learning. A few studies in science education indicated these multiple and mixed issues. Most of the previous
studies developed a model by especially independent variables that are COLS components and are not associated
with other COLS components (e.g., Chiou, Liang & Tsai, 2012; Shen et al., 2016; Zheng et al., 2018). This research
examines the inter-correlation of COLS, ALS, and self-efficacy in the form of the model, whereby one COLS com-
ponent is associated with other COLS components as the assumption that students have multiple conceptions of
learning science. As many have also mentioned that students’ learning orientations are also influenced by culture in
the form of school curriculum (e.g., Lee et al., 2008; Li, 2003), current research also has more insight on Indonesian
upper-secondary school students, a population that has not much been explored previously, in science learning.
Besides culture and educational systems of a particular country influence students’ learning orientation,
gender is also a social factor that contributes to the diversity of students’ learning orientation (Chiou et al., 2012;
Philbin, Meier, Huffman & Boverie, 1995; Severiens & Dam, 1994). Females use more rote learning than males lead-
ing to the more frequent use of the surface approach in learning (Entwistle & McCune, 2004; Kolb, 1984; Severiens
& Dam, 1994). However, there is limited research in examining the different paths practiced by females and males
in science learning. Following testing the model of Indonesian students learning orientations based on COLS,
ALS, and self-efficacy in full sample, this research conducts multi-group analysis to obtain more insight into the
differences of model based on gender.
Theoretical Framework
Conceptions of and Approaches to Learning Science (COLS and ALS)
Some may be questioning the distinction between the meaning of ‘concept’ and ‘conception.’ Enwistle and
Peterson (2004) explain the differences and correlations between the two terms. They explain that concept is
a term that is used for categorization of particular objects and/or behavior making them possible to be widely
recognized, while conception is the response of individual based on different experiences to the concept. Dif-
ferent experiences of learning may lead to different perspectives of learning that students conceive.
In addition to the research on conceptions, the most notable researcher is also considered as the pioneer
of research in conceptions of learning is Säljö (1979). Through interviewing adults about how they view learn-
ing, Säljö identified five conceptions attached to learning; from learning as an effort to increase knowledge,
to learning as an effort to better understand the reality of the world. Others have expanded Säljö’s research
and identified quite different types of conceptions but similar in meaning and hierarchy (Marton et al., 1993;
Marshal, Summer & Woolnough, 1999), but no research accounted for students’ conceptions of learning science
until the phenomenological research conducted by Tsai (2004) and expended by Lee et al. (2008) in the form
of quantitative research.
Based on the findings of Tsai (2004) and Lee et al. (2008), students conceive learning science as six differ-
ent conceptions; learning science as memorizing, testing, calculating and practicing, to increase knowledge,
applying and learning science as an effort to understand and see things in a new way. Those six conceptions
are categorized into two hierarchical trends. The first three mentioned conceptions are categorized into a lower
hierarchy or reproductive conception whereby students with these conceptions are prone to see learning in
quantitative ways, such as the only acquisition of knowledge and scores (Biggs, 1994). To the contrary, the last
three mentioned conceptions are placed in the higher hierarchy or called as constructivist conceptions that means
seeing learning science in the qualitative perspective. Students with constructivist conceptions are prone to have
a higher desire to understand better the science concepts being learned (Biggs, 1994). A desirable attitude to
better understand science is one of the affective aspects indicating a scientifically literate person (Bybee, 1997).
Many studies have indicated that students’ conceptions of learning are directly related to the way how they
process academic tasks leading to the outcome of their learning (Allan, 2003; Chin & Brown, 2000; Purdie, Hattie
& Douglas, 1996). Tsai et al. (2011) have pointed out that students with higher conceptions of learning (science)
use a more sophisticated way of learning and vice versa for those that conceive learning as reproductive. Two
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distinctions of approaches in learning are proposed by many researchers (e.g., Biggs, 1994; Chin & Brown, 2000;
Kolb, 1984; Lee et al., 2008; Marton, 1983) and known as surface and deep approach. Deep approach or some also
called as ‘meaningful’ learning is mainly driven by intrinsic motivation and or sophisticated affective commitment
that resulted from previous experiences in learning science. To the contrary, the surface approach is driven by
extrinsic motivation. Chin and Brown (2000) and Lee et al. (2008) indicated that surface and deep approaches are
constructed by two components; student’s motive and the strategies, whereby motive is an impacted strategy.
In the later research of conceptions and approaches in learning science, many have found that students
with reproductive conceptions of learning science use the surface approach and mix it with the deep approach.
Also, it applies to the constructivist conceptions. Lee at al. (2008) found that students that conceive learning
science as testing used surface and deep approach, also they found that students that conceive leaning sci-
ence as applying are driven by surface and deep motive. Later studies conducted by Zheng et al. (2018) and
Shen et al. (2016) suggested similar findings. Those previous studies were mostly conducted on the Chinese/
Taiwanese samples and used structural equation modeling to find the significant path. Those previous studies
did not explain the reason students with higher conceptions of learning science use deep approach and the
surface approach as well. The findings probed to what has been mentioned by Koballa et al. (2000), Tsai (2004)
and Tavakol & Dennick (2010) about the indications that students have more than one conception of learning
to lead to the use of more than one approach to learning.
The possibility that students have multiple conceptions of learning, later also supported by Lin and Tsai
(2008) in the research of exploring Taiwanese undergraduate students via interviews about their conceptions of
learning management and proposed ‘tree of conceptions of learning’ to map the diverse multiple conceptions
of learning by students. One of their findings is that most of the students have mixed conceptions between
reproductive and constructivist, reproductive and reproductive and also constructivist and constructivist. These
mixed conceptions may lead to the mix and magnitude of the approaches applied by students. Researchers
have argued that students may conceive learning that departs from or combines memorizing with other naïve
or higher conceptions (Lin, Liang & Tsai, 2015; Lin & Tsai, 2008; Marton, Wen & Wong, 2005). As known in science
subjects there are many facts, formulas, and symbols that must be memorized by students to acquire a better
understanding of the content. Regarding acquiring a better understanding of content through memorization,
many have termed it not ‘rote learning’ but ‘mindful memorization’ (Anderson & Schönborn, 2008; Kember,
2000; Marton, Watkins & Tang, 1997). By having multiple conceptions of learning at once, students also may
have several motives and strategies of learning, given that conceptions of learning are highly correlated to ap-
proaches to learning.
Yet, to date, the studies of inter-correlation between students’ conceptions of and approaches to learning
science proposed in the form of path analysis and tested using statistical analysis approach did not consider
the multiple conceptions had by students. This research reveals the existence of multiple conceptions of learn-
ing science leading to the mixed approaches to learning science via generating structural equation modeling.
Previous studies on exploring conceptions of and approaches to learning science had been conducted by using
data from mostly Taiwan and mainland China. This research used the data of Indonesian high-school students.
This also is considered as an effort to observe the impact of culture on the path in the model, given that cultural
backgrounds influence students’ conceptions of and approaches to learning science (Lee et al., 2008; Li, 2003;
Purdie et al., 1996; Tweed & Lehman, 2002). As mentioned earlier that students’ conceptions of and approaches
to learning science correlate with their learning performances, some studies (e.g., Shen et al., 2016; Zheng et al.,
2018) have found that students’ conceptions and approaches influence their science self-efficacy. More detailed
explanations are provided below.
Self-efficacy in Science Learning
Self-efficacy is the term used as the core of Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. Bandura (1977) explains
self-efficacy as a person’s judgment of their ability on if they can excel at a particular task or not. In the context
of science learning, self-efficacy explains how students judge their ability to complete the science-related task
to achieve desirable science achievements (Robnett, Chemers & Zurbriggen, 2015; Zeldin, Britner & Pajares,
2008). As Bandura (1997) states that self-efficacy positively influences one’s performance in a particular task.
In the field of science education, many have supported this with different sample properties and levels from
informal to formal science setting and from primary to college level students (e.g., Andrew, 1998; Robnett et
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al., 2015; Zheng et al., 2018).

In line with conceptions of learning science established based on students’ previous experiences, their
self-efficacy is also constructed based on students’ experience (Bandura, 1997). Notable experiences that
strengthen students’ science self-efficacy are mastery and vicarious experiences (Bandura, 1997; Zeldin et al.,
2008). Additionally, Bandura (1997) emphasizes that mastery experience is the most influential factor that can
elevate one’s self-efficacy. Another thing that correlates to student’s science self-efficacy is self-regulation ability
(Bouffard-Bouchard, Parent & Larivee, 1991; Schunk & Zimmerman, 2007). Self-regulation ability is a metacogni-
tive skill whereby students engage in the act of managing and regulating their learning. Better strategy and
better management of learning lead to the elevation of completing a science-related task (Chin & Brown, 2000).
In addition, Glynn, Brickman, Armstrong, and Taasoobshirazi (2011) argue that science self-efficacy is also part
of students’ motivation towards learning science. They also claim that self-efficacy shares variance with other
motivation constructs; intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and self-determination, and intrinsic motivation
has the highest explained variance of self-efficacy compared to others.
Based on theoretical background, some researchers have also proposed models with the assumptions
that student’s conceptions of and approaches to learning science influence students’ self-efficacy in learning
science (e.g., Phan, 2007; Shen et al., 2016; Tsai et al., 2011; Zheng et al., 2018). According to Phan (2007) and
Tsai et al. (2011), students with constructivist conceptions are prone to positively influence science self-efficacy,
and vice versa for the reproductive one. Phen also reported that students that use deep approaches (motive
and strategy) have a higher level of self-efficacy. Shen et al. (2016) conducted research on uncovering students’
conceptions of, approaches to and self-efficacy in learning earth science and conducted structural equation
modeling found that only deep strategy and conceptions of learning earth science as applying have a significantly
direct effect on students’ self-efficacy. While the latest research conducted by Zheng et al. (2018) on primary
students found that only deep approaches have a direct impact on students’ self-efficacy in lower and higher
levels of self-efficacy. Most of the conducted studies examining conceptions and approaches as the variables
that can predict self-efficacy were used mostly samples from Confucian culture. Given that path analysis and
students’ learning orientations to science vary based on culture, gender and other social factors (Severiens &
Dam, 1997), this research generates a model of those two variables in predicting self-efficacy in science learn-
ing by using Indonesian upper-secondary schools’ data. As the current notion of science education is bringing
equity in science, gender issues have also brought to the current research the emphasis on different pathways
taken by different genders. More details about gender differences in learning orientations are described below.
Gender Differences in Learning Orientations
Of the inter-correlations between conceptions of, approaches to and self-efficacy in learning science, Baeten,
Kyndt, Struyven and Dochy (2010) claim that it can predict students’ learning orientations. In addition, Severiens
& Dam (1994, 1997) argue that learning orientations vary based on contextual factors, such as subject, country,
and gender. Many studies have been conducted to explore more gender differences in learning orientations;
some found significant differences (e.g., Chiou et al., 2012; Severiens & Dam, 1998) and some said gender differ-
ences found insignificant (e.g., Miller, Finley & McKinley, 1990; Wilson, Smart & Watson, 1996). Additionally, those
conducted research were conducted in mostly mathematics and languages, and a few on science subjects. This
research reveals gender differences in learning orientation in the science learning context.
Based on the categorization of learning orientation proposed by Entwistle and Ramsden (1983), there are
four types of learning orientations mostly driven by different motivation towards learning; extrinsic or intrinsic. The
first type of orientation is called meaning orientation driven by internal motivation. Students’ with this orientation
frequently use deep strategies such as comprehension study, relating one idea to another idea as well as using
much evidence. Meaning orientation may be more preferred by men than women, as what Kolb (1984) claims that
men are prone to use more abstract conceptualization mode when learning than women do. The second type of
learning orientation is reproducing orientation, the opposite of meaning orientation. Reproducing orientation is
driven by external motivation featured with the anxiety of failing in a course leading to the use of rote memorization
and only focuses on the requirement to pass on the course. Entwistle (2013) pointed out that women are prone
to have this learning orientation due to that they have more concerns about learning.
The last two orientations are proposed and explained in the later studies (Enwistle & McCune, 2004; Tait &
Enwistle, 1996). As the third type, achieving orientation is driven by external motivation but uses deep approaches
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and organized learning. The last orientation is non-academic orientation. This orientation refers to the low level of
motivation in learning and using disorganized methods of learning. Tait and Entwistle (1996) called this orienta-
tion an apathetic approach. The research of gender in the last two orientations is limited and unclear, especially
in the context of school science. This research also reveals the existence of these last two orientations and the first
orientations featured with the examination of gender differences.
Hypothesized Model for the Inter-correlations of Conceptions of, Approaches to

and Self-efficacy in Learning Science
Through the assumption that students have more than one conception of learning and mixed motives and
strategies in learning (Lin, Liang & Tsai, 2015; Lin & Tsai, 2008; Marton et al., 2005), this research modifies the previous
conducted studies that have not considered generating these issues in their model (e.g. Shen et al., 2016; Zheng et
al., 2018). Due to approaches to learning science also correlated to science self-efficacy that have been described
above, self-efficacy is also included in the hypothesized model depicted in Figure 1. The multiple conceptions of
learning science are assigned by paths departing from lower conceptions to higher ones. As several studies found
that conceptions of learning science as applying and understanding have direct effect to self-efficacy (Lin, Liang
& Tsai, 2015; Shen et al., 2016); this research also addresses this issue by connecting the path from applying to self-
efficacy. Ultimately, as gender has an impact in determining students’ learning orientation, examining the model
based on multi-group of gender via structural equation modeling is also one of the objectives of this research. The
following are the research hypotheses that are used to build the model:
H.1. Students significantly have multiple conceptions of learning science.
H.2.1. Students with reproductive conceptions of learning science use the mix motives and strategies
to learn science.
H.2.2. Students with constructivist conceptions of learning science use the mix motives and strategies
to learn science.
H.3. Students’ approaches to learning sciences mediate students’ conceptions of learning science and
science self-efficacy.
H.4. Conceptions of learning science as applying and understanding have direct effect on science self-
efficacy.
H.5. The paths on the accepted model are different based on gender.
Figure 1. Hypothesized model for the inter-correlation between conceptions of, approaches to and self-efficacy
in science learning.
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General Background
This research used a quantitative method featured with the implementation of structural equation model-
ing in finding out the research questions. Three instruments were used to reveal Indonesian students’ science
learning orientations. This research is part of the continuous project entitled “Exploring Indonesian Middle
School Students’ Learning Orientations in Science” which has a goal on finding out Indonesian students’ science
learning orientation, and thus the data from one instrument that was already used in the previous research
(Rachmatullah, Diana & Ha, 2017). The survey for this research was conducted from March to September 2017.
Participants and Research’s Design
Data were gathered from five public Indonesian upper-secondary schools in the west part of Java Island.
A total of 600 students participated in the survey, and those students were in their second semester (April-May
2017) of first (44%) and second grades (56%). The third grader did not participate in the survey because of
school’s regulation issue that they are prohibited to involve in any act of intervention and survey as an effort
to make them focus on the national graduation exam. The number of sample size was determined using the G-
power analysis for χ2 for the goodness-of-fit test (Faul, Erdfelder, Buchner & Lang, 2009), given the SEM uses the
function of χ2. Based on the G-power analysis with the effect size higher than 0.3, α err prob .05, power (1-β err
prob) .95 and one-degree freedom, the minimum sample size is 145. Thus, 600 samples should be considered
more than sufficient to conduct the study. Demographically, regarding gender, 63% of the participants were
indicated as female, and the remaining students (37%) were males. Moreover, 95% of the students were affili-
ated with Islam as their religion.
Instruments
Conceptions of learning science (COLS). An instrument developed by Lee et al. (2008) was carefully trans-
lated into Indonesian by two science education experts that are fluent in English and Indonesian. The trans-
lated version was used as the measure to examine Indonesian students’ conceptions of learning science. The
instrument consisted of 31 items measuring six dimensions of conceptions in learning science; memorizing,
testing, calculating and practicing, increasing knowledge, applying and understanding-seeing in a new way.
Memorizing, calculating and practicing, and increasing knowledge were composed of five items, testing and
understanding were composed of six items, and only applying had four items. The instrument was based on the
phenomenological research conducted by Tsai (2004). The instrument was 5-point Likert scale. The COLS data
used in this research was from the previous research (Rachmatullah et al., 2017). The psychometric properties
of the instrument are depicted in Table 1.
Table 1. Psychometric properties of the used variables [All mean-square – MNSQ values met the cut-off based
on Boone, Staver and Yale (2014) which is between 0.50-1.50].
Rasch
Range of α if Rasch Item
Variable α Infit MNSQ Outfit MNSQ Person
item deleted Reliability
Reliability
Memorizing (M) .68 .59 ~ .64 0.75 ~ 1.16 0.73 ~ 1.17 .65 .81
Testing (T) .68 .59 ~ .69 0.70 ~ 1.40 0.71 ~ 1.36 .68 1.00
Calculating and practicing (CP) .81 .76 ~ .80 0.82 ~ 1.41 0.80 ~ 1.37 .76 .94
Increasing one’s knowledge (IK) .78 .71 ~ .78 0.77 ~ 1.21 0.71 ~ 1.25 .73 .99
Applying (A) .77 .70 ~ .77 0.76 ~ 1.31 0.73 ~ 1.33 .70 .94
Understanding and seeing in new way (US) .83 .79 ~ .83 0.85 ~ 1.17 0.75 ~ 1.11 .77 .93
Surface motive (SM) .80 .75 ~ .79 0.77 ~ 1.19 0.80 ~ 1.16 .71 .97
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Rasch
Range of α if Rasch Item
Variable α Infit MNSQ Outfit MNSQ Person
item deleted Reliability
Reliability
Surface strategy (SS) .71 .62 ~ .73 0.75 ~ 1.49 0.76 ~ 1.46 .70 .99
Deep motive (DM) .85 .81 ~ .85 0.61 ~ 1.46 0.62 ~ 1.44 .83 .99
Deep strategy (DS) .82 .76 ~ .82 0.66 ~ 1.46 0.65 ~ 1.48 .80 .98
Self-efficacy (SE) .85 .82 ~ .84 0.84 ~ 1.37 0.80 ~ 1.34 .81 .96
Approaches to learning science (ALS). In terms of examining students’ approaches to learning science, an instru-
ment that also was developed by Lee et al. (2008) was translated and used in this research. The instrument was
adapted from the instrument developed by Kember, Biggs and Leung (2004). ALS instrument consisted of four
constructs; surface motive, surface strategy, deep motive and deep strategies. A total of 24 items measured those
four constructs which each construct was consisted of five, five, eight and six items respectively. The instrument
was 5-point Likert scale. The psychometric properties of the instrument are depicted in the Table 1.
Science self-efficacy. This research used the science self-efficacy construct developed by Glynn et al. (2011)
as part of the widely used Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ). The self-efficacy construct was composed of
five items. The reason why it was used in this research is because the instrument has been validated by students in
science and non-science majors. The validity issue and stability of the instrument are well-trusted (Glynn, Taasoob-
shirazi & Brickman, 2009; Glynn et al., 2011). The instrument was 5-point Likert scale. The psychometric properties
of the instrument are depicted in the Table 1.
Data Analyses
Prior to testing the hypothesized model, Rasch analyses through Winstep 4.0.0 were conducted to validate
the instrument as well as to convert the obtained categorical data into interval data that are more acceptable for
statistical analyses especially a parametric one. All the further statistics of this research used the outcome from the
Rasch analysis; person measure (logit). Following, Pearson’s correlation test was conducted to identify the direction
and magnitude that the used variables had correlated with each other. Pathway analysis via AMOS was conducted
to test the hypothesized model. Model fit was evaluated using the cut-off suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999), and
Schumacker and Lomax (2004). They suggested that the good model is the model that has adjusted goodness of fit
index (AGFI) and normed fit index (NFI) more than .90, Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) and comparative fit index (CFI) more
than .95, standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) less than .08 and the root-mean-square error of approximation
(RMSEA) below .06. Then, evaluating if the model is significantly different in terms of gender or not was taken through
the interpretation of the chi-square results (CMIN) whereby p-value < 0.05 is considered that the model is different.
Results of Research
Descriptive Statistics and Pearson’s Correlation Results
The averages and Pearson’s correlation results are depicted in the Table 2. Due to the means they were com-
puted from Rasch analysis and now had the similar unit – logit – make it comparable. Based on a direct comparison
of the obtained means, this research found that the highest mean for conceptions of learning science was IK (M
= 3.05; SD = 2.14) which indicated that most of the Indonesian students conceived learning science as increasing
their knowledge. In terms of approaches to learning, surface motive (M = 2.32; SD = 1.97) found as having the
highest mean followed by deep strategy (M = 1.49; SD = 1.99).
In terms of the results from Pearson’s correlation tests, this research found that most of the used variables
correlated significantly to self-efficacy with deep strategy (r = .43) and deep motive (r = .42) having the highest coef-
ficient correlation, respectively. However, testing (r = –.03) was found insignificantly correlated to the self-efficacy.
Not only not correlated significantly to self-efficacy, but testing was also found insignificantly correlated to most
of the used variables except to reproductive conceptions – memorizing (r = .28) and calculating and practicing
(r = .19), and surface strategy (r = .39). This research also found that surface strategy negatively correlated to all
variables except for testing, memorizing (r = .09) and surface motive (r = .26).
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Table 2. Average of person measures (logit) and correlation coefficients among variables.
Correlation
Variable Mean (SD)
M T CP IK A US SM SS DM DS
M 1.76 (1.56) –
T –0.41 (1.14) .28** –
CP 2.46 (2.22) .39** .19** –
IK 3.05 (2.14) .38** .05 .29** –
A 2.60 (2.51) .38** .05 .42** .55** –
US 2.89 (2.28) .42** .04 .37** .52** .63** –
SM 2.32 (1.97) .26** –.03 .26** .32** .26** .27** –
SS –0.55 (1.27) .09* .39** –.05 –.08* –.12** –.09* .26** –
DM 1.28 (1.69) .41** .02 .35** .42** .49** .58** .31** –.12** –
DS 1.49 (1.99) .35** .04 .34** .43** .49** .56** .18** –.08 .71** –
SE 2.72 (2.76) .27** –.03 .27** .25** .37** .39** .26** –.19** .42** .43**
** p < .01, * p < .05, no mark p > .05
Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) and Multi-group Analysis Results
Structural equation modelling of the correlation between Indonesian students’ COLS, ALS and science self-efficacy.
Exploring the path correlations among Indonesian upper-secondary school students’ conceptions of, approaches
to and self-efficacy in learning science were achieved via conducting structural equation modeling (SEM). First,
the hypothesized model displayed in the Figure 1 was tested and the insignificant (p > .05) paths were deleted.
Finally, the model with acceptable fit indices was found and displayed in the Figure 2 featured with standardized
regression coefficients (β). As depicted in the Table 3, the fit indices of the model in Figure 2 were χ 2/df = 1.74, SRMR
= .036, GFI = .989, AGFI = .966, IFI = .993, TLI = .980, CFI = .993 and RMSEA = .035 (CI 90% = .014 ~ .054).
Figure 2. Pathway analysis results featured with standardized regression coefficients for all sample.
Note: the paths shown are significant at p < .05, not significant paths were deleted
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To examine the first hypothesis that students have more than one conception of learning science has
been tested through correlating one conception to other conceptions. Based on the accepted model depicted
in Figure 2, learning science as memorizing was found positively influencing other conceptions in lower (β =
.24-.39) and higher (β = .12 ~ .31) level conceptions. In addition, learning science as calculating and practicing
was also found having a direct effect on all higher-level conceptions (β = .07-.25). This research also found that
learning science as testing was influenced by other two reproductive conceptions, memorizing (β = .24) and
calculating and practicing (β = .10).
Students that conceived learning science as memorizing (β = .14), calculating and practicing (β = .16), and
increasing knowledge (β = .23) positively used surface motive, while students with conceptions of learning sci-
ence as testing negatively used surface motive (β = -.11). Students triggered to use surface strategy in learning
science were mostly those that conceived learning science as testing (β = .41). In terms of deep motive, most of
the conceptions of learning science, except as testing, were found directly triggering deep motive (β = .07 ~ .36).
The deep strategy was found directly used by students that conceive learning science as increasing knowledge
(β = .08) and understanding (β = .18), and students with deep motive (β = .55). Surprisingly students with surface
motive significantly use deep strategy (β = .09) and did not use surface strategy. Only deep approaches triggered
the advanced level of science self-efficacy (motive β = .17 and strategy β = .22). To the contrary, surface strategy
(β = -.13) triggered lowering science self-efficacy. The fourth hypothesis is indicating that students’ conceiving
learning science as applying and understanding significantly had a direct effect on their science self-efficacy (β
= .12 and β = .10, respectively).
Table 3. Fit indexes of the path models
χ2/df SRMR GFI AGFI IFI TLI CFI RMSEA (CI90)
Path model with full sample (hypoth-

1.74 .036 .989 .966 .993 .980 .993 .035 (.014 ~ .054)
esized model)
Multi-group analysis
Unconstraint 1.70 .048 .978 .935 .986 .963 .985 .034 (.020 ~ .047)
Weight constraint 1.76 .073 .960 .931 .973 .960 .972 .036 (.026 ~ .045)
Model comparison 1.83 (p < .01)
Multi-group analysis-based gender results. To explore if the obtained acceptable model depicted in Figure
2 differs based on gender or not, a multi-group analysis-based gender was conducted, and fit indices were
obtained. Based on the fit indices shown in the Table 3, all of the indices showed acceptable value for a good
model. Based on the model comparison resulted through chi-square test, this research found that the model
was significantly different based on gender (χ2/df = 1.83, p < .01). The comparison of significant paths between
both genders are shown in the Figure 3.
Based on Figure 3, several paths were significantly different between male and female students. Regarding
conceptions of learning science, the insignificant path was found between “memorizing” and “understand-
ing” in males (p > .05) while it was significant in females (β = .18, p < .05). A similar finding was also found in
the path from “calculating and practicing” to “testing” whereby insignificant in male (p > .05) but significant
in female (β = .10, p < .05). In the paths from conceptions of learning science to approaches, male students
that conceived learning science as memorizing only use deep motive (β = .15) while female students that
conceived it are prone to use mixed motives (β = .14 and β = .17, respectively for surface and deep motive).
In terms of learning science as testing, male students that conceived this are prone to use surface strategy (β
= .48) and did female students too (β = .35) but with negative surface motive (β = –.15). Male students that
viewed learning science as calculating, and practicing used mixed motives (β = .16 and β = .09, respectively
for surface and deep motive) while females that conceived this only use surface motive (β = .16). In contrast
to learning science as calculating and practicing, in the learning science as increasing knowledge male stu-
dents are prone to use only surface motive (β = .21) while females are likely to use mixed motive (β = .28 and
β = .13, respectively for surface and deep motive). Indonesian male students that conceived learning science
as applying are prone to use deep motive (β = .27), while female students with this conception indirectly
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use this motive through transforming their conception to ‘understanding and seeing in a new way’ (β = .36).
Both male and female students that conceived learning science as understanding and seeing in a new way’
were likely to use only deep approaches (Male β = .35, β = .21; Female β = .34, β = .17, respectively for deep
motive and strategy).
Figure 3. Pathway analysis results featured with standardized regression coefficients for multi-group analy-
ses- based gender, (a) males’ pathway and (b) females’ pathway.
Note: the paths shown are mostly significant at p < .05, insignificant paths were deleted
Regarding the issue of mixed approaches, this research found that male and female students with deep
motive and surface motive in learning science significantly used deep strategy (Male β = .16, β = .53; Female
β = .08, β = .55, respectively for surface and deep motive). Assuming that students’ conceptions of learning
science correlated with their approaches to learning science that later exerted as their science self-efficacy,
this research found different paths in males and females that influence their science self-efficacy. In males,
only the uses of learning strategies that directly influence their science self-efficacy, whereby those that used
deep strategy positively influenced their science self-efficacy (β = .35) while those that used surface strategy
negatively affected their science self-efficacy (β = –.12). In contrast, female students’ science self-efficacy was
directly impacted by deep motive (β = .14) and their conceptions of learning science as applying (β = .13) and
understanding and seeing in a new way (β = .16).
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Discussion
The purpose of this research was to examine Indonesian upper-secondary school students’ learning
orientation in science via generating structural equation modeling of conceptions of, approaches to and
self-efficacy in learning science. This research also reveals the impact of gender on the accepted proposed
model. Based on the findings, there were three important issues related to Indonesian upper-secondary school
students’ learning orientation; first, the use of memorization as the stepping point to facilitate gaining higher
conceptions of learning, second, Indonesian students have multiple conceptions of learning science lead-
ing to the mixed motives and strategies used in learning science. Third, is that Indonesian male and female
students have different science learning orientation. These three findings are discussed in more detail in the
following two sections.
Indonesian Upper-secondary School Students’ Learning Orientation in Science
Based on the findings projected as a graphical illustration in the Figure 2, Indonesian upper-secondary
school students had multiple conceptions of learning science as shown by the connecting paths from one
conception to other conceptions of learning science. This multiple conceptions of learning science of In-
donesian upper-secondary school students may be caused by different teaching methods used by science
teachers from primary school through their upper-secondary school level. Different teaching methods used
in science classrooms may lead to different learning experiences that students acquired. As stated previously
by Enwistle and Peterson (2004) in the introduction part of this study that student’s conceptions of learning
are gained by their learning experiences. The changes in Indonesian general curriculum may also indirectly
influence students’ conceptions of learning science, because most of the teaching methods that teacher used
in the classrooms are the methods suggested in the general curriculum. In the last 10 years in Indonesia’s edu-
cational system, including science, the curriculum has changed and been revised three times with markedly
different outcomes, especially in the goal of learning. It has impacted the way teachers have taught science
in class from primary to upper-secondary school.
Interestingly, the lowest level of conception – learning science as memorizing has a positive direct effect on
other conceptions in reproductive and constructivist conceptions. Johnstone (2000) stated that in science there
are many explanations, symbols, and formulas that inevitably emerge in the learning process and are unavoid-
able for students in the learning process. Students may inevitably have these kinds of conceptions of learning
science. Yet, it could not be merely considered that students have to use rote learning in science. This also cor-
responds to the next path after memorizing, whether it is to other reproductive conceptions or constructivist
conceptions. When students have a combination of conceptions of learning science with other reproductive
conceptions such as “memorizing-testing”, “memorizing-calculating/practicing”, or “memorizing-calculating/
practicing-testing”, they use surface strategy with surface motive such as rote learning. This type of path would
instill students with a learning orientation in “methodical” type that only focuses on doing well in tests (Komar-
raju, Karau, Schmeck & Avdic, 2011). In contrast, when students conceive learning science as a combination of
memorizing and other constructivist conceptions, this leads to the perception of students that memorize as the
basis for them to increase knowledge, to apply what they have memorized and to better understand science.
This kind of multiple conceptions refers to what Anderson and Schönborn (2008) and Mayer (2002) termed as
“mindful memorization” that is contrasted from rote learning. Memorizing also plays a role as building students’
prior knowledge that is an essential starting point for students to engage in more advanced learning and deeper
understanding (Pals, Tolboom, Suhre & van Geert, 2017). Anderson and Schönborn and Mayer also argued that
mindful memorization is related to memorizing facts and definitions as well as recalling and repeating it as the
evidence of using a higher level of memory. This may also be referred to as practicing activities in learning sci-
ence, whereby in practicing activities students engage in the act of recalling several times of facts or motivation
being learned. Figure 2 also shows that learning science as calculating, and practicing had a positive impact to
the three constructivist conceptions. Through leading to the higher conceptions of learning science, students
become closer to use deep approach. As what shown in the Figure 2, all the constructivist conceptions, “memo-
rizing” and “calculating practicing” have positive effects on deep motive.
Regarding students’ approaches to learning science departing from conceptions of learning science, this
research found that students that conceived learning science as memorizing, calculating and practicing, and
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increasing knowledge use have mixed motives but not mixed strategies. This answered the second hypothesis
of this research. Learning science as memorizing and calculating and practicing that have been explained above
are correlated in promoting “mindful memorization”. But the finding on increasing knowledge has supported
the previous research conducted by Lee et al. (2008) with the explanation that conceiving learning science
as increasing knowledge may be transitional conceptions placed between reproductive and constructivist
conceptions and ambiguous in terms of increasing knowledge.
Regarding approaches to learning science, it was found based on Figure 2 surface, and deep motive
significantly and positively trigger the use of deep strategy. The positive and high impact of deep motive
to deep strategy is also supported by several previous findings and claims (e.g., Lee et al., 2008, Kember et
al., 2004). But, interestingly instead of positively impacting the use of surface strategy, the surface motive
was positively having a direct effect on deep strategy. This may lead to a sense that even though Indonesian
upper-secondary school students only worrying their grade in science and concerning learning science due
to merely for obtaining better grades and a job, but they use deep strategy to realize the motive. Tests and
grades are intertwined in Indonesian science classrooms and considered as the important parameter of success
in schooling, as it remains the national examination that evaluates students in the last semester of every level
of schooling (second semester of sixth, ninth and twelfth grades). Consequently, it is inevitable for Indonesian
students to have a surface motive in learning science. With this finding in the use of deep strategy by students
that use surface motive, it suggests that Indonesian students may have achieving orientation as their type of
learning orientation. As what Biggs (1978, 1994) explained that achieving orientation is the type of learning
orientation that is motivated by obtaining excellence in a test via the systematic approach of learning. This
systematic approach includes better organization of studying such as scheduling study periods.
Ultimately, as the last destination of the paths, science self-efficacy was directly affected by deep motive,
deep strategy, learning science as applying and learning science as understanding and seeing in a new way.
As in the introduction part has been described self-efficacy is known as one of the significant predictors of
students’ being successful in learning science (Robnett et al., 2015; Zeldin et al., 2008). This research findings
have suggested that learning science through applying the facts and understanding it can directly influence
Indonesian students’ self-efficacy. This finding is also supported by several previous studies such as a research
conducted by Lin et al. (2015) and Shen et al. (2016) that found the same findings via other samples. Regarding
deep approach, deep strategy has higher impact than deep motive on self-efficacy. This may lead to the sense
that students with better strategy in learning science have higher self-efficacy than those that only have high
motive. Because, as what Bouffard-Bouchard et al., (1991) argue that students with a well-managed learning
strategy are prone to engage in and improve their self-regulation activity that nurtures more positive vari-
ances to self-efficacy than only motive. However, these discussions of findings are limited to only Indonesian
upper-secondary school students in western Java Island. Because, as Lee et al. (2008) that conceptions of,
approaches to and self-efficacy differ based on culture, given that Indonesia is a multicultural society further
studies from other cultural backgrounds in other parts of Indonesia are needed.
Gender Differences in Science Learning Orientation
The findings of this research reveal the existence of gender difference in the model of inter-correlation
between Indonesian upper-secondary school students’ conceptions of, approaches to and self-efficacy in
learning science. Given the research on Indonesian students’ learning orientation and style, especially in sci-
ence subjects, based on gender is very limited, the discussions of the findings will be cautiously considered
about other previous studies in gender differences in learning orientations.
Concerning the conceptions of learning science, this research found that Indonesian female students
have more memorization as the base of multiple conceptions of learning science. It is shown in the Figure
3 that the path departing from memorization had one path more than in the male model, and the path is
from memorization to understanding. This may lead to a sense that Indonesian female students are likely to
use more memorizations when learning science than Indonesian male students. This may be caused by the
impact of preferable science subjects, given that Lee et al. (2008) argue that specific science subjects influ-
ence conceptions of learning science. As Miller, Blessing, and Schwartz (2006) and Rachmatullah et al. (2017)
reported that females have more interest on biology and biology subject is a known need to memorize many
learning contents leading to female more likely conceiving learning science as memorization.
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Regarding paths from conceptions to approaches, based on the model it was found that there were more
positive direct effects to deep motive in male’s model, while in the female’s model there were more concep-
tions that had direct effect on a surface motive. This may lead to a sense that Indonesian male students are
more likely to be interested in learning science than Indonesian female students. Indonesian female students
are more likely to be concerned about their grade in science than male students. Together, this sense and the
finding that female students used more memorization in learning science than previously discussed lead into
one type of learning orientation called “reproducing orientations”. As Entwistle (2013) said that reproducing
orientation is caused by the exaggeration use of memorization and feeling anxiety of obtaining a low score
in learning or task and exam oriented. This research findings are also in line with the meta-analysis research
conducted by Severiens and Dam (1998) that found females significantly have reproducing orientation in
learning than males. Entwistle (2013) also explains that because of females have higher intention in obtaining
higher grades and scores, they see and focus on every detail of contents also more focus on what teachers
asked to do in the class.
Last, regarding science self-efficacy that has a direct positive influence on students’ science learning
outcomes; this research found that different genders have different paths in influencing their science self-
efficacy. Females’ science self-efficacy was directly affected by higher level conceptions of learning that are
applying and understanding and seeing in a new way. These findings suggest that providing science learning
environment that mostly connects the science facts, definitions and laws to the daily life contexts or apply to
another situation that is not found in the textbooks. Or through learning that frequently connects the previ-
ously learned science concepts to the concepts to be learned. Thus, Indonesian female students would feel
that they learn science in a meaningful way. This kind of feeling positively impacts their science self-efficacy.
In contrast, only one way to motivate Indonesian male students to enhance their science self-efficacy, which
is through promoting deep strategy to them. This can be viewed in the sense that Indonesian male students
can have higher science self-efficacy when they already have used or implemented the method of relating
learned science concept and to be learned concepts not just by the teachers, as what females students do.
This is also in line with the concept of meaningful learning orientation proposed by Entwistle and Ramsden
(1983) that also found that males are prone to have this orientation. Yet, further research on qualitative ways
is needed to explore in more detail of this research findings.
Conclusions
The purpose of this research was to examine Indonesian upper-secondary school students’ learning
orientation in science via generating structural equation modeling of conceptions of, approaches to and
self-efficacy in learning science and seeking whether the model is significantly differed based gender or
not. The current research generated an acceptable statistical model of the inter-correlation between COLS,
ALS, and self-efficacy in science learning. Generally speaking, by making sense of the generated model the
current research found that Indonesian upper-secondary school students tended to have multiple concep-
tions of learning science and were prone to have mixed approaches to learn science. Multiple conceptions
and mixed approaches are the characteristics of students with achieving orientations. Most importantly, the
current research found that conceiving learning science as memorizing was considered as the basis for the
higher level of conceptions (constructivist conceptions). Regarding the gender issue, the current research
found that the generated model was significantly differed based on the gender. There were three differences;
the first one is Indonesian female students conceive learning science as more memorization than males. The
second one, Indonesian female students use more surface motive in science learning than males do. Third,
this research found that Indonesian female students’ science self-efficacy was easily impacted by their higher
level of conceptions – applying and understanding.
Even though the current study has successfully generated an acceptable model of inter-correlation
between COLS, ALS, and self-efficacy and found that the model was significantly differed based on gender,
doubts and limitations still exist especially when interpreting the results. Because the current research only
interprets the results by making sense of it without any further exploration of what Indonesian students are
thinking about learning science. Thus, we believe the importance of conducting a qualitative study to dig
more Indonesian students learning orientation in science subjects. By conducting further research through
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qualitative method, it is expected that the un-interpreted results such as the negative path from testing to
surface motive may be revealed and could be explained more.
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Zheng, L., Dong, Y., Huang, R., Chang, C. Y., & Bhagat, K. K. (2018). Investigating the interrelationships among conceptions
of, approaches to, and self-efficacy in learning science. International Journal of Science Education, 40 (2), 139-158.
Arif Rachmatullah M.Ed, Doctoral Student, Division of Science Education, College of

Education, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon-si, Republic of
Korea.
E-mail: arifraach@gmail.com
Sariwulan Diana Dr., Associate Professor, Department of Biology, Indonesia University of
Education, Bandung, Indonesia.
E-mail: sariwulwul@yahoo.co.id
Minsu Ha Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Division of Science Education, College of
(Corresponding author) Education, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon-si, Republic of
Korea.
E-mail: msha@kangwon.ac.kr
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OF MECHANICS
Shao-Na Zhou, Abstract. The ability to predict students’

Hua Xiao ideas or performances is commonly recog-
nized as an indicator to measure teachers’
knowledge of student learning difficul-
ties. This research focuses on identifying
Introduction pre-service science teachers’ knowledge of
student learning difficulties on Mechanics,
In the field of science education, the issue of student misconceptions as well as comparing pre-service science
is a research hotspot and is highly emphasized by researchers. There is an teachers’ predictions to student reasoning
open research question as to whether student misconceptions are considered on the causes of their learning difficulties.
as obstacles or resources (Larkin, 2012). As obstacles, student misconcep-
The populations consist of 479 pre-service
tions indicate a barrier to student learning and would lead to a severe lack
science teachers and 1,020 students taking
of learning interest to students. Baser and Geban (2007) stated that one of
physics as a separate science course. Two
their research objectives was to “facilitate meaningful learning and avoid
misconceptions” (p. 247). The perspective that student misconceptions are versions of the questionnaires are de-
considered as obstacles stands in stark contrast to the point of view that signed, with teacher- and student- oriented
misconceptions could be served as resources for teachers and students. As questions separately. From the results,
resources, misconceptions could be used for the motivation of deeper think- inconsistencies are observed between two
ing and more meaningful learning to students and could be used for guiding groups of populations. Pre-service science
instruction and pedagogy to teachers (Minstrell, 1982; Scott, Asoko, & Leach, teachers either over- or under-predict
2007). To teach explicitly for conceptual change, student conceptions steer student learning difficulties in some special
the teaching tasks and pedagogy of the classroom and are closely tied with domains. The results show that the physics
formative assessment efforts (Wiliam, 1998; Black & Wiliam, 1998; Hewson content knowledge factor attracts great at-
et al., 2012). Students may make justification, comparison, and evaluation to
tention from both students and pre-service
their own ideas (e.g., Duckworth, 2006) and teachers may seek to leverage
science teachers as the cause of student
student ideas for further learning gains (e.g., Rivet & Krajcik, 2010).
learning difficulties. The research results
It is widely recognized by science education researchers and practitio-
ners that student conceptions play a significant role in science learning. In the are important for pre-service science
United States, the National Science Teachers Association regularly publishes teachers to realize the gap between their
designed materials to teachers for helping K-12 science teachers assess their own perspectives and students’ actual
students’ existing conceptions and integrate into their planning lessons learning difficulties.
some fashion (e.g., Keeley, Eberle, & Farrin, 2005). In some projects, student Keywords: mechanics domain, students`
conceptions about scientific phenomena have been situated as central to the knowledge, pre-service science teachers’
teaching and learning of science (Sadler, Coyle, Cook-Smith, & Miller, 2006; predictions, student learning difficulties.
Schneps, 1997). In addition, for identifying student preconceptions of science,
a comprehensive database of assessment items has recently been established
as part of Project 2061 for use by teachers and researchers (American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science [AAAS], 2011). Obviously, the effect of
Shao-Na Zhou, Hua Xiao
student learning is correlated with alternative conceptions, which indicates South China Normal University, China
that instruction must be carefully designed to address existing conceptions
(AAAS, 2011, p. 384).
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Literature Review
Pre-service science teachers’ knowledge of student learning difficulties
In previous research works, the issue that students have difficulty in physics classes has been underlined
(Williams et al2003, Kessels et al2006, Gebbels et al. 2010). There is widespread agreement that science learning
always builds upon students’ existing ideas. Therefore, science teachers are required to possess knowledge of
learners, e.g., student learning difficulties, to facilitate student learning (Shulman, 1986). Knowledge of students,
as introduced by Shulman, is “an understanding of what makes the learning of specific topics easy or difficult: the
conceptions and preconceptions that students of different ages and background bring with them to the learning
of those most frequently taught topics and lessons” (p. 9). In the later studies, several analogue concepts include:
knowledge of students’ understanding (Grossman, 1990; Park & Oliver, 2008), knowledge about students (Even &
Tirosh, 1995), knowledge of student thinking (Erbas, 2004), knowledge of content and students (KCS) (Hill, Ball &
Schilling, 2008), and student learning and conceptions (Schmelzing et al., 2013). In particular, knowledge of student
learning difficulties has been broadly identified as a crucial part of Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) that
deserves in-depth researches (Depaepe, Verschaffel & Kelchtermans, 2013; Manizade & Mason, 2011).
Much effort has been exerted to probe and enhance pre-service science teachers’ understanding of student
learning difficulties in previous researches (Depaepe, Verschaffel & Kelchtermans, 2013; Erbas, 2004; Even & Tirosh,
1995; Grossman, 1990; Hill, Ball & Schilling, 2008; Manizade & Mason, 2011; Park & Oliver, 2008; Schmelzing et al., 2013;
Shulman, 1986). Researches on teachers’ knowledge of students for different science topics have suggested that pre-
service science teachers show little consideration for students and have poor knowledge of student learning difficul-
ties. For example, only a small number of prospective secondary chemistry teachers would concern about student
learning or difficulties when preparing lessons (de Jong, 2000; de Jong & van Driel, 2001). Also, trainee secondary
physics teachers have been reported to underestimate student learning difficulties or be not able to identify students’
misconceptions in physics (Halim & Meerah, 2002). Likewise, novice science teachers are unaware of student prior
knowledge and its role in instruction to effectively implement constructivist teaching practices (Meyer, 2004). In a
study of four experienced secondary science teachers described as “exemplary” by district administrators, Morrison
and Lederman (2003) found that participants felt that it was important to learn what students had already known
prior to instruction, but non-exemplary teachers would be even less likely to diagnose student ideas. Therefore, the
authors concluded that pre-service teacher education had a role to play in preparing teachers to elicit and work with
student preconceptions.
Why does pre-service science teachers’ knowledge of students attract our concerns?
Oon and Subramaniam (2011) investigated the factors influencing the comprehension of physics and high-
lighted significant results. For instance, the results of their research reflected that from the point of view of teach-
ers, students held the prejudice that physics subjects were too difficult and abstract to comprehend. Moreover,
teachers also considered that students who were good at mathematics could understand physics concepts better.
Researchers (Davis, 2006) found that pre-service science teachers always “tend to focus on content and tend to
sometimes view instruction as a transmission process”. Lemberger et al. (1999) noted that transmissionist notions
of teaching overwhelmingly occupied pre-service science teachers’ conceptions about teaching. Also, as pointed
out in some studies, correct or accurate information was forced on to students by pre-service science teachers (de
Jong et al., 1998). Mellado (1997) noted that when student ideas were conflicted with science ideas, pre-service
science teachers might take those ideas as mistakes to be corrected or eliminated.
It has been shown that higher quality instruction could be provided by teachers with strong content-specific
pedagogical knowledge. Instructions are planned in the form of higher-level questions, accurate representations
and explanations, and encouraging students to discuss the content and think about applications (Carlsen, 2010;
Druva & Anderson, 1983; Hashweh, 1987; Hill & Ball, 2009). Thompson, Braaten, and Windschitl (2009) noted that
pre-service secondary science teachers might have upper and lower anchors to learn about the role and value
of student ideas, described as a learning progression. The lower anchor might be represented by an acceptance
that students’ ideas had a role to play in science learning. However, a more sophisticated view of student ideas
was considered as the upper anchor, that pre-service secondary science teachers could successfully incorporate
student ideas into their teaching (Meyer, 2004). In another study, the competency to predict students’ ideas was
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also recognized as an indicator to distinguish science teachers from novice level to expert level.
Levin, Hammer, and Coffey (2009) described that student thinking was supposed to serve as the goal for pre-
service teacher education, and they documented the experiences from interns in their teacher education program.
Science teacher educators attempted to raise pre-service science teachers’ concern about students thinking, as
shown in a number of studies concentrating on pre-service science teachers’ PCK development (Halim, Meerah &
Buang, 2010; Heller et al., 2012; Hanuscin, 2013). Otero et al. found that teachers knowledgeable in both science and
pedagogy were the key factor for successful science education in primary and secondary schools (Otero et al., 2006).
Research Focus
As reported in our previous research, the ability to predict students’ ideas or performances was commonly
recognized as an indicator to measure teachers’ knowledge of students’ difficulties and misconceptions (Zhou at
al., 2016). In the analyses, there were some inconsistencies of pre-service science teachers’ predictions and student
learning difficulties in Newton’s Third Law. More broadly, the purpose of this study is to investigate pre-service
science teachers’ concern about student learning difficulties extending the content coverage from Newton’s Third
Law to Mechanics. Another interest of the present research is to compare pre-service science teachers’ predictions
to student reasoning on the causes of their learning difficulties.
Background
In China, students are required to take physics courses each year from grade 8 through grade 12 by following
a standard physics curriculum, as mentioned in the previous research (Zhang & Ding, 2013). In middle school at
grade 8 and grade 9, students are instructed with basic physics concepts to describe, explain, and predict common
physical phenomena. In high school from grade 10 to grade 12, students are taught to express physics ideas with
mathematics, similar to algebra-based introductory physics in university. The content knowledge of Mechanics
could be divided into two parts and Mechanics 1 is set for the 10th graders to study according to the standard of
the compulsory physics curriculum requirement. It includes eight chapters covering: 1. Description of Motion, 2.
Straight-line Motion with Constant Acceleration, 3. Force, 4. Newton’s Laws, 5. Projectile Motion, 6. Circular Motion,
7. The Law of Universal Gravitation, and 8. Application, and Mechanical Energy and Energy Development. There
are sixty-seven sections in total. The topic headlines and the subheadings of Mechanics 1 are given in Appendix.
Sixty-seven sections are labeled in order from one to sixty-seven in the booklet for the convenience of choices
selected by students and pre-service science teachers. For instance, Inertial Reference Frame is labeled as No. 1
and Energy Development and Utilization is labeled as No. 67.
Research Design
As a means of identifying pre-service science teachers’ knowledge of student difficulties on Mechanics 1, the
assessment questions are designed to investigate four areas of the research: (1) student ideas about the most re-
markable learning difficulties on Mechanics 1; (2) factors having an effect on student comprehension of Mechanics
1 from the point of view of students; (3) comparison between pre-service science teachers’ predictions and students’
actual learning difficulties on Mechanics 1; (4) differences between pre-service science teachers’ predictions and
students’ expressions on the reasons affecting their understanding on Mechanics 1.
To address the research question regarding pre-service science teachers’ understanding of student learning
difficulties on Mechanics 1, the views from pre-service science teachers and students are respectively needed to
be obtained in the assessments. For achieving the target, two versions of the questionnaires are designed, with
teacher- and student- oriented questions separately. Both questionnaires are distributed with a booklet in order
to remind readers of the content knowledge in Mechanics 1. In the booklet, 67 subheadings of Mechanics 1 in the
compulsory physics curriculum are listed.
In the student-oriented questionnaire, one question is designed to ask students to choose the most difficult
subjects among the given subheadings of Mechanics 1 in the booklet (see Appendix). Followed by the question,
there is an open response field for students’ explanations, which could be used for the deeper analysis of the reason
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why students have difficulty in each subject. To encourage students to positively write down their point of view,
little hint is given to them. They can not only think about the subjective aspect with their personal reasons, but
also take into account some objective factors, such as teaching approach, textbook contents setting and so on.
In order to obtain pre-service science teachers’ knowledge of student learning difficulties on Mechanics 1,
pre-service science teachers’ predictions and students’ actual learning difficulties are compared in the present
research. A teacher-oriented questionnaire is designed based on questions in the student-oriented questionnaire.
Firstly, pre-service science teachers are asked to predict the most difficult subjects from the listed sixty-seven
subheadings in Mechanics 1 for students. Secondly, pre-service science teachers are required to offer an explana-
tion of why students would choose the subject as the most difficult one from their own perspective. In contrast to
students’ responses, it could be explored to what extent pre-service science teachers understand student learning
difficulties in Mechanics 1.
Data Collections
To explore the difference between pre-service science teachers’ view on student learning difficulties and stu-
dents’ actual perceptions on their learning difficulties in Mechanics 1, two populations are studied in the present
research. One sample consists of 1,020 high school students at grade 10 from five different provinces in China. All
of them participate in the questionnaire before the final examination of the second semester. They all take physics
as a separate science course and have finished the study of the content knowledge in the compulsory physics cur-
riculum of Mechanics 1. The student population is chosen to explore the learning difficulties in the after-teaching
procedure. The other sample, up to 479 pre-service science teachers, is randomly selected in South China Normal
University to participate in the teacher-oriented questionnaire before the final examination. They have completed
a series of pedagogical courses and are preparing to get the Teacher Certification.
Data Analysis
According to the collecting data from students’ responses to the most difficult subject in the content knowledge
of Mechanics 1, the frequency of each subject chosen by students is calculated. Then, the frequency distribution
of all 67 subjects revealing student learning difficulties is analyzed. Meanwhile, another frequency distribution
describing pre-service science teachers’ prediction trend is also acquired from the data. By the comparison of these
two frequency distributions, the difference could be found between pre-service science teachers’ predictions and
student actual learning difficulties. One of the research aims is to figure out the subjects which represent student
learning difficulties but are misestimated by pre-service science teachers.
For analyzing the reasons for the choices, students’ responses are classified into several categories in terms of
subjective and objective factors. The percentage of each factor reasoned by students is calculated and compared
with that of pre-service science teachers’ predictions of student reasoning for their learning difficulties.
Results of Research
Comparison between Pre-service Science Teachers’ Predictions and Student Actual Learning Difficulties
Figure 1 illustrates the frequency distributions of all 67 subjects revealing both pre-service science teachers’
predictions and students’ actual learning difficulties, and the difference between the two groups. The gray shadow
in Fig.1 (a) shows students’ actual perceptions about their learning difficulties based on the given 67 subjects in
Mechanics 1. For each subject, the ordinate of the figure describes the percentage of students who consider it as the
most difficult subject among all of the 67 subjects. From the gray shadow it could be seen that most of the subjects
attract a small part of students (less than 2%) who choose one of them as the most difficult one in Mechanics 1.
However, there are several sharp peaks on the curves for student learning difficulties, including Conservation of
Mechanical Energy, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, Force Synthesis and Decomposition, Measurement of
Planet Mass, with the percentages of 14.30%, 11.20%, 7.50%, 5.10% separately.
The black line in Fig.1 (a) reveals pre-service science teachers’ predictions on student learning difficulties in
Mechanics 1. The ordinate of the figure also provides the percentage of pre-service science teachers who predict
the subject as the most learning difficulty for each subject. Compared to the students’ curve with several high peaks,
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the distribution curve of pre-service science teachers’ the prediction shows much smoother. Some subjects have a
little higher percentage than others among these 67 subjects. These subjects are Frictional Forces, Static Frictional
Forces, Overweight and Weightlessness, Conservation of Mechanical Energy, Force Synthesis and Decomposition,
Motion Synthesis and Decomposition, Oblique Projectile Motion, Newton’s Third Law, Centrifugal acceleration,
and Measurement of Planet Mass, but none of them reaches 6%.
(a)
(b)
Figure 1. (a) The frequency distributions of all 67 subjects revealing both pre-service science teachers’ predic-
tions and students’actual learning difficulties. (b) The distribution of percentages difference between
pre-service science teachers’ predictions and student actual learning difficulties.
The next step is to compare predictions from pre-service science teachers about student learning difficulty
among 67 subjects in Mechanics 1. There were a number of over-predictions and under-predictions (see Figure 1
(b)). Table 1 illustrates seven subjects with the greatest differences between two groups of populations. Among
these seven subjects, the top two subjects with the difficulty levels underestimated by pre-service science teach-
ers include Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and Conservation of Mechanical Energy. Especially for Newton’s
Law of Universal Gravitation, 11.20% of students consider it as their learning difficulties, ranking the second in 67
subjects. But only 1.90% of pre-service science teachers are aware of the actual circumstance about students’ per-
ceptions on Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. It contributes to be the greatest difference (-9.30%) between the
two groups of populations. Besides, Conservation of Mechanical Energy is the hot subject for most of the students
and pre-service science teachers who consider it as students’ learning difficulty. It reaches 14.30% and rank the
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first in the percentages of students’ choices and reaches 5.30% and rank the third in the percentages of pre-service
science teachers’ predictions. However, the difference reaches -9 percent between the two groups of populations.
Table 1. Seven subjects with the greatest differences between pre-service science teachers’ predictions and
students’ actual learning difficulties. The difficulty levels of the top two subjects in the table are un-
derestimated by pre-service science teachers. While, the difficulty levels of the bottom five subjects
in the table are overestimated by pre-service science teachers.
Percentages of Pre-
Percentages of Students Difference between
Subjects in Mechanics 1 service science teachers
(P-ST) P-PST and P-ST, %
(P-PST)
(52) Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation 1.90 <21>* 11.20 <2> -9.30
(63) Conservation of Mechanical Energy 5.30 <3> 14.30 <1> -9.00
(22) Static Frictional Forces 5.50 <1> 0.70 <36> 4.80
(21) Frictional Forces 5.50 <1> 1.00 <27> 4.50
(31) Overweight and Weightlessness 5.30 <3> 1.40 <19> 3.90
(40) Oblique Projectile Motion 4.60 <6> 0.80 <34> 3.80
(48) Centrifugal acceleration 4.00 <8> 1.00 <27> 3.00
*<n> state the ranking sequence at the level of learning difficulties among 67 subjects from the viewpoints of students and pre-service
science teachers.
On the contrary, the bottom five subjects, whose learning difficulty levels are overestimated by pre-service sci-
ence teachers, include Static Frictional Forces, Frictional Forces, Overweight and Weightlessness, Oblique Projectile
Motion, and Centrifugal acceleration (see Table 1). Although the prediction of pre-service science teachers on each
subject is not over 6%, Static Frictional Forces, Frictional Forces, and Overweight and Weightlessness are the top
three, with the percentages of 5.30%, 5.30%, and 5.50% respectively. However, much less students (0.70%, 1.00%,
1.40% respectively) find that these three subjects obstruct their understanding. In addition, 4.60% and 4.00% of
pre-service science teachers make a prediction that Oblique Projectile Motion and Centrifugal acceleration are two
learning difficulties for learners, but only 0.80% and 1.00% of students support pre-service science teachers’ predic-
tions for these two subjects respectively. These five subjects have a common point that students rank them in the
middle at the level of learning difficulties among 67 subjects, but the percentages of pre-service science teachers’
predictions rank the top. Pre-service science teachers overestimate the learning difficulty levels for these subjects.
Comparison between Pre-service Science Teachers’ Predictions and Student Reasoning on

the Causes of Learning Difficulties
The second aim of this study looks at pre-service science teachers’ predictions to student reasoning on the
causes of learning difficulties involving not only the subjective aspects but also the objective factors. Firstly, stu-
dent responses to explanations on the causes related to their most difficult subject in Mechanics 1 are analyzed.
Then attention is paid to pre-service science teachers’ explanations on the factors that may cause student learning
difficulties. All responses from both students and pre-service science teachers on the causes of the most difficult
subjects are categorized into four aspects, which are the objective factor, the physics content knowledge factor,
problem-solving ability factor and the subjective factor. Four aspects are specified as follows: (1) the objective factor
concerns the pedagogical method or the textbook reading difficulties. (2) the physics content knowledge factor
includes five related reasons for learning difficulties: incomprehension about free-body diagrams, inappropriate
identification of formulas, lack of understanding about the content knowledge, content knowledge confusion,
and incapable comprehensive application of content knowledge. (3) the problem-solving ability factor specifies
the ability of extracting effective information from the context or the ability of mathematical computation. (4) the
subjective factor emphasizes students’ learning attitude or their personal ways of learning.
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Table 2 presents the percentages of each factor resulting in student learning difficulties from both students’
personal views and pre-service science teachers’ predictions. The data are from valid responses of 982 students
and 475 pre-service science teachers. As shown in table 2, the physics content knowledge factor attracts great
attention from both students and pre-service science teachers, 81.0% and 88.6% for two groups separately, with
the difference of 7.6%. The objective factor is not a hot concern for students that only 3.4% of them consider the
pedagogical method or the textbook reading difficulties as the causes of their learning difficulties. The predic-
tion of pre-service science teachers is very close to students’ actual data, with the frequency of 17 (3.5%) for the
objective factor. For the problem-solving ability factor, the proportion of students is 3.2% higher than that of
pre-service science teachers’ prediction. Besides, there are 5.0% of students concentrating on the subjective fac-
tor and considering that learning attitude and their personal ways of learning may hinder their learning effect in
Mechanics 1. However, it is underestimated by most of the pre-service science teachers, and only two of them take
into account students’ learning attitude and personal ways of learning. The difference between two populations
is -4.6%. A Chi-square statistic is used to test whether pre-service science teachers’ prediction is consistent with
students’ actual reasoning on four factors resulting in their learning difficulties (see Table 2). The statistical value (
χ ²=24.85, df=3, p ˂ .001) indicates that there is inconsistency between pre-service science teachers’ prediction
and student reasoning on the causes of learning difficulties in Mechanics 1. A statistically significant difference
is found for the two populations at 0.05 significance level. The analysis provides another strong support to the
previous research (Zhou at al., 2016).
Table 2. Pre-service science teachers’ predictions and students’ actual views on the causes of learning dif-
ficulties in Mechanics 1, and the Chi-square result on the difference between pre-service science
teachers’ predictions and students’ actual reasoning on the causes of their learning difficulties within
four categories.
Difference
Frequency of Pre- Pearson
Specifying the causes of Frequency of between
Categories service science Chi- df p-value
learning difficulties Students (F-ST) F-PST
teachers (F-PST) square
and F-ST
Pedagogical method 14 (2.9%) 15 (1.5%) 1.4%

The objective factor 3.5% 3.4%
Textbook reading difficulties 3 (0.6%) 19 (1.9%) -1.3%
Incomprehension about free-

147 (30.9%) 220 (22.4%) 8.5%
body diagrams
Inappropriate identification of
43 (9.1%) 125 (12.7%) -3.7%
formulas
Physics content Lack of understanding about
93 (19.6%) 88.6% 176 (17.9%) 81.0% 1.7%
knowledge factor the content knowledge
24.85 3 p ˂ .001
Content knowledge confusion 59 (12.4%) 75 (7.6%) 4.8%
Incapable comprehensive ap-

79 (16.6%) 199 (20.3%) -3.6%
plication of content knowledge
Exacting effective information
19 (4.0%) 66 (6.7%) -2.7%
The problem-solv- from the context
7.4% 10.6%
ing ability factor
Mathematical computation 16 (3.4%) 38 (3.9%) -0.5%
The subjective Learning attitude and per-

2 (0.4%) 0.4% 49 (5.0%) 5.0% -4.6%
factor sonal ways of learning
Total frequencies 475 982
Then, the analysis focuses on the five specific aspects of the physics content knowledge factor, which performs
a core role in all four factors resulting in student learning difficulties. The difference between students’ actual rea-
soning and pre-service science teachers’ predictions is reflected in variations of the overall frequency proportions,
which shows a 7.6% difference (88.6% for PST and 81.0% for ST) between two groups. Among students’ reasoning
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on the causes of their learning difficulties in the physics content knowledge factor, three sub-factors which are
significantly concerned include incomprehension about free-body diagrams (22.4%), lack of understanding about
the content knowledge (17.9%), and incapable comprehensive application of content knowledge (20.3%). Another
two sub-factors also possess high percentages, with 12.7% for the factor of inappropriate identification of formulas,
and 7.6% for the other factor of content knowledge confusion. From pre-service science teachers’ predictions, among
the five specific aspects involved in the physics content knowledge factor, the prediction of incomprehension about
free-body diagrams occupies the highest proportion of 30.9%. It suggests that pre-service science teachers have
positive understanding about the significant learning difficulty of free-body diagrams. However, their frequency
proportion (30.9%) of predictions is obviously higher than that of students (22.4%), with the difference of 8.5%,
which contributes the most significant difference in all of the causes of learning difficulties. For the other four as-
pects of the physics content knowledge factor, the differences between two populations seem small, -3.7%, 1.7%,
4.8% and -3.6% respectively for inappropriate identification of formulas, lack of understanding about the content
knowledge, content knowledge confusion and incapable comprehensive application of content knowledge.
Table 3. Chi-square result on the difference between pre-service science teachers’ predictions and students’
actual reasoning on five specific aspects of the physics content knowledge factor.
Frequency of Pre-service Frequency of Pearson Chi- p-

df
science teachers (F-PST) Students (F-ST) square value
Incomprehension about free-body diagrams 147 220
Inappropriate identification of formulas 43 125
Lack of understanding about the content

93 176 20.80 4 p ˂ .001
knowledge
Content knowledge confusion 59 75
Incapable comprehensive application of

79 199
content knowledge
Total frequencies 421 795
Analysis using Chi-square statistic in Table 3 reveals a significant difference between pre-service science
teachers’ predictions and students’ reasoning on five aspects of the physics content knowledge factor that cause
their learning difficulties in Mechanics 1 ( χ ²=20.80, df=4, p ˂ .001).
Discussion
This research is an extension of the previous research to identify the inconsistency of pre-service science
teachers’ predictions and student learning difficulties (Zhou at al., 2016). The study not only extends the content
coverage from Newton’s Third Law to the broader content knowledge of Mechanics 1, but also compares pre-service
science teachers’ predictions to student reasoning on the causes of learning difficulties. To summarize the above
findings, inconsistencies are observed between two groups of populations.
The Difference of the Knowledge Reserve between Two Groups of Populations
From the above analysis, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and Conservation of Mechanical Energy are
two main knowledge topics beyond students’ understanding in Mechanics 1, with the highest percentages of
school students voting for this point of view. For Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation, plenty of students explain
that they are confused with Gravitational Force, Weight and Centripetal Force. Students perform worse when the
problem needs to be figured out combining Gravitational Force with Linear velocity, Angular velocity and Period.
They are usually hampered by the lack of comprehensive application of Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and
other related content knowledge. For Conservation of Mechanical Energy, the explanation of learning difficulties
with the highest frequency is the conservation of mechanical energy constraints. It is difficult for students to figure
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out the forces which could achieve the conservation of mechanical energy. Students are also confused with three
types of conservations: conservation of momentum, conservation of mechanical energy, and conservation of
energy. However, they are underestimated by a great number of pre-service science teachers, who rarely consider
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and Conservation of Mechanical Energy as the difficult topics for students to
learn. In the courses of general physics in Chinese universities, Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation and Conser-
vation of Mechanical Energy are two significant modules of the content knowledge. Pre-service physics teachers
receive deeper instructions in university and possess richer knowledge reserve than high school students on these
two topics (Flores, Kanim, & Kautz, 2004), so that many of them rarely choose these two topics as difficult content
knowledge in our test. On the other side, for some content knowledge, such as Static Frictional Forces, Frictional
Forces, and Overweight and Weightlessness, very few high school students learn with difficulty and vote for them
as difficult subjects. On the contrary, there are the top of three content knowledge points that pre-service science
teachers select as student learning difficulties. Some pre-service science teachers state that they have forgotten
this content knowledge over time, even though the knowledge is easy to learn when they are taught. Therefore,
memory loss of knowledge is one of the reasons that prevent pre-service science teachers from accurately predict-
ing students’ learning difficulties.
Discussion about Viewpoints on Four Causes of Students’ Learning Difficulties

between Two Groups of Populations
In this research, the second aim looks at pre-service science teachers’ predictions on student reasoning about
the causes of learning difficulties involving four factors, which are the objective factor, physics content knowledge
factor, the problem-solving ability factor and the subjective aspect. The data analysis shows that both students
and pre-service science teachers’ predictions concentrate on the second factor about the comprehension and ap-
plication of physics content knowledge. This factor attracts 81.0% and 88.6% for students and pre-service science
teachers separately. The other three factors attract much less attention from both two groups of populations. The
incomprehension and incapable application of physics content knowledge, which easily runs through students’
mind when they think about their learning difficulties, could be derived from other three factors of learning difficul-
ties. For instance, in the objective factor, textbook reading difficulty could directly lead to incomprehension about
the content knowledge. While, if the pedagogical method does not best fit students’ needs, it would also bring
about incomprehension and incapable application of physics content knowledge. But both populations do not pay
much attention to the factor of pedagogical method. It is probably due to the traditional reception teaching style
in China classrooms, where students almost accept all but refute none of what they are taught. For another factor
of the problem-solving ability, both students and pre-service science teachers do not consider that mathematical
computation obstructs their learning of physics, because most students in China are good at calculation and com-
puting. Besides, about 5.0% of students attribute their poor performances of learning physics to their own negative
learning attitude, which has been reported in the previous literature (Zhang & Ding, 2013). While, almost all of the
pre-service science teachers do not differentiate the beliefs about student learning from their own learning and
ignore the factor in the subjective aspect (Brauer & Wilde, 2016). Supposing that the problem of students’ poor
learning attitude is unvalued by pre-service teachers, students need to take a correct attitude towards learning.
Specify Perspectives on the Physics Content Knowledge Factor of Students’ Learning Difficulties
between Two Groups of Populations
The physics content knowledge factor which is the major reason for both students and pre-service science
teachers, includes five related aspects for learning difficulties: incomprehension about free-body diagrams, inap-
propriate identification of formulas, lack of understanding about the content knowledge, content knowledge
confusion, and incapable comprehensive application of content knowledge. Among them, incomprehension about
free-body diagrams occupies the significant position. In China, although teachers spend a lot of time to instruct
the knowledge of free-body diagrams and students receive many related exercises, students (22.4%) feel frustrated
at constructing and analyzing free-body diagrams. Surprisingly, a greater number of pre-service science teachers
(30.9%) predict that students would take free-body diagrams as the significant learning difficulty. Obviously, pre-
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service science teachers excessively emphasize the significant learning difficulty of free-body diagrams. Possibly,
constructing free-body diagrams seemed to pose a stumbling block when those pre-service science teachers
studied force and motion in high school (Hinrichs, 2005). They received many teachings and did a lot of exercises
on the free-body diagrams. Therefore, they believe it must be the major learning difficulty for students. However,
the prediction of pre-service science teachers deviates far from students’ actual data. If pre-service science teach-
ers fail to realize the deviation of their prediction, they will still overemphasize the teaching of free-body diagrams
when they become physics teachers in the upcoming future. Besides, 12.7% students are stuck with inappropri-
ate identification of formulas when solving problems related to Mechanics 1. Pre-service science teachers have a
similar proportion of about 10% to predict the learning difficulty of identification of formulas. What is interesting is
that, in China teachers spend half the class time to teach problem-solving skills using formulas. Even so, a number
of students could not identify an appropriate formula yet when solving problems (Kim & Pak, 2002). Fortunately,
pre-service science teachers have realized the issue before they become to be teachers.
Conclusions
This research is an extension of the previous research to identify the inconsistency of pre-service science
teachers’ predictions and student learning difficulties. The study not only extends the content coverage from New-
ton’s Third Law to the broader content knowledge of Mechanics 1, but also compares pre-service science teachers’
predictions to student reasoning on the causes of learning difficulties. Inconsistencies between two groups of
populations are observed from the results of this study. Some content knowledge as Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation and Conservation of Mechanical Energy are the top two subjects with the difficulty levels underesti-
mated by pre-service science teachers. On the contrary, some subjects, whose learning difficulty levels are greatly
overestimated by pre-service science teachers, include Static Frictional Forces, Frictional Forces, Overweight and
Weightlessness, Oblique Projectile Motion, and Centrifugal acceleration. Then, the analysis of the responses from
both students and pre-service science teachers on the causes of learning difficult subjects are categorized into
four aspects, which are the objective factor, the physics content knowledge factor, problem-solving ability factor
and the subjective factor. It is striking that the second factor about the comprehension and application of physics
content knowledge attracts the most attention. The physics content knowledge factor is specified into five aspects:
incomprehension about free-body diagrams, inappropriate identification of formulas, lack of understanding about
the content knowledge, content knowledge confusion, and incapable comprehensive application of content knowl-
edge. Chi-square statistic in Table 3 reveals a significant difference between pre-service science teachers’ predictions
and students’ reasoning on the five aspects of the physics content knowledge factor ( χ ²=20.80, df=4, p ˂ .001).
The results of the research are important for pre-service science teachers to realize the gap between their own
perspectives and students’ actual learning difficulties and reasoning. With the help of these results, pre-service
science teachers could attach enough importance to the improvement of their Pedagogical Content Knowledge.
Furthermore, it suggests that the instruction and curriculum for pre-service science teachers training program
should be better planned regarding specific targets and treatments on Pedagogical Content Knowledge. In ad-
dition, the result that physics content knowledge factor of learning difficulties on Mechanics 1 attracts much
attention from two groups of populations, implies that students have a difficult feeling for the content. The result
triggers the introspection about the compulsory physics curriculum establishment for secondary schools in China,
where students are required to take physics courses each year from grade 8 through grade 12 under the school
policy requirements. Subsequently, physics should be offered as an elective course for students who grow greatly
interested in it. Last but not least, the research could enrich the literature and motivate a broader range of future
research on pre-service science teachers’ knowledge of student learning difficulties.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the help of the anonymous reviewers. The research is supported in
part by the Chinese National Education Science “Twelfth Five-Year Plan” the Ministry Education Key Topic under
the Grant No. DHA130272, and the Humanities and Social Sciences on Young Fund of the Ministry of Education of
P.R. China under the Grant No. 17YJC880140.
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APPENDIX
There are sixty-seven subjects of Mechanics 1 labeled in order from one to sixty-seven:
1. Description of Motion {(1) Inertial Reference Frame, (2) Particle, (3) Time Interval and Moment, (4)
Displacement and Distance, (5) Use of Ticker Tape Timer, (6) Velocity and Speed, (7) Acceleration, (8)
Uniform s-t Graph, (9) Uniform v-t Graph}.
2. Straight-line Motion with Constant Acceleration {(10) Free-fall Motion, (11) Gravitational acceleration,
(12) the Law of Straight-line Motion with Constant Acceleration, (13) Constant Acceleration s-t Graph,
(14) Constant Acceleration v-t Graph, (15) Driving Safety}.
3. Force {(16) Weight, (17) Elastic Deformation, (18) Elastic Force, (19) Normal Force, (20) Hooke’s Law, (21)
Frictional Forces, (22) Static Frictional Forces, (23) Kinetic Friction, (24) Elements and Graph of Force,
(25) Equivalent Force, (26) Force Synthesis and Decomposition, (27) Concurrent Forces}.
4. Newton’s Laws {(28) Newton’s First Law, (29) Experiment on Factors Affecting Acceleration, (30) Newton’s
Second Law, (31) Overweight and Weightlessness, (32) Newton’s Third Law, (33) System of Mechanical
Units}.
5. Projectile Motion {(34) Projectile Motion, (35) Curvilinear Motion, (36) Motion Synthesis and Decom-
position, (37) Vertically Downward Projectile Motion, (38) Vertically Upward Projectile Motion, (39)
Horizontal Projectile Motion, (40) Oblique Projectile Motion}.
6. Circular Motion {(41) Uniform Circular Motion, (42) Linear velocity, (43) Angular velocity, (44) Period, (45)
Linear Velocity and Angular Velocity, (46) Linear/Angular Velocity and Period, (47) Formula of Centripetal
Force, (48) Centrifugal acceleration, (49) Centrifugal Motion, (50) Application of Centrifugal Motion}.
7. The Law of Universal Gravitation and Application {(51) Kepler’s Three Laws, (52) Newton’s Law of Uni-
versal Gravitation, (53) Measurement of Planet Mass, (54) Geostationary Satellite, (55) The First Cosmic
Velocity}.
8. Mechanical Energy and Energy Development {(56) What is Work, (57) Positive and Negative Work, (58)
Work and Energy, (59) Kinetic Energy, (60) Gravitational Potential Energy, (61) Elastic Potential Energy,
(62) Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem, (63) Conservation of Mechanical Energy, (64) Experiment of Conser-
vation of Mechanical Energy, (65) Law of Conservation of Energy, (66) Power, (67) Energy Development
and Utilization}.
You are required to select the most difficult subject that is considered as your learning difficulty and
choose the number from the booklet. Then offer the reason to your choice. You can think about the
subjective aspect with your personal reasons, or some objective factors, such as teaching approach,
Textbook contents setting and so on.
The most difficult one ( ) (Please choose the number from the booklet)
Please write down your reason:
Received: April 22, 2018 Accepted: July 15, 2018
Shao-Na Zhou Associate Professor, School of Physics and Telecommunication

Engineering, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006,
China.
E-mail: zhou.shaona@m.scnu.edu.cn
Hua Xiao Professor, School of Physics and Telecommunication Engineering, South
(Corresponding author) China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
E-mail: xiaoh@scnu.edu.cn
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ENHANCING STUDENTS’
CORRESPONDING
REASONING OF COGNITIVE
PERFORMANCES BY ANIMATED
CONCEPT MAPPING IN
ELECTROCHEMISTRY
Abstract. The use of animated concept

King-Dow Su
mapping (ACM) has been linked to an
innovative learning skill when conduct-
ing students’ guidance of 4 corresponding
reasoning processes in electrochemistry.
This research aims to establish a new per-
spective with ACM cognitive reasoning to
broaden students’ individual developments Introduction
of problem-solving skills. It is followed by a
quasi-experimental approach of pre-tests, Few academic studies are as concerned with students’ creative per-
post-tests and retention-tests designed for formances in cognitive reasoning processes as animated concept mapping
274 qualified college students in Taiwan. (ACM) has been in the past two decades. With the goal of evaluating a node-
All data collected from students’ learning link between the cognitive reaction and interaction, ACM is an effective
teaching aid and useful learning tool suitable for different levels of science
performances and feedback is further ana-
students. Because it is a challenging diagnostic tool, ACM provides a method
lyzed by means of achievement covariance,
for constructing conceptual knowledge which will reduce cognitive overload-
t-tests and one-way ANOVA. Analytical
ing in students while learning science (Novak, 2010; Te’eni, Carey, & Zhang,
results reveal that ACM facilitates learning 2007). In order to justify more favorable future, ACM can give guidance for
comparisons and out-performances in two students to construct conceptual understanding of scientific knowledge and
groups of students in different post-test to amass problem-solving skills in chemistry learning (Hwang, Wu, & Ke, 2011;
and retention-test scores. Students’ positive Simons & Klein, 2007). Moreover, as labeled models of constructive nodes
feedback and learning disposition also and lines, ACM learning tool can also be designed for students’ immediate
provide the predominant advantage for response of composite concepts and integrated animations. During the
participants’ successful reasoning process- acquired processes of informative reasoning, visual changes will be evoked
es. Pedagogical implications suggest that sequentially in a diagram or chart of complicated or abstract systems (Ad-
ACM learning performances result in more esope & Nesbit, 2013).
In subsequent research, several instructors have proposed features to
significant collaborative reasoning.
incorporate visual animations into concept mapping in a scientific approach
Key words: animated concept map-
for students to enact more creative meta-analyses with conceptual reasoning
ping, corresponding reasoning processes,
(Nesbit & Adesope, 2006). For example, scholars demonstrated that students
electrochemistry learning performances, could amass the aid of multimedia animations combined with multidimen-
problem-solving sional concept maps to promote their cognitive instructions (Chiou, Tien, &
Lee, 2015). Additionally, many multimedia animations consisting of words,
moving pictures, sounds and images, can improve students’ ability to under-
King-Dow Su stand complex concepts, and identify misconceptions. This is attributable to
Hungkuo Delin University of Technology,
Taiwan
an increase in learners’ motivation, satisfaction, instructional efficiency and
Chung Yuan Christian University, Taiwan comprehensive understanding (Holzinger, Kickmeier-Rust, & Albert, 2008; Lin
& Atkinson, 2011). To be a preparatory and effective tool, concept mapping
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ANIMATED CONCEPT MAPPING IN ELECTROCHEMISTRY
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could be used as a learning strategy in collaborative reasoning for assessing conceptual knowledge acquisition,
(Soika & Reiska, 2014) and for enhancing students’ spoken narration (Adesope et al., 2013). Suitable for objective
grouping learning, many scholars advocate that the above visual animations and incorporated narration can be
embedded in technology-based environments as a means to enhance learning in science education (Weinerth,
Koenig, Brunner, & Martin, 2014).
As a consequence, it is evident that the integrated concept mapping and visual animations are helpful to
students in the learning of electrochemistry. The results show that the new technology proposed in this research
significantly enhances students’ learning performances of four corresponding problem-solving reasoning processes
in the following way: (1) model-based reasoning focuses on models with different variables; (2) case-based reason-
ing aims at student classifications or two group of students; (3) rule-based reasoning refers to cognitive patterns
derived from mental models and (4) symbol-based reasoning suggests an application of the recognizable symbol
in students’ manipulating decision (Kraft, Strickland, & Bhattacharyya, 2010; Christian & Talanquer, 2012). These
four corresponding reasoning processes provide a concise means of problem-solving based on how innovative
technology is stored and organized during their development of decision-making.
There are many advantages for researchers to combine concept mapping and visual animations. For instance,
concept mapping provides a potential means to an end of meaningful guidance for those students who struggle
to learn scientific knowledge and are unable to detect their own shortcomings of problem-solving performances
(David, 2003; Kao, Lin, & Sun, 2008). Specifically, the application of concept mapping would guide students in
building their learning efficiency for scientific knowledge (Hwang et al., 2011; Liu, Lin, & Tsai, 2009; Novak, 2010).
Another illustration of innovative technologies is visual animations which combine words, movies, diagrams, and
sounds in chemistry instruction to attract students’ attention, stimulate their motivations to learn, and create an
effective integrated learning environment (Su, 2008). As a high-order example of abstract or complicated reasoning,
electrochemistry learning should not be confined to only one application of concept mapping or visual animations.
Students are often puzzled by their own misconception of individual reasoning in conceptual learning (Akram,
Johari & Ali, 2014; Cheung, 2011).
This research is a new project to incorporate both concept mapping and visual animations in students’ four
corresponding problem-solving reasoning processes. Within students’ individual and collaborative learning, the
concept mapping of ACM sets up their critical thinking in scientific organization, classification, analysis, evaluation
and reasoning processes. In recent research, teaching strategic applications of ACM has received more and more
attention from science instructors to improve students’ problem-solving abilities (Chiou et al., 2015; Huang et al.,
2012). Accordingly, this research proposes four basic reasoning models of ACM learning cognitive skills for assess-
ing students’ problem-solving abilities in the context of electrochemistry learning.
Problem Statement
The purpose of this research is twofold: (1) discovering what potential performance improvements can be
hidden in students’ four corresponding reasoning processes (2) constructing students’ individual developments of
ACM learning associated with their understanding of electrochemistry concepts. Based on these two-fold purpose,
three fundamental problem-solving are directed into three orientations: (i) to compare two group students’ post-
tests and retention-tests; (ii) to confirm significant improvements of students’ ACM problem-solving skills; and (iii)
to elucidate experimental group students’ target feedback. The better students get a complete command of the
four ACM cognitive reasoning process, their higher individual developments of problem-solving skills render an
accumulated and continuous transposition of collaborative learning in electrochemistry.
Research Focus
The implementation of this research follows students’ participation in a strategic application of ACM learning
cognitive skills. It takes on an innovative learning with the four corresponding reasoning for active involvement
of concept mapping and visual animations in electrochemistry. The target concepts are derived from the follow-
ing construction for conceptual reasoning and algorithmic proficiency through problem-solving skills in learning
achievement. As shown in Table 1, students will combine target concepts and their problem-solving skills into
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their reasoning flow charts of electrochemistry to increase their target concepts, conceptual understanding and
algorithmic proficiency.
Table 1. Target concepts and problem-solving skills of concept flow charts.
Target concept Problem-solving skills of concept flow charts
● To determine mass of a substance Particle numbers(N) → Avogadro’s number(NA) → mole number(n) → Molar mass (M) →
mass(m) n= (N/ NA); m = n x M
● Mass percent composition Mass of a constituent element(m) → Molar mass of a compound(M) → Mass fraction(Xi) →
Mass percent(P) Xi =m/M; P= Xi x 100%
● To determine empirical formulas stoichiometric Percent of elements → mass→ mole numbers → the smallest integers ratio → molecular
reaction formulas and empirical formula→ molecular mass → molecular formula
● Stoichiometric equivalence and Balance chemistry equations → find out stoichiometric equivalent → stoichiometric factors
(mole ratios)
● Yields of chemical reactions To identify limiting reactant → stoichiometric proportions of reactants → to calculate quantity of
products → theoretical yields
General Background
The background of model-based reasoning focuses on four different variables, they are: control variables,
independent variables, dependent variables, and covariate variables. These combine to create an integrated ACM
environmental learning framework, and are illustrated in the following points:
(1) Control variables: Its function is to reduce interference and obtain authentic ACM experimental results.
The assessment of control variables in this study is minimized by employing the same instructor, the same
content, the same teaching hours, and the same evaluation tools. (2) Independent variables: Specific statistical
findings are given for variables in students’ personal data (dispositions toward electrochemistry) and group
divisions (i.e., ACM experimental group and static texts (ST) control group) in relation to instructors’ teaching
strategy. (3) Dependent variables: Students are required to write, discuss and hand in their experimental reports
after classes. The instructor administers achievement tests to evaluate two groups of students. Another variable
is to the use the questionnaire to survey learning attitudes and students’ interviews after achievement tests. (4)
Covariate variables: The instructor will carry out students’ achievement pre-tests as the major covariance before
their electrochemistry schedule program in 2015.
Sample Participants
In order to identify case-based reasoning validity and reliability, all participants were selected and postulated
through two stages of qualification tests. At the first stage of qualification tests, 218 participants aged 18-21 years,
were chosen from undergraduate students to take author’ the electrochemistry course. For the first stage candidates,
it was conducted a pilot test to gather validity and reliability of learning achievements and attitude in accordance
with these qualified participants. Up to the second stage of qualification tests, another 56 participants were quali-
fied to postulate for the normal pilot participation of the scores from B to A- with the same pre-knowledge. To avoid
the Hawthorne effect, 56 participants were randomly assigned to two groups evenly for a quasi-experimental ap-
proach, namely the ST control group, and the ACM experimental group. All 274 undergraduate participants were
volunteers with full understanding that the results would not be anonymous and the results may be published.
Ethical approval was obtained for this research (Taber, 2014) in 2015. The core research texts for the ACM group
were augmented with the strategic visual animations to integrate into concept mapping. In contrast, the ST group
was taught with traditional text methods of static teaching without any assistance of strategic applications. All
texts used in this research were examined and validated by three chemistry professors.
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Instruments and Procedures
The procedures for this research were organized in five categories, they are: pre-tests, ACM learning texts, post-
tests, retention-tests and structural and semi-structural questionnaires in the required electrochemistry assessments
for university students. With a new learning perspective to enhance students’ engagement of electrochemistry,
Table 2 outlines the two groups’ research procedures for electrochemistry.
Learning achievement is estimated through students’ participation in pre-tests, post-tests and retention-tests
by identifying their best electrochemistry skills and uncovering conceptual and algorithmic problem-solving abili-
ties. Pilot test items were collected to meet the targeted Bloom’s six levels (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) with the
revised resources from Cheung (2011). The content of the 12 achievement tests was validated by three chemistry
and science education professors.
With respect to pilot test items in the learning achievement tests, the mean difficulty index was .45, the mean
discrimination index was .41, and reliabilities of the Cronbach’s α were .85. The results of the pilot test indicated
perceived difficulty and good discrimination, as well as higher reliability of test item scores (Salta & Tzougraki, 2004).
A Learning attitude questionnaire was designed to improve the experimental group’s ACM learning feed-
back. The students were rated based on a 5-point Likert scale to the test items in the author’s draft design (Su,
2008, 2016) and revisions. Two science philosophers and one educational psychologist served as advisors to check
the questionnaire design for content validity. From the 180 effective copies (82.6%) of pilot tests, we derived two
stages of constructive validity. Table 3 outlines the first stage with significant Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and the
second stage with six Eigenvalue (E), accumulative explanation variation (AEV) and Cronbach’s α value to show
internal consistency inspection. According to Gay’s research theory (Gay, 1992), this questionnaire had higher
reliability than others.
Table 2. Research procedures for the two student groups in the Electrochemistry course.
Group Pre-test Treatment Post-test Retention-test Questionnaire
ACM V E V V V
ST V C V V
Note: The word V indicates testing; E denoted experimental group with ACM texts; C represented control
group with static texts.
Table 3. Two stages of constructive validity for learning attitude questionnaire.
Stage Investigate data
The first stage KMO = .919, χ2 = 3317.481, p < .05

The second stage E > 1.0, AEV = 63.219%, α = .948
The six Eigenvalue could be recognized as the following six subscales: A1, Students’
learning attitude with ACM learning texts; A2, Students’ learning attitude with ACM learning development and
presentation texts; A3, Students’ learning attitude with affection toward teachers; A4, Students’ learning attitude
with ACM learning environment; A5, Students’ learning attitude with active ACM learning engagement; and A6,
Students’ learning attitude with ACM text learning results. In accordance with the above structural questionnaire,
this study offered semi-structural analysis to obtain a framework of authentic opinions and critical thinking in the
students’ deficiency of learning feedback.
ACM learning texts improved students’ accretion of problem-solving abilities, with special instructions on the
self-design learning texts from the ACM student group. The ST group followed traditional chemistry learning texts
without any strategic application assistance. Students’ cumulative theoretical knowledge combined well with their
ACM practical skills and applications in the electrochemistry learning environment. Their ACM learning texts indicated
an increased integration of individual conceptual approach and animation-based visual activities toward the ACM
group. One of the benefits of ACM learning texts in this research includes a concise organization of concept mapping
and three integrated visual animations with cognitive narration. Figure 1 illustrates that students’ screen perception
of a static concept mapping explains the connections between visualized knowledge and organized concepts.
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Figure 1. An indication of animated concept mapping in electrochemistry.
The computer-based animations in Figure 2(1) and Figure 2(2) give the ACM group a manipulating applica-
tion to recognize the symbol-based reasoning. In Figure 2(1), the U tube of salt bridge contains a saturated KCl
solution which provides an electrically conducting medium between 1M ZnSO4 and 1M CuSO4 solutions. The U
tube openings are loosely plugged with cotton balls to prevent the KCl saturated solution from flowing into the
containers while allowing the anions and cations to move across. Electrons flow externally from the Zinc anode to
Cu cathode because of a difference in electric potential. These phenomena are presented in Galvanic cell anima-
tions which have been integrated in Figure 1 of ACM learning texts.
For the next stage in Figure 2(2), the electrolysis of NaCl(l) is a nonspontaneous reaction in which two plati-
num electrodes are immersed in the molten sodium chloride and connected to a battery. The anode occurs into
oxidation whose half reaction is 2Cl- → Cl2(g) + 2e-. The cathode occurs into reduction whose half reaction was
Na+ + e- → Na(l). All phenomena are presented in electrolysis animations of molten sodium chloride which have
been integrated into Figure 1.
There were positive interactions between students-students and instructors-students with ACM implemented
concept mapping and three integrated animations. These were associated with different levels of students’ con-
ceptual understanding. Moreover, all three integrated animations, Galvanic cell, electrolysis and rust formation had
remarkable influence on students’ learning performances. The first being rule-based reasoning for the concept
mapping and the second being symbol-based reasoning for two animations. It was an innovative intervention for
the experimental group to clearly demonstrate their concept-based reasoning in electrochemistry.
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(1) (2)
Figure 2. The two animations integrated into ACM in (1) Galvanic cell, and (2) Electrolysis of NaCl(l).
All participants were given post-tests comprised of 12 test items (time limit 20 minutes) after the experimental
teaching. Learning attitude questionnaire was administered only after ACM group’s post-tests. Then a semi-structural
questionnaire was proposed to elicit students’ feedback to make up for a deficiency in the structural questionnaire.
Finally, the students’ retention achievement tests were held after four weeks.
Data Analysis
All students’ responses to pre-tests, post-tests, retention-tests, and the final questionnaire were collected and
classified with specific group codes. Students were scored in 12 achievement test items, with 8 points for correctly
answering each test item, with 96 points for the total score. SPSS 22.0 Windows software was employed before and
after the classes to gather statistical information. Descriptive statistics was carried out on two groups of students,
and ANOVAs with significance levels set at 0.05 to test the main effects. In cases in which the p-values were less
than or equal to 0.05, Scheffe’s post hoc comparisons were calculated within students’ performances for further
significant main effects of learning achievements and attitudes.
Research Results
The primary content design of students’ four reasoning processes consists of two stages. The first stage
provides a preliminary analysis and covariance, while the second stage describes students’ learning feedback and
ANOVAs. This study analyzes students’ reasoning performances of ACM data models, such as achievement covari-
ance, t-tests of pre-tests, post-test, retention-tests, and students’ learning attitude of one-way ANOVA with three
fundamental research results.
Preliminary and Covariance Analyses
In exploring students’ learning achievements in model-based reasoning, and per Levene’s error variances
in authentic equality, it was confirmed that no significant differences (p > .05) existed between the two groups,
either in their homogeneity of independent variables or in that of the dependent variables. Since analyses of the
two groups’ covariate variables followed the homogeneity examinations of regression slope, the final results of
achievement tests enabled students to accomplish their stratagem understanding of learning effects and respon-
sive differences before and after instructions. Table 4 indicates descriptive statistics of the two groups’ scores in
the ACM and ST courses, learning achievements in pre-tests, post-tests, and retention-tests. Students’ mean pre-
test scores were similar between the ST and the ACM groups, shown in Table 4. The pair-comparisons of Table 5
represent more elaborate covariant analyses
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Table 4. Descriptive statistical analyses of learning achievements for two groups’ mean scores (M) and stand-
ard deviations (SD).
Pre-test Post-test Retention-test
Group N M SD M SD N SD
ST 28 27.7 10.1 41.4 13.1 39.1 11.8

ACM 28 28.6 15.7 56.6 20.0 48.3 11.4
Total 56 28.1 13.1 49.0 18.4 43.7 12.4
of significant learning differences between the ACM and ST groups. Examining the effective statistical figures
of post-tests (F=11.148, p< .01) for the two groups, the post-tests scores of ACM group outperformed those of the
ST group. The students’ significant analysis of retention-tests (F= 9.918, p< .01) also followed the same statistical
results in that the learning achievements of the ACM group were superior to those of the ST group. Similarly, both
the distributed score results of the post-tests and retention-tests confirmed the effectiveness of ACM instruction
from the pair-comparisons of the two groups’ statistical analyses. Also in Table 5, students’ Cohen’s effect sizes f
(0.461 and 0.636) is higher in the two groups’ post-tests and retention-tests (Cohen, 1988).
Furthermore, an independent sample t-test was employed to examine whether there existed any significant
differences in post-tests and retention-tests for the pair-comparisons of the learning achievements of the experi-
mental group. The final t-test of their learning difference (t= 3.362, p= .002) demonstrated that the scores of post-
tests were superior to those of the retention-tests in experimental groups’ conceptually rule-based reasoning or
symbol-based reasoning. Students’ envisioning of ACM text with corresponding conceptual reasoning opened up
the possibilities of strengthening authentic problem-solving performances with their continual active engagement
of highly abstract and complex conceptual problems in electrochemistry.
Table 5. Summary of two groups of students’ individual learning achievement of different ANOVAs in post-
tests and retention tests.
Category Source SS df MS F –ratio p-value f
Post-test Group 3114.636 1 3114.636 11.148 .002** .461

Error 14807.557 53 279.388
Retention Group 1083.560 1 1083.560 9.918 .003** .636
test Error 5790.465 53 109.254
Note: **p< .01.
Students’ learning feedback and ANOVA
This study highlighted the experimental group’s strategic application in six subscales of learning attitude.
The descriptive statistics of mean scores and standard deviation for their learning attitude of the six subscales
were measured: A1 (4.05 and 0.70), A2 (3.92 and 0.67), A3 (4.06 and 0.62), A4 (4.06 and 0.68), A5 (4.07 and 0.70), and
A6 (4.07 and 0.74) with the total mean score 4.04 and the standard deviation 0.69. The Cronbach’s α values in the
six subscales of learning attitude were A1 (0.857), A2 (0.770), A3 (0.799), A4 (0.821), A5 (0.865), and A6 (0.841). The
overall Cronbach’s α value of 0.948 for the total internal consistency in retest total scales which reached a satisfac-
tory degree of dynamic statistic findings (Salta & Tzougraki, 2004) and with a statistical mean score of > 3.50 for
all their learning attitudes (Su, 2008).
On account of ACM group’s blocking variable, a series of ANOVAs were guided for the multi-variants of the
Wilks’ Lambda parameter upon attitude survey samples of the six subscales in Table 6. Accordingly, Table 6 provides
a brief summary of individual learning attitude with the F-ratios, p-values, effect sizes (f), and Scheffé’s post hoc
comparisons. Students’ dependent variables of the six learning attitudes are illustrated in Table 6. It shows that
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positive dispositions in A1, A4 and A6 were superior to neutral dispositions; and positive dispositions in A1, A2, A4, A5
and A6 were superior to negative dispositions. The only dependent variable A3 was estimated without significant
differences in Table 6.
Table 6. Dispositions of individual ANOVAs learning attitudes in electrochemistry.
Attitude Measure
Experimental Blocking Analysis of
Course Variable Variance
A1 A1 A1 A1 A1 A1
Electro- Disposition F-ratio 5.129 4.452 2.701 5.699 4.076 6.893

Chemistry toward p-value .001** .002** .034* .000*** .004** .000***
Chemistry f .44 .41 .32 .47 .39 .51
(1.very positive, Scheffé 2>3, 2>3, 2>4 2>3,
2. positive, 2>4 2>4 2>4
3. neutral, 4. negative,
5.very negative)
Note: p< .05; p< .01; ***p< .001.
* **
Based on Cohen’s (1988) effect size (f), the dominant index for different variables was evaluated in students’
six learning attitudes of dispositions toward chemistry, with the effect sizes ranged between 0.32 and 0.51, as
shown in Table 6. There were several dependent variables A1, A2, A4, and A6 reaching above large effect sizes; and
two dependent variables A3 and A5 indicated between medium and large effect sizes.
Students’ interviews
For the subsequent interviews, three students were randomly selected from a high scoring group and a low
scoring group on their post-tests. The interview consisted of the following three questions:
Question 1 -- Could ACM strategic applications in this study clarify students’ detailed conceptions of
electrochemistry, for example their conception of Galvanic cell, electrolysis and rust formation? The results
indicated that four students’ responses implied a fully developed feedback for both levels of higher score
students (SH) and low score students (SL).
The SH1 response: All concept mappings linked the conceptions and guided me to construct well-designed drawings directly
through Galvanic cell and electrolysis.
The SH2 response: Three colorful and interesting animations inspired my mind to capture how electrons, as an indicative
symbol of myth, could transfer feasibly from microscopes to macroscopy in my understanding of electrochemistry.
The SL1 response: Both attributes of abstract and complicated animations should be presented in a more simple and concise
method to arouse my curiosity and interest in electrochemistry.
The SL3 response: With limited understanding, I could not comprehend the complicated rust formations from cathode to
anode in integrated series of changeable animations.
Question 2 -- Did students discover more problem-solving accomplishments with ACM upgrading con-
ceptions of Galvanic cell and electrolysis toward their decision-making manipulation of electrochemistry
learning processes?
The SH3 response: With a favorable learning willingness, I could activate the concept mapping to renew ACM strategic
problem-solving applications of Galvanic cell and electrolysis cell.
The SL2 response: Without adequate understanding, it was difficult for me to solve electrochemistry questions in relation
to the concrete association of Galvanic cell and electrolysis cell.
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Question 3 -- Could students form more flexible opinions to integrate ACM applications derived from
different perceptions toward their electrochemistry understanding?
The SH1 response: ACM strategic applications would facilitate my advanced conceptual learning with many advantages,
such as attractive animated visions; motivate thinking texts, and creative new learning environment.
The SH2 response: To inspire my learning desire, ACM texts provided authentic conceptual guidance and comprehensive
text program in electrochemistry understanding.
The SL3 response: I couldn’t comprehend these abstract and complicated conceptions of Galvanic and electrolysis cell,
with a short time span for electrochemistry learning.
Several initial cases of students’ semi-structured questionnaire revealed different levels of successful models
in their responses of cognitive reasoning for the interview questions listed above.
Discussion
By following the learning procedure of the ACM text, students could assume that their act of cognitive reason-
ing is centered upon their engagement of the following three supporting research subjects.
Supporting research subject 1, the first priority was to find participants’ learning achievements in post-tests
and retention-tests. The results indicated that the scores of the experimental group were superior to those of the
control group, which were consistent with their conceptual understanding of concept mapping for rule-based
reasoning (Weinerth et al., 2014; Yaman & Ayas, 2015) and innovative animations knowledge for symbol-based
reasoning (Su, 2008, 2017). The score comparison of two groups verified what had been reported by advanced
studies of concept maps and/or animations (Adesope et al., 2013; Özmen, 2013) used in significant cognitive theory.
Supporting research subject 2, the overall data was to determine the separate scores of the experimental
group’s significant differences in post-tests and retention-tests. For students’ complexity of learning achievements,
their scores of post-tests were superior to those of retention-tests. The result showed that their retention score
dropped by 8.28, indicating that a students’ corresponding loss of reasoning memory without continuous long
term learning. Specifically, ACM strategic applications offered several advantages as researchers suggested (Red-
ford, Thiede, Wiley, & Griffin, 2012) when accompanied with abstract and complicated electrochemistry texts for
students’ problem-solving domains in reasoning process (Cheung, 2011; Sevian et al., 2015).
Supporting research subject 3, the sequential responding implementation was to analyze students’ feedback for
structural and semi-structural questionnaires. It was reported that the higher score students with their adroitness
of problem-solving reasoning could built up more hierarchical treatments of positive fulfillment of ACM learning
to reduce their learning cognitive load as suggested by researchers (Huang, Chen, & Ho, 2014; Sevian et al., 2015).
Their dexterity for cognitive developments of positive feedback guided an effective problem-solving for ACM
demonstration learning. This is in accordance with previous research which further demonstrates the benefits of
ACM learning (Treagust, Chittleborough, & Mamiala, 2003; Jaber & BouJaoude, 2012).
To affirm students’ engagements of ACM cognitive activities, all three supporting research subjects served as
designate participants to develop their conceptual reasoning. Due to the limited problem-solving activities, the
traditional assessment learning could not help most students to develop their conceptual understanding (Özmen,
2013; Su, 2017). To propose different instructional conditions, settings and experimental features, Adesope and
Nesbit (2013) explicitly suggested that constructing concept mappings produced increasing knowledge transfer-
ence for students’ ACM achievement of cognitive activities. The findings within this research emphasized students’
vital role with an innovative perspective of four corresponding reasoning processes for setting up problem-solving
animations and concept mappings.
This research demonstrates more extended ACM advantages of problem-solving learning rather than the
traditional static text. A distinction begins to arise for ACM learning and traditional text when the instructor em-
ploys appropriate ways of verifying more animated conceptions to conduct students’ guidance of learning skills
as comprehensive benefits indicated by Yang, Andre, Greenbowe, and Tibell (2003). For instance, students’ par-
ticipatory skills require deeper development of self-explanatory construction with ACM understanding. Concept
mapping has been used as an individual medium in which learners store up their animated features to summarize
or integrate abstract as well as complicated animations worked with an overall effect of mental conceptions. There
is evidence for text designers, such as instructors, textbook authors, and researchers, to avoid students’ anxiety
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and frustration while constructing students’ ACM motivation to engage in the meaningful performance of four
corresponding reasoning processes (Bahr & Dansereau, 2001).
The goal of enhancing students’ four corresponding reasoning processes assigned in two groups of students
is functional cognitive developments for participants’ self-construction and independent interactions. Students’
participation has a collaborative reasoning performance in the four corresponding processes. At first, learners de-
velop the initial model-based reasoning for static or dynamic visualizations to describe and explain the structure
and properties of matter as stated by Erduran and Duschl (2004). Next to be followed by the propagative case-based
reasoning, learners use their past experience to explain how to put their new conceptual reasoning into practice as
the effective mental understanding in chemistry (Kovac, 2002). Unlike the first two corresponding processes, the
third stage of rule-based reasoning facilitates learners to make quick predictions and problem-solving decisions
in conjunction with the efficiency of cognitive learning and satisfactory feedback (Christian & Talanquer, 2012).
Most importantly, the fourth transferable stage of symbol-based reasoning will acquaint learners with their ma-
nipulation of chemical symbols for more recognized decision making in electrochemistry problem-solving (direct
observations from Christian et al., 2012).
An analysis of the benefits of the four corresponding reasoning processes encourages participants to ac-
cumulate different learning perspectives and problem-solving performances. Any one of the four corresponding
reasoning processes can be used sequentially to implement students’ mediated cognition for the four reasoning
processes from model-based reasoning to symbol-based reasoning. When students approach more complex rea-
soning processes with abstract chemical symbols, they may find it achievable to integrate the symbolic transposi-
tion of symbol-based reasoning conceptually for sophisticated electrochemistry knowledge. A close look at the
present approach will explain students’ problem-solving performances with the reassigned context of individual
reasoning participation, which could not otherwise be acquired. The growing and cumulative correlations of the
four reasoning processes make it fitting for students to enact their specific transpositions related to the supported
finding in the conceptual constructions of problem-solving understanding (Jaber et al., 2012).
Conclusions and Implications
This research offered a favorable perspective towards measuring students’ four cognitive reasoning processes
as the successful participation of ACM problem-solving. It is important on the project that it offers a methodologi-
cal departure from traditional scholarship on students’ conceptual reasoning. They can do their decision-making
accordingly by shifting the focus of analysis from other intervening skills of training factors to the model-based,
case-based, rule-based and symbol-based reasoning processes. To a greater extent to fulfill students’ self-directed
and self-developed performances, a shift for an extending measurement of the ACM group’s individual problem-
solving explores the multivalent significances of the four reasoning processes. Furthermore, students’ enthusiasm
could be ignited in an ACM learning environment. These four reasoning processes complicate their problem-solving
accommodation for a series of self-performances of electrochemistry knowledge.
In fact, after students’ improvement in problem-solving performances, constantly shaped and received as they
were, could be enhanced in the four corresponding reason processes recognized as their major cognitive power
and ACM understanding levels. In this manner, this research makes a further contribution to students’ acquisition
of collaborative reasoning, as well as the mediator for all cognitive levels of electrochemistry development. Among
a scarce source of limited research done in the four reasoning processes, there will be more discourses for students’
coordination of individual conceptual growth related to animation-based visual activities. This is much needed in
the future. It would also be the students’ expectation for further research to develop creative and critical thinking
by using essential learning skills in conjunction with technological development.
Acknowledgements
A short but sincere thank must also be given to the patronage of the Ministry of Science and Technology,
MOST in Taiwan (under Grant No. MOST 103-2511-S-237-001 and MOST 105-2511-S-237-002-MY2). Without their
help and financial support, this research could not have been completed in the present form.
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King-Dow Su Chemistry Ph. Dr., Professor, Department of Hospitality Management

and Center for General Education, Hungkuo Delin University of
Technology, No.1, Lane 380, Ching-Yun Road, Tu-Cheng District.,
New Taipei City, Taiwan 23646, R.O.C. & Center for General Education,
Chung Yuan Christian University, 200 Chung Pei Road, Chung Li
District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan 32023, R.O.C.
E-mail: su-87168@mail.hdut.edu.tw
673
A LONGITUDINAL TRAJECTORY
OF SCIENCE LEARNING
MOTIVATION IN KOREAN HIGH
SCHOOL STUDENTS
Abstract. This research examined lon- Sein Shin,

gitudinal trajectories of Korean students’ Arif Rachmatullah ,
motivation to learn science using group-
Minsu Ha,
based trajectory modeling (GBTM). The
changes in five motivational constructs
Jun-Ki Lee
were focused in this research: self-efficacy,

intrinsic motivation, grade motivation,
self-determination, and career motiva-
Introduction
tion. In addition, the relationship between
academic track of students and each trajec- Learners’ learning motivation is one of essential factors to be considered
tory group was examined. Using Science in the teaching and learning process. For recent decades, learning motiva-
Motivation Questionnaire II, data from tion has received considerable attention because learning experiences and
255 male high school students were col- achievements are different qualitatively and quantitatively depending on
lected during five semesters. Longitudinal learner’s motivation (Bryan, Glynn, & Kittleson, 2011; Simpkins, Davis-Kean,
data were analyzed by GBTM.. Chi-square & Eccles, 2006; Valentine, DuBois, & Cooper, 2004). In science education,
analysis was also conducted to examine there has also been an increased emphasis on the importance of learning
the relationships between academic track
motivation because positive motivation to learn science is directly associated
with active engagement in science learning (Bryan et al., 2011). In long-term
and each trajectory. As a result, it was
perspective, it could be a significant predictor for educational achievement
found that students shared the same trajec-
(Murayama, Pekrun, Lichtenfeld, & vom Hofe, 2013). Moreover, motivated
tory patterns in self-efficacy. Otherwise,
student has been emphasized as a necessary condition itself in successful
two distinct trajectory groups (‘high’ and education. Improving students’ motivation to learn science turns to educa-
‘low’) were found in each four constructs. tional goal itself (Palmer, 2007). Thus, many science education researchers
There were significant correlations between have been challenged to understand learning motivation and find ways to
academic track and trajectory groups. improve students’ motivation to learn science.
The findings of this research suggest that Recent international assessments such as Trends in International Math-
Korean science educators need to consider ematics and Science Study (TIMSS) and Program for International Student
individual student’s longitudinal trajectory Assessment (PISA) have revealed that Korean students have considerably low
of motivation to provide better science levels of motivation on science compared with students in other countries.
teaching and learning.
For example, in TIMSS 2015, 8th grade Korean students’ confidence in science
level was ranked the fourth lowest and their interest in science was the low-
Keywords: academic track, group based
est among participated countries. PISA 2015 results also showed that the
trajectory modeling, high school, longitudi-
level of motivation of Korean students to learn science was much lower than
nal study, science learning motivation.
international average while their science achievement level was at the top
of rank. This ‘low internal motivation with high achievement’ phenomenon
Sein Shin
Chungbuk National University, Korea rises as a serious issue in Korea as well as in science education field. Because
Arif Rachmatullah it deviates from the finding in previous science education research studies
North Carolina State University, USA
Minsu Ha that students with high motivation to learn science would have high science
Kangwon National University, Korea achievement and vice versa. This unfortunately brings huge challenge to
Jun-Ki Lee
Chonbuk National University, Korea Korean science educators.
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This phenomenon not only occurs in Korean students, but also in other East Asian countries such as Japan,
China, and Taiwan (Chang, 2014; Ho, 2009). Therefore, various researches have tried to find the characteristics of
East Asian students’ motivation and to understand this odd phenomenon based on socio-cultural context. Previous
research about East Asian students’ motivation have revealed that students tend to have more extrinsic motiva-
tional factors such as grade or future career than other non-East Asian students (Zhu & Leung, 2011). Also, some
studies have suggested that students’ motivation is associated with their parents’ high expectation and educational
cultures in East Asia (Ho, 2009). These previous researches have focused on characteristics of East Asian students’
motivation, especially the interactions between various cultural factors and motivational factors. Also, the majority
of these researches were cross-sectional study using data from international assessment such as PISA or another
international assessment results. However, to date, only a few studies have described how students’ motivation to
learn science has changed across time with a longitudinal aspect.
According to social cognitive theory (SCT) suggested by Bandura (1986), motivation is constructed and de-
veloped with numerous interactions among environmental, personal, and behavioral factors. Therefore, individual
motivation to learn science could be changed differently through their own development rather than remain a
stable state. For example, some students’ motivation decreases steeply in a particular time, while the other students’
one increases depending on the influence of learning environment and other factors. Finding out these diverse
patterns and dynamic state of motivation would provide effective information to seek reasons why Korean students
have very low motivation to learn science and how to efficiently improve it. Therefore, this research attempted to
explore the longitudinal trajectory of Korean students’ motivation to learn science. Studying the change of motiva-
tion would give us better understanding on the characteristics of Korean students’ science learning motivation and
maybe other East Asian students. At the beginning of the next section, a brief review about motivation to learn
science was provided. Next, the background related to high school education in Korean context was reviewed. Then
the method called as group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM), used to examine the existence of heterogeneous
trajectory groups in our longitudinal sample, was introduced.
Literature Review
Science Learning Motivation
Learning motivation refers to the inner state that encompasses various cognitive and emotional factors which
are aroused, directed, and sustained learning behaviors (Schunk et al., 2008; Wigfield, Cambria, & Eccles, 2012).
Glynn, Brickman, Armstrong, & Taasoobshirazi (2011) have defined ‘motivation to learn science’ based on SCT as “an
internal state that arouses, directs, and sustains science-learning behavior” (p.2). Five distinct constructs, namely
self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, grade motivation, self-determination, and career motivation, have been suggested
as part of building motivation to learn science. Those five indicators have been empirically tested and validated
by thorough research studies with science and non-science major students (Glynn et al., 2011) and high school
students (Schumm & Bogner, 2016). Detailed theoretical definitions of each constructs are as follows.
First, self-efficacy refers to one’s belief about their own ability to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal
(Bandura, 1977). It was first suggested as the important factor in the self-regulation process of human behavior by
Bandura (1977) based on SCT. Previous studies in science education have found that self-efficacy is positively as-
sociated with various outcomes, including science achievement (Bryan et al., 2011), individual identity as a scientist
(Robnett, Chemers, & Zurbriggen, 2015).
Second, intrinsic motivation refers to perceived interest or enjoyment in the task itself not arousing from
extrinsic factors such as grade and rewards (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). Not only enjoyment, but also curiosity and value
of science learning are considered as intrinsic motivation because these factors can arouse inherent satisfaction
in human behavior without external rewards (Glynn et al., 2011).
Third, self-determination refers to individual perceived autonomy during the task. It was first suggested by
Ryan and Deci (2000b) in self-determination theory. This theory postulates that humans are organisms with an
active tendency to pursue growth of themselves, and suggested that humans are motivated internally by the
process of determining their autonomous behavior, rather than external rewards or pressure (Deci & Ryan, 1985).
Several studies have found that self-determination is positively related with participation in academic activities
and achievement (Diseth & Samdal, 2014; Evans & Boucher, 2015; León, Núñez & Liew, 2015; Ryan & Deci, 2000b).
Fourth, grade motivation is the motivation to learn to get a better science achievement score. Normally high
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score is regarded as external reward of learning, so grade motivation is often categorized as extrinsic motivation.
It is known as one of important factors to be considered in understanding the academic motivation of East Asian
students, because many people in East Asian culture have high value on achievement in education (Ho, 2009; Zhu
& Leung, 2011; Zhou & Kim, 2006).
Fifth, career motivation refers to one’s belief of relation between their learning behavior and future career.
Students with high career motivation try to learn science for their future career. Glynn et al. (2007) suggested that
non-science major students’ motivation to learn science was associated with their perception about relevance
between future career and science. And previous studies about East Asian students also revealed that perception
on relevance between future career and learning have an important role in their learning as future-oriented mo-
tivation (Shin, Lee, & Ha, 2017; Chang, 2014; Zhu & Leung, 2011).
The effects of each motivational construct on academic achievement or value have been discussed differently
in previous research studies (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). For example, some studies maintained that extrinsic motivation
has a negative effect on learning, while others suggested that extrinsic motivation also has some positive effect
on learning (Ryan & Deci, 2000a). For East Asian students, it is known that both external constructs such as grade
motivation are much more closely related to their intrinsic motivation and achievement when compared to students
in western countries (Zhu & Leung, 2011). Therefore, all these five constructs are useful for understanding Korean
high school students’ motivation to learn science in various aspects (Schumm & Bogner, 2016). For understanding of
longitudinal characteristics of motivation to learn science, present research focused on changes of the five constructs
over time with exploratory perspective rather than focusing on the value or educational effect of each constructs.
Science Learning Motivation in Korean High School Students
To understand the characteristics of Korean students’ motivation, consideration of East Asian socio-culture is
required first. One common cultural belief in East Asia is that students’ achievement in education is closely associ-
ated with one’s successful future life (Ho, 2009). Especially, it is a widespread belief that achievement in college
entrance examination is directly or indirectly linked to students’ future life such as career and social status. One
historical background of this belief is the civil service selection system through competitive examination and formal
education for preparing this examination which had been maintained for more than a thousand years in East Asian
Confucian culture. Because this system was the legitimated social system for upward mobility in social hierarchy, it
had been a widespread belief that studying for examination is closely related with one’s future success (Marginson,
2011). Since the introduction of modern university system in Korea decades ago, entering prestigious university
has been regarded as one step toward upper social and economic status (Marginson, 2011). Thus, many Korean
high school students believe that they need to get good score in Korean college scholastic ability test (CSAT) for
entering a prestigious university. In addition, within the collective familyism culture, parents believe that they have
responsibility for children’s education, and invest much in their children’s education (Jerrim, 2015). Consequently,
Korean parents are also devoted to their children’s education. And they tend to have high expectation for their
children’s achievement.
On the one hand, such cultural background has a positive effect on students in terms of parents’ support for
education and high achievement. On the other hand, students feel pressured about their learning and their own
achievement in examination. Especially, many high school students in Korean and other East Asian countries face
many stress factors and anxiety in terms of college entrance examination (Liu & Lu, 2011; Nishimura & Sakurai,
2017). Given this context, their motivation in science learning could change dramatically rather than maintaining
a steady state during high school period. However, the majority of studies about East Asian students’ motivation
are focused on elementary and middle school students, and there were few studies with high school students.
Therefore, a longitudinal study is needed to uncover the complex characteristics of Korean high school students’
motivation. Present research attempted to explore the changes in motivation over five semesters in high school
(two and a half years) by assessing students’ science motivation at the end of each semester.
Group-based Trajectory Modeling
Considering that one’s motivation is constructed with various environmental and behavior factors around
them, it is possible that science learning motivation trajectory of each student would not show the same patterns.
Therefore, the heterogeneity of science motivation trajectory could exist in students. One of useful methods for
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identifying heterogeneity in longitudinal data is group-based trajectory modeling (GBTM) first introduced by Nagin
(2005). GBTM is a useful method to explore empirically distinct patterns with different development over time from
longitudinal data (Nagin & Odgers, 2010). While traditional longitudinal analyses have assumed homogeneity of
all population or used arbitrary criteria to distinguish sub-groups in whole participants and then compared their
trajectory patterns, GBTM makes it possible to empirically distinguish heterogeneous sub-groups with distinct
trajectory patterns based on objective criterion index such as Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and Bayesian
Information Criterion (BIC). Based on these indexes, the best latent trajectory model which represents similarity
and heterogeneity of individual trajectory could be identified (Nagin & Odgers, 2010). In addition, in GBTM, each
student’s membership in trajectory group is judged by probability of their membership in each identified group.
Therefore, it is possible to examine the relationship between membership in trajectory group and students’ other
independent variables. These results from GBTM will provide meaningful information to develop efficient strate-
gies to improve students’ motivation to learn science.
Thus, considering possibility of heterogeneity in Korean high school students’ science motivation trajectory
and methodological usefulness of GBTM, the current research conducted GBTM analysis first to test whether there
is a single change pattern or distinct change patterns of each science motivational constructs during high school.
Based on the result of GBTM, each trajectory patterns in motivational constructs were explored.
Track System in Korean High School
Based on SCT, environmental factors have various reciprocal interactions with student’s motivational factors.
One such environmental factor to be noted in this research is academic track in high school. Generally, Korean high
school requires students to choose one of two academic tracks, science and humanities, after the second semester
of the first high school year. Depending on students’ track choice, different educational curriculums and classes are
provided for students. This choice is deeply related to their career paths and academic major in college. Previous
research studies have found that track choice is influenced by students’ academic motivation, achievement, and
parents’ suggestion (Shin, Lee, & Ha, 2017; Myeong & Crawley, 1993). Because different educational curriculum
and activities related to career are provided, students’ motivation and self-concept associated with science could
be affected by their track choice. Thus, academic track is a notable variable to understand trajectory of science
motivation. After identifying trajectory groups in science motivational factor using GBTM, this research examined
the relationship between empirically identified trajectory groups and students’ academic track.
While most Korean general high schools have the two-track system, the ‘science core school’ which is a special
type of general high school has an additional track, ‘science core track’. Starting from 2009, 100 Korean general high
schools have been designated as ‘science core school’ for the purpose of fostering general high school students’
scientific literacy and participation in STEM career (Shim et al., 2016). Educational aim of this school is similar to that
of ‘inclusive STEM school’ in US which is established for students interested in science, not just for science-talented
students (Means, Confrey, House, & Bhanot, 2008). In science core track, students could learn more advanced sci-
ence subjects than students in other two tracks. There might be more various patterns in terms of science learning
motivation in science core school with three kinds of academic track than in general high school with only two
tracks. Thus, we selected science-core school students as participants in this research and examined the relation-
ship between three tracks (humanities, science, and science core) and trajectory groups of science motivation.
Research Focus
Given the necessity of longitudinal study of science learning motivation and the possibility of existence of het-
erogeneous trajectory patterns in our longitudinal data, the present research has following three research questions.
Question 1: Do students show the heterogeneous longitudinal trajectory patterns in science learning
motivation?
Question 2: How does science learning motivation of each identified trajectory group change over five
semesters?
Question 3: Are the each identified trajectory group significantly related to the students’ academic tracks
(humanities, science, and science core) in high school?
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General Background
In order to find answers to research questions, this research conducted longitudinal research of high school
students’ motivation to learn science for two and a half years. For valid and reliable measurement of science learn-
ing motivation, item response theory based Rasch model analysis was conducted with collected longitudinal data.
After examination of validity and reliability of measurement, GBTM analysis was performed to answer research
questions 1 and 2. And Chi-square analysis was conducted for research question 3. A more detailed explanation
of the methodology of research is as follows.
Sample of Research
Sample of research were 255 male students in one male science-core school in South Korea. Each partici-
pant was affiliated with one of three different tracks (Humanities, Science, and Science core track). 51% of these
participants were affiliated with Humanities track, 27% were in Science track, and 22% were in the Science Core
track. Due to regulation for collecting student’s data, same number of students for other semesters couldn’t be
obtained as that (255) for the 1st semester. For the 2nd semester, we only obtained data from 136 students. For the
3rd semester, data from 237 students were collected. For the 4th semester, data from 223 students were collected.
For the 5th semester, data from 198 students were collected.
Instrument
25 items of Science Motivation Questionnaire (SMQ) II developed by Glynn et al. (2011) were used for measuring
motivation towards learning science. SMQ II measures the following five scales of motivation: intrinsic motivation,
grade motivation, career motivation, self-efficacy, and self-determination. Each scale has five items with 5-Likert-type.
Data Analysis

To analyze longitudinal data, three steps of analyses were performed. First, multidimensional analysis based
Item Response Theory (IRT)-Rasch model through Conquest V.4.5.0 was performed to examine the dimensionality
of our data, to determine the validity and reliability of the instruments, and to convert ordinal data to interval data
with plausible value. Once plausible value of every student was obtained, it was used to identify trajectory groups
through performing GBTM analysis utilizing R package-software. Finally, cross tabulation test with Chi-square (χ2)
test was performed to examine the relationship between each trajectory groups and academic track. The analysis
steps are summarized in Figure 1. Detail explanations of every step will be described in the following sections.
Figure 1. Steps and objectives of data analyses.
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Confirming Dimensionality, Validity, and Reliability of Data
Prior to statistical analysis and further analysis, the validity of instrument construct was checked within our
obtained data. IRT-Rasch analysis was performed in order to examine the validity of construct. The dimensionality
of the instrument and the fitness of every item as well as Rasch-based reliability were determined. First, dimen-
sionality test was performed to examine whether our data were fitted and supported by the five-dimension model
proposed by Glynn et al. (2011). One-dimension model, two-dimension model, and five-dimension model were
checked. The best one for data based on lower Final Deviance and Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was chosen
(Wu, Adams, Wilson, & Haldane, 2007). Our results indicated that the five-dimension model with Final Deviance
= 48844.56 and AIC = 49074.56 was a better model compared to one-dimension or two-dimension model which
had higher Final Deviance and AIC (Final Deviance = 54698.64 and AIC = 54900.64, Final Deviance = 51867.05 and
AIC = 52073.05, respectively). Therefore, the five-dimension model was used.
Rasch model fit indices of each item are shown in Table 1. Both unweighted and weighted fit MNSQ met
the cutoff values (0.7 to 1.4) of item fit indices for rating scale item. In addition, both PV-reliability and Cronbach’s
alpha of our data were very high, ranging from .89 to .95 for PV-reliability and from .94 to .96 for Cronbach’s alpha.
Another purpose of performing Rasch analysis is to convert ordinal data obtained from student to interval scale.
Once multidimensional Rasch analysis is run, a set of student ability in every SMQ II construct (dimension) will be
obtained. Thus every student will have five plausible-values (one for each dimension). These plausible-values were
used for further analysis. All IRT-Rasch analyses were performed using Conquest V.4.5.0.
Table 1. Construct validity and reliability of SMQ II.
Unweighted Fit Weighted Fit Cronbach’s

Construct Item Estimates PV-Reliability
MNSQ MNSQ alpha
1 0.36 1.10 1.14

2 -0.02 0.79 0.86
Grade
3 0.20 0.92 0.99 .95 .96
motivation
4 -0.10 0.89 0.96
5 -0.43 1.11 1.17
1 -0.30 0.94 0.97
2 -0.47 0.88 0.89
Career
3 -0.39 0.93 0.97 .91 .95
motivation
4 0.52 1.16 1.19
5 0.64 1.36 1.38
1 -0.25 0.92 0.97
2 -0.19 1.04 1.06
Self
3 -0.47 0.96 0.98 .89 .94
determination
4 0.50 1.10 1.14
5 0.42 1.08 1.13
1 0.33 0.94 0.99
2 0.31 0.94 0.98
Self-efficacy 3 -0.18 0.85 0.90 .93 .95
4 -0.28 0.87 0.91
5 -0.19 0.99 1.02
1 -0.05 0.87 0.91
2 -0.23 1.10 1.16
Intrinsic motivation 3 -0.24 1.22 1.25 .92 .94
4 0.16 0.97 1.01
5 0.37 0.96 1.01
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Analyzing Group-based Modelling of Longitudinal Data

The next step is to uncover the number of latent groups lied in our sample based on the relationship between
student motivation and semesters. GBTM was utilized to unveil the relationship. For computing GBTM, crimCV
package, one of R-software packages, was used. CrimCV in R-package provides new methods for predicting the
number of cluster or groups in longitudinal data by utilizing cross validation error methods (CVE). The most com-
mon method for examining the number of latent groups is by utilizing Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) and
Akaike Information Criterion (AIC). BIC and AIC also can be used as base to examine the number of latent groups
for longitudinal data computed with other software. However, they often fail to compute the accurate maximum
likelihood estimation (MLE). This could lead to the identification of incorrect number of groups for longitudinal data
(Nagin, 2005). Thus, Nielsen et al. (2014) have developed a new method called crimCV by utilizing CVE methods.
CVE method is better than AIC and BIC for examining the number of groups lied in longitudinal data because it
can compute MLE more accurately. Nielsen et al. (2014) have recommended that lower CVE indicates better ‘fit’
of the data. Therefore, the model with the lowest CVE value was chosen as the best model in this research. Since
AIC and BIC are the most widely used methods on indicating the fitness of a model, BIC and AIC values were also
considered to decide the best model for our longitudinal data.
As aforementioned, we could not obtain the same number of participants for every period of data collection.
This is a common problem faced by researchers who conduct longitudinal studies (Nagin & Odger, 2010). In order
to tackle this problem, most longitudinal data processing procedures including crimCV have GBTM algorithm
which provides some ways on predicting the missing data through maximum estimation. Every dimension was
separately analyzed to find the best model from two groups until the lowest CVE was founded. Once the best model
was found, the name of every group in the model based on the pattern of student’s motivation for five semesters
was given. CrimCV 0.9.3 in R Studio was used for GBTM analysis.
Examining Relationship between Track and Trajectory Groups
To explore whether groups obtained by GBTM were associated with student tracks, chi-square test based on
cross-tabulation was performed. Phi test results were used as the effect size to indicate how big is the magnitude
of every group associated with student tracks. With chi-square results, every trajectory group was characterized
in more details. Chi-square analysis was performed using IBM SPSS Statistic version 22.
Results of Research
Identification of Latent Trajectory Groups

The first research question was whether there is a single trajectory pattern or distinct trajectory pattern of
each science motivational construct. For this, this research examined the best number of latent group model which
represented distinct patterns of change in each science motivational factor using GBTM. As mentioned above, CVE
was used as the criterion for choosing the best trajectory. The results of GBTM are shown in Table 2. First, one group
trajectory model was considered as the best model for examining changes in self-efficacy. In case of self-efficacy,
CVE index of one group trajectory model was 3.75. However, CVE of a higher number group model could not be
estimated. This means that these models are inappropriate to represent student trajectory. This result also indicates
that all students share similar trajectory pattern in self-efficacy. Whereas, two-group model was considered as the
best model for examining changes in self-determination, intrinsic motivation, grade motivation, and career motiva-
tion (CVE = 3.43; 3.50; 3.97; 3.82, respectively). All CVE of the two-group model were lower than those of the one
group model in these four motivational factors. These results indicate that two groups of students have different
patterns in self-determination, intrinsic motivation, grade motivation, and career motivation.
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Table 2. Model fitness indices for various numbers of latent trajectory group model.
Motivational factor Number of group AIC BIC CVE
1 5312.78 5338.53 3.75
2 5324.78 5381.44 -
Self-efficacy
3 5319.22 5406.78 -
4 5309.66 5428.12 -
1 5381.33 5407.09 3.74
2 5300.14 5356.80 3.43
Self-determination
3 5312.14 5399.70 -
4 5324.14 5442.61 -
1 5280.61 5296.07 3.74
2 5266.42 5302.48 3.50
Intrinsic motivation
3 5259.25 5315.91 -
4 5267.25 5344.51 -
1 5808.88 5834.63 4.56
2 5691.07 5747.73 3.97
Grade motivation
3 5822.98 5895.09 -
4 5715.07 5833.54 -
1 5590.19 5615.95 4.39
2 5504.81 5551.16 3.82
Career motivation
3 5602.97 5690.54 -
4 5529.51 5647.98 -
Exploration of trajectory patterns in each motivational constructs
In order to grasp a pattern of change in motivation, this research graphically represented the mean values of
the motivational level of the each trajectory group identified through GBTM (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Trajectory patterns of students’ science motivation.
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Self-efficacy. As mentioned above, there was no distinct group in self-efficacy trajectory. This indicates
that students’ change in self-efficacy during five semesters could be presented with only one trajectory. Figure
2-a shows the change of self-efficacy during five semesters based on one group trajectory model. The change
pattern of self-efficacy was far from being linear. Students’ self-efficacy was increased at the second semester.
However, after that, the level of self-efficacy was gradually decreased, starting from the third semester to the
fifth semester. As the result, the lowest level of self-efficacy was recorded in the fifth semester.
Intrinsic motivation. Latent trajectory groups of intrinsic motivation are depicted in Figure 2-b. The first
group (62.7%) was comprised of students with a pattern of high intrinsic motivation. The other group was
comprised of 37.3% students with a pattern of low intrinsic motivation. Therefore, two groups were named as
“High IM (intrinsic motivation)” and “Low IM”. The level of intrinsic motivation in High IM group fluctuated dur-
ing five semesters. However, since the level in fifth semester has decreased drastically, overall level of intrinsic
motivation in High IM has decreased. On the other hand, in the Low IM group, the level of intrinsic motivation
in science showed a more stable pattern than High IM group during all five semesters. However, their intrinsic
motivation level was decreased in the third semester. After that, similar level was kept until the fifth semester.
Thus, overall level of intrinsic motivation in the Low IM has also decreased.
Grade motivation. Results of grade motivation of Latent trajectory groups are shown in Figure 2-c. The first
group was comprised of 60.4% students with high grade motivation. The other group was comprised of 39.6%
students with low grade motivation on science grade. Therefore, the two groups were named as “High GM (grade
motivation)” and “Low GM” groups. The trajectory patterns in grade motivation were different between the High
GM and Low GM groups. As shown in Figure 2c, grade motivation level in High GM group was increased at the
second semester. After that, the level of grade motivation was decreased until the fifth semester. Especially, the
level of grade motivation was decreased rapidly at the fifth semester. Whereas, in case of Low GM group, the
level of grade motivation was decreased from the second semester and kept quite similar low level of grade
motivation until the fifth semester.
Self-determination. Trajectory groups of self-determination are shown in Figure 2-d. The majority of stu-
dents (84.7%) were indicated in the higher level of self-determination group. The rest of these students were
included in the second group (15.3%) with low level of self-determination. Therefore, the two groups were
named as “High SD (self-determination)” and “Low SD”. The High SD group showed high and stable level of self-
determination from the first to the fourth semester. However, their self-determination level was declined into
lower than that of Low SD group in the fifth semester. On the other hand, the Low SD group showed different
trajectory compared to the high SD group. Their self-determination was decreased from the second to the third
semester. However, after the third semester, their self-determination level has gradually increased. Especially,
it has significantly increased from the fourth until the fifth semester, making their SD level slightly higher than
the High SD group at the fifth semester.
Career motivation. Results of career motivation of latent trajectory groups are shown in Figure 2-e. In case
of career motivation, students were divided into two latent groups with almost the same ratio. The first group
was comprised of 54.9% students with high science career motivation and the other group was comprised of
45.1% students with low science career motivation. Therefore, the two groups were named as “High CM (career
motivation)” and “Low CM”. In case of High CM, career motivation level fluctuated from the first to the fifth se-
mester. It increased in the second semester and decreased slightly in the third and fourth semesters. However,
the level of career motivation has decreased to a level similar to that of the Low CM group in the fifth semester.
On the other hand, in Low CM, the level of career motivation has decreased in the third semester. After that, it
has increased until the fifth semester. Finally, it reached a level similar to that of the High CM in the fifth semester.
Relationship between Trajectory Groups and Academic Track
To examine the relationship between trajectory groups and academic track, cross tabulation analysis of each
trajectory group and track was conducted with chi-square test. The results of cross tabulation are shown in Table
3. The results for each construct are as follows.
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Table 3. Cross tabulation of each trajectory group with academic track.
Academic track
Trajectory Cramer’s
Constructs Science Total χ2
group Humanities Science V
Core
(%) (%)
(%)
Intrinsic High 56(35.0) 52(32.5) 52(32.5) 160(100)

49.30** .50
motivation Low 74(77.9) 18(18.9) 3(3.2) 95(100)
Grade High 49(31.8) 53(34.4) 52(33.8) 154(100)

61.70** .49
motivation Low 81(80.2) 17(16.8) 3(3.0) 101(100)
Self- High 95(44.0) 66(30.6) 55(25.5) 216(100)

28.46** .33
Determination Low 35(89.7) 4(10.3) 0(0) 39(100)
Career High 39(27.9) 50(35.7) 51(36.4) 140(100)

72.06** .53
motivation Low 91(79.1) 20(17.4) 4(3.5) 115(100)
First, in intrinsic motivation, there were significant relationships between academic track and identified trajec-
tory groups (χ2 = 49.30, **p < .01, phi = .50). As mentioned above, of the 255 total participants in this research, 51%
students were in humanities track, and 27% were in science track, and 22% were in science core track. The High IM
group (n=160) was almost evenly comprised of science track students (32.5%), science-core track students (32.5%),
and some humanities track students (35.0%). Compared with percentage of total group by academic track, the
High IM was comprised of more science and science core track students. While majority of students in the Low IM
(n=95) were humanities track students (77.9%). There were also some science track students (18.9%) and a few
science core track students (3.2%).
Second, there was also significant relationship between latent trajectory groups of grade motivation and
students’ tracks (χ2 = 61.70, **p < .01, phi = .49). The High GM group (n=154) was comprised of science-core track
students (33.8%), science track students (34.4%), and humanities track students (31.8%). And like High IM group,
there were much more science and science core track students in the High GM. On the other hand, the majority
of students of the Low GM group (n=101) were humanities track students (80.2%). There were also some science
track students (16.8%) and a few science core track students (3.0%).
Third, trajectory group of self-determination was significantly associated with track system (χ2 = 28.24, **p <
.01, phi = .33). The High SD group (n=216) consisted of science-core track students (25.5%), science track students
(30.6%), and humanities track students (44.0%). On the other hand, the majority of students of the Low SD group
(n=39) were humanities track students (89.7%). And there were some science track students (10.3%) in Low SD
group, but no students in science core track.
Fourth, significant relationship between latent trajectory group of career motivation and student’s track was
found (χ2 = 72.06, **p < .01, phi = .53). The High CM group (n=140) consisted of science-core track students (36.4%),
science track students (35.7%), and humanities track students (27.9%). The Low CM group (n=115) mainly consisted
of humanities track students (79.1%). There were also some science track students (17.4%) and science core track
students (3.5%) in the Low CM group.
In sum, although there were some differences in trajectory patterns and the number of students, all four of
the Low groups consisted mainly of humanities track students with a few science and science core track students.
On the other hand, all four of High trajectory groups consisted more of science and science core track students
than the Low group, but some humanities track students also were included.
Discussion
The main purpose of the present research was to explore longitudinal trajectory of Korean students’ science
motivation. To be specific, first, this research tested whether there is a single trajectory pattern or distinct trajectory
pattern of each science motivational construct using GBTM. And based on these results, this research attempts to
explore each change pattern of identified trajectory group. In addition, the relationship between identified trajec-
tory group and academic track system in Korean high school was examined.
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GBTM results showed heterogeneous change patterns in high school students’ motivation to learn science
during five semesters. Except self-efficacy, each motivational construct had two different trajectories: high and low.
Because trajectory analysis in each construct was conducted respectively in the present research, students had more
diversity patterns considering the combination of group trajectories in each construct. For example, some students
could be affiliated with the high trajectory group in all four constructs, while other students are affiliated with the high
trajectory group only in grade motivation. In this case, there are 16 possible patterns to represent various students’
science motivation development. Although this research did not focus on the exact combination, our results showed
the potential that diverse change patterns might exist among students.
Results of GBTM with self-efficacy showed that one-group model was the best for explaining students’ change
in self-efficacy. This result means that all students have similar change patterns in self-efficacy. One possible reason
is that reporting self-efficacy is strongly influenced by cultural context, not only by individual context (Klassen, 2004).
Results of international assessment such as PISA and TIMSS have revealed that the level of self-efficacy is very low
in Korean students and students in other East Asian countries sharing cultural context. Previous researches on this
phenomenon have pointed out two reasons based on cultural context. First, East Asian culture with collectivism em-
phasizing modesty and harmony of community is closely related to students’ self-efficacy. It has been a widespread
belief that modesty is an important attitude to keep harmony of community in a collectivism culture (Kurman, 2003).
With this background, it might be unnatural for students to report their confidence in science learning. Therefore,
students tend to underestimate their self-efficacy with implicit cultural belief about modesty (Kagitcibasi, 1997).
Second, as mentioned above, East Asian parents and communities tend to have very high expectation for students’
achievement. Therefore, students might have low self-efficacy even though their achievement level is high. Given
this cultural context, self-efficacy could be operated as ‘cultural-specific variable’ rather than ‘individual-specific vari-
able’ for Korean students. In this regard, trajectory in self-efficacy appeared to have no big individual difference in
changes over time.
Results of one-model trajectory analysis showed that self-efficacy increased slightly in the second semester.
After that, it decreased until the fifth semester. The plausible reason for such decrease might be pressure from col-
lege entrance, especially Korean college scholastic ability test (CSAT). As was stated above, it is a widespread belief
in Korea that grade in CSAT is a critical point to their future life’s success and it is a very competitive examination. Not
only students, but also their parents, family, and teachers treat this exam as a very important thing in student’s life.
This overwhelming environment might have caused students’ self-efficacy fall down to the lowest. In addition, most
of the fifth semester classes are only focused on preparation for CSAT. Thus, various educational activities which could
give students a chance to experience sources of self-efficacy such as successful accomplishment or emotional arousal
suggested by Bandura (1986) did not operate sufficiently in schools in the fifth semester. Therefore, it might be a hard
environment for students to improve their self-efficacy during the fifth semester. Although self-efficacy is culturally
specific, it is evident that Korean students’ self-efficacy also plays an essential role in their learning behavior and out-
comes. Therefore, various educational improvements from teaching strategies to college examination system should
be made in Korea for students so that they could properly estimate their own ability and sustain their self-efficacy.
The findings showed that two-group model was the best for explaining students’ changes in the other four
constructs (self-determination, intrinsic motivation, career motivation and grade motivation) based on GBTM. High
level groups of self-determination, intrinsic motivation, career motivation, and grade motivation mainly consisted
of science and science track students, and they also had some of humanities track students. The common feature
of trajectories in these four high level groups was that each level decreased a lot in the fifth semester as in the self-
efficacy trajectory. Such high decline of the four motivational constructs could also be explained by the psychological
pressure from CSAT.
However, unexpectedly, science grade motivation also decreased in the fifth semester. One possible reason to
explain such decline might be due to ‘learned helplessness’ in individual students. Learned helplessness occurs when
people perceive that they cannot avoid or control a stressful situation (Seligman, 1975). With lots of stress factors,
people tend to be easily exhausted and they will lose their motivation to do things that they strived for. Many Korean
third year (fifth and sixth semester) high school students might feel learning helplessness under pressure due to the
competitive CSAT, thus losing their motivation to learn science, regardless of whether the pressure is internal or external.
No matter how many activities are conducted to improve students’ motivation to learn science, if students’ mo-
tivation eventually plummets at the end of high school, it is hard to say educational goal such as developing scientific
literacy has been achieved. Therefore, various educational efforts are needed to sustain students’ motivation to learn
science. Given the inference that the decline in learning science motivation in the fifth semester is likely to be related
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to psychological pressure from CSAT, further researches are needed to shed light on the relationship between learn-
ing science motivation and various stress factors from competitive CSAT examination so that we can develop more
efficient ways to sustain students’ motivation to learn science during the overall high school period.
For groups with lower levels of the four constructs, majority of them are humanities track students with some
students in science track. These four groups showed lower levels compared to students in the higher level groups in
the first semester. However, there was a significant increase in the fifth semester in lower level groups of self-deter-
mination and career motivation (Low SD and Low CM). Especially, the Low SD group had higher self-determination
level than the high SD group in the fifth semester. The exact reason for this phenomenon could not be determined
in this research; however, one possible reason is change in belief about relevance of their future career with science.
Previous research revealed that non-science major students’ motivation to learn science is positively related with their
belief in the relevance of science to their career (Glynn et al., 2007). Also according to previous research with Korean
high school students, science career motivation is closely associated with their self-determination in learning science
(Shin, Lee, & Ha, 2017). Considering these prior researches, change in thinking about career might be one reason for
this phenomenon. However, further studies are needed to understand the clear reasons for this phenomenon.
What can be addressed in this research is that majority of students in low SD and CM groups are humanities track
students. Although they chose humanities track with low self-determination and career motivation in science after
the second semester, they showed unexpectedly high self-determination and career motivation in the fifth semester.
Because science subject only takes up a small proportion in the curriculum of humanities track, some students in
low SD and CM groups might not have obtained enough science educational support or information in school, even
though they are motivated to learn science or have a career related to science. Our findings from chi-square tests
between trajectory groups and track showed that the two classifications had significant relations in all four constructs.
However, in terms of humanities track, two trajectory groups were mixed. These results showed that some students’
motivation to learn science could change unexpectedly even after their track choice. In other words, some students’
single decision on track could not coincide with their later change of motivation to learn science.
In Korean high schools, once students select their academic track, the class and curriculum are separated de-
pending on track, and it is not easy for students to change their track again. Although some students in humanities
track get more interested in science and have greater motivation to learn science, there is less opportunity for them
to listen to sufficient science class than students in science track. Therefore, it is needed to conduct a flexible science
education curriculum for students’ increase in humanities track whose science motivation increases after their track
decision. And in order to provide learning opportunities tailored to individual learning motivation, teachers and
schools need to conduct constant monitoring on students’ motivation even after students’ academic track decision
was finished. Information on individual students’ changes in the motivation of science learning help teachers to make
better guidance and provide better academic plan for their students.
Limitation and Future Direction
The following limitations of present research should be considered. First, some attrition occurred during the data
collection period. Attrition is an inevitable situation in most longitudinal researches. Although statistical estimation
was conducted in GBTM, we need to consider that missing rate might lead to biased parameter estimation. Delet-
ing data with some missing data such as list-wise deletion method is more likely to lead to biased estimation with
more loss of data. Therefore, we chose to analyze data with some attrition. However, for clear understanding about
the development of science motivation, further studies with sufficient data through continuing data collection until
students’ graduation in high school are needed.
Second, participants were all male students. Therefore, it is hard to generalize the findings of this research to all
high school students’ motivational development. In addition, the effect of gender difference on motivational trajectory
could not be examined in this research. Numerous studies have shown that motivation to learning science is closely
related to gender. If GBTM is conducted with both genders, we will get more insights about motivational develop-
ment in both genders. Thus, further researches with female students would be needed.
Third, this research used exploratory approach to understand the development of students’ motivation in sci-
ence learning. However, to understand individual change in motivation to learn science and specific context of this
trajectory, more in-depth researches such as interview with qualitative perspective are needed.
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Conclusions
The present research attempted to explore trajectory of Korean students’ motivation to learn science. Unlike
traditional longitudinal studies, this research used GBTM to explore the diversity of changes of students’ motivation
to learn science across academic years. Our results showed trajectories with noticeable features based on changes
of students’ motivation to learn science. In addition, it was found that students’ science motivation was not stable,
but changeable through academic years. Moreover, the changes of students’ motivation were different depending
on constructs of science motivation. In sum, students showed diverse changes of motivation, although they were
in the same curriculum, and our GBTM analysis could differentiate groups based on the trajectory of motivation.
To date, Korean science educators have tried to improve students’ motivation to learn science and sug-
gested many instructional strategies and educational policies. However, these efforts have not been conducted
by considering individual students’ motivations; but they have been conducted to all students en bloc. Thus, each
student was not able to receive tailored advice based on their individual characteristics (e.g., trajectory of motiva-
tion). Consequently, students might not be able to improve their motivation in science. Korean science education
researchers and curriculum developers need to consider individual student’s trajectory of motivation to provide
better science curriculum and learning. In this sense, longitudinal data and GBTM analysis can play a significant
role. We collected our data using paper-and-pencil survey for this research. Collecting students’ motivation data
was not difficult. Most schools operate a learning management system for quick and easy online survey. Moreover,
it takes only ten minutes for students to answer the SMQII questionnaire. Then, it should be convenient for school
administers to do longitudinal data collection and data management. With these methods, more schools need to
monitor students’ motivation to learn science longitudinally and use these data to provide counseling for students.
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E-mail: junki@jbnu.ac.kr, junkibrain@gmail.com
687
THE VIEWPOINTS OF PRE-
SERVICE SCIENCE TEACHERS
ON THE ESSENTIAL NATURE
OF SCIENCE CONCEPTS
IN THE SAUDI CONTEXT: A
TRIANGULATION APPROACH
Abstract. This research examines

viewpoints held by pre-service science Fayadh Hamed Alanazi
teachers on key concepts of the Nature of
Science (NoS) in the Saudi context. Much
research in this context emphasises
quantitative methods, so this research
utilises methodological triangulation
to validate the data. Quantitative data
was first obtained from 35 pre-service Introduction
teachers using a method based on the
Myths of Science Questionnaire (MOSQ). Human beings live not only in nature but also interact on a very regular
A qualitative approach was then applied and continuous basis with nature when examining and exploring different
using an open-ended questionnaire and phenomena with the aim of presenting potential explanations and rationales.
semi-structured interviews of ten pre- Importantly, creativity and imagination are recognised as tools in this regard.
service teachers, adopted from the Views Accordingly, science development continues to need to be used by students
of Nature of Science questionnaire form and teachers if the nature of science (NoS) is to be well understood. Science
C (VNOS-C). The pre-service teachers’ plays a pivotal role in both current and future society, as it has done in the
perspectives on the NoS were found to past; thus, the scientific literacy of all citizens requires continual development
be lacking, especially regarding scientific (Sangsa-ard & Thathong, 2014). Understanding the NoS is a fundamental and
knowledge, scientific methods, and the essential aspect of scientific literacy (Lederman, 1992; Bybee, 1997).
work of scientists. Furthermore, several McDonald & Abd-El-Khalick (2017) suggest that one of the key objectives
respondents failed to consider science of a number of national science education reform documents on a worldwide
as a social enterprise. Suggestions scale – including the American Association for the Advancement of Science
and recommendations are provided (AAAS, 1993), the Australian Curriculum and Reporting Authority (ACARA,
to address such misinterpretations 2015), the National Research Council (NRC, 2012), and the Next Generation
and poor scientific understandings, Science Standards (NGSS, 2013) – is to develop the perspectives and views
which are likely due to a lack of science of students regarding the NoS. Thus, NoS teaching and learning is a critical
philosophy content in educational goal of science teachers.
programmes for teachers. Studies associated with the NoS, as noted in the in-depth review by
Key words: epistemology of Lederman (1992), may be broken down into four different, albeit related,
science, Myths of Science Questionnaire lines of inquiry: (1) evaluation of students’ viewpoints regarding the NoS;
(MOSQ), Nature of Science (NoS), (2) development, application, and evaluation of curricula aimed at enhanc-
pre-service science teacher, science ing students’ conception of the NoS; (3) evaluation of teachers’ conception
philosophy, Views of Nature of Science of the NoS, and efforts directed towards enhancing their conception; and
form C (VNOS-C). (4) establishment of the link between teachers’ conceptions and classroom
practices, and students’ conceptions of the NoS.
As mentioned above, significant reform efforts have been made in sci-
ence education, including a great deal of discussion and debate on the value
Fayadh Hamed Alanazi of improving students’ conceptions of the NoS. Science teachers are pivotal in
Jouf University, Saudi Arabia directing the development of NoS understanding among students. This was
highlighted by Lederman (1992), who suggests that teachers should ensure
that their students possess an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of
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SCIENCE CONCEPTS IN THE SAUDI CONTEXT: A TRIANGULATION APPROACH
ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 688-710)
what has been taught. Thus, having teachers demonstrate a sound and detailed understanding of the NoS should
be one of the most critical and basic criteria towards achieving a successful degree of NoS understanding among
students (Abd-El-Khalick & Lederman, 2000; Buaraphan & Sung-ong, 2009).
Science teachers have long considered it to be a pressing concern to ensure that conceptions of NoS are de-
veloped among pre-service teachers (Abd-El-Khalick, Bell & Lederman, 1998; Palmquist & Finley, 1997). However,
studies assessing teachers’ perspectives on science have shown that teachers commonly hold inadequate and
somewhat misinformed views (Lederman, 1992). According to some works, most teachers consider that scientists
adopt pre-established, detailed scientific methods; as a result, teachers view scientific frameworks as being imita-
tions of nature rather than human constructions. Moreover, teachers commonly disregard the role of creativity
and imagination in science. It has also been suggested that teachers tend to adopt a somewhat simplistic and
hierarchical link between hypotheses, laws, and theories (Buaraphan & Sung-ong, 2009).
The Nature of Science
The nature, or philosophical background, of science (i.e., the NoS) refers to the epistemology of science – that
is, to the beliefs and values that are seen as aligning with scientific knowledge or its development, or to science as
a way of knowing (Lederman, 1992). Abd-El-Khalick and Lederman (2000) state that the key objective of science
is to gain knowledge and understanding of the physical world; thus, pure science is not linked to applications,
outcomes, or other uses (with the exception of new knowledge creation). Like scientific knowledge, perspectives
on the NoS are dynamic and tentative, and have changed significantly with science development. An important
argument posits that with the development and growth of science, and our expanding everyday understanding
of our surroundings, perspectives on the NoS will similarly evolve (Suchting, 1995).
Thus, conceptions of the NoS have changed considerably over time, in line with developments in various sci-
ence disciplines and redirections in the focus of the history, sociology, and philosophy of science. In fact, the 20th
century can be broken down into two distinct phases, each with a different focus on the philosophy and sociol-
ogy of science. The shift from one phase to the next was triggered by the publication of Kuhn’s (1962) structure
of scientific revolutions. Kuhn’s method presented a key change in direction: from an emphasis on justification to
an emphasis on discovery. A great deal of criticism was directed towards Kuhn’s paradigmatic approach (Popper,
1970), which was seen to incorporate irrationalities and relativism into scientific knowledge development. Nev-
ertheless, a key quality of the post-Kuhnian philosophy of science is its fixation with integrating various accounts
of science with actual scientific practice. Thus, accounts of science are validated through descriptive explanations
and interpretations of laboratory studies and through the sociological examination of scientific discourses (Abd-
El-Khalick & Lederman, 2000).
Scharmann & Smith (2001) have suggested that it is probably impossible to attain consensus on the NoS. In
fact, it has been stated by National Science Teacher Association (NSTA) (1998) that historians, philosophers, sci-
ence educators, and scientists have thus far been unable to achieve consensus regarding a definition of the NoS.
However, a general, sound overview of the NoS has been presented by McComas, Almazroa, & Clough (1998). These
scholars present the NoS as a fertile, hybrid arena that can bring together various elements of science and social
studies. The work of McComas et al. encompasses the history, philosophy, and sociology of science, and includes
research from cognitive science (including psychology). It provides an in-depth and detailed account of what sci-
ence may be seen to encompass, as well as how it functions, how scientists operate, and how scientific efforts are
both directed and received by society.
Despite the overall lack of consensus, a general level of understanding has been established regarding the
NoS. This level is considered to be both accessible and relevant to K–12 (kindergarten to Grade 12) students (Abd-
El-Khalick & Lederman, 2000). Furthermore, some degree of agreement has been established regarding the various
aspects of the NoS that must be included in science curricula (McComas & Olson, 1998). For example, McComas &
Olson (1998) examined eight international science standard documents and identified an overall level of agree-
ment on the NoS.
Aspects of the NoS include the following:
(1) Scientific knowledge is speculative and therefore unconfirmed; there is no single scientific method,
although there are scientific approaches with similar traits.
(2) Imaginative play and creativity are fundamental in scientific knowledge development.
(3) Theories and laws adopt different scientific roles.
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(4) There is a link between inferences and observations.

(5) Although science is focused on ensuring an objective stance, there is an aspect of subjectivity in sci-
entific knowledge development.
(6) Scientific ideas are influenced by their historical and social environment.
Four aspects of the NoS build the conceptual framework, and are discussed below: scientific knowledge,
scientific method, scientists’ work, and scientific enterprise.
Scientific Knowledge
Hypotheses, theories, and laws are essential parts of the NoS. Science teachers have been found to believe
that when a hypothesis is proven correct, it becomes a theory. After a theory has been proven true many times – by
sufficient evidence or by different people – and has been accepted for a long time, they consider that it becomes a
law (Buaraphan & Sung-ong, 2009). However, on examination, this perception is inaccurate. As an example, gravity is
recognised as pivotal in the Theory of Relativity presented by Einstein. Despite the fact that the basic law of gravity
is solid in the theory, nonetheless, the theory itself widens the concept of gravity in such a way so as to encompass
a number of different complicated situations, comprising both time and space. It is important to highlight that,
although both laws and theories are accompanied with clear empirical data and evidence, nonetheless, both are
recognised as presenting different forms of knowledge, with neither one recognised as being the same as the
other (Sarkar & Gomes, 2010). Thus, most science teachers perceive scientific theories as a lesser type of knowledge
than laws. However, scientific theories are much more complex and dynamic than laws, as they present inferred
explanations and often include laws (Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Lederman, 1998).
In addition, science is generally viewed as being tentative, as it changes or develops as new information
becomes available. However, science teachers have been found to believe that scientific knowledge is a collec-
tion of facts or body of knowledge that explains the world; therefore, they regard scientific knowledge as being
static (Buaraphan & Sung-ong, 2009). In fact, even though scientific knowledge is durable, it is never absolute or
certain (Sarkar & Gomes, 2010). When new evidence is found that contradicts existing knowledge – whether due to
technological advancement or the reinterpretation of old evidence in light of a new theory – existing knowledge
can be altered (Lederman, 2004). Most pre-service science teachers strongly believed that scientific knowledge is
cumulative (Haidar, 1999). Thus, they believed that the advancement of science depends heavily on the accumula-
tion of facts rather than on changes in theory (Haidar, 1999). However, Kuhn (1962) explained scientific progress as
being based on competing models or paradigms, instead of on the accumulation of objective knowledge. Kuhn
believed that revolutions are disputes that cannot be determined by rational, logical argument.
One popular uninformed conception of the NoS that is held by most science teachers is the idea that scientific
models are copies of reality (Haidar, 1999). In their view, scientific models are copies of reality rather than human
inventions, either because scientists say that they are true or because a considerable amount of scientific obser-
vation and/or research has shown them to be true (Haidar, 1999; Buaraphan & Sung-ong, 2009). In fact, although
scientific models are based on empirical scientific knowledge, they involve scientists’ imagination and creativity
(Lederman, 2004). For example, the concepts of atoms, black holes, force fields, and species are not faithful copies
of reality; rather, they are functional theoretical models that creatively integrate the NoS with its inferential nature
(Sarkar & Gomes, 2010).
Scientific Method
The scientific method is commonly perceived by science teachers as being a universal step-wise method (Dogan
& Abd-El-Khalick, 2008; Haidar, 1999). Hence, they consider that only a single ‘scientific method’ can guarantee the
development of scientific knowledge. This perception can be attributed to the science curriculum, which presents
the scientific method as a sequence of steps that all students must follow exactly in order to obtain certain results
(Haidar, 1999). In the study of Buaraphan& Sung-ong (2009), it is emphasised that teachers in their pre-service
stage view experimentation as a fundamental approach to verifying scientific knowledge. Furthermore, pre-service
teachers are also highlighted as communicating a very universal perception, as noted in the work of Thye & Kwen
(2003), with teachers maintaining scientific knowledge as being equal to experimental knowledge.
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Scientists’ Work
Many pre-service science teachers strongly believed the NoS is subjective and objective, theory-laden and
theory-free, or value-laden and value-free (Buaraphan & Sung-ong, 2009). However, Popper (2002) argues that
scientists move from theory to observation, and not the other way round. Popper also argues that observation
is constantly enacted in the light of some interest or point of view. Thus, it is absurd to suppose that scientists
begin with pure observation and no prior theory, and that science could develop from such observation into
theory. Golshani (2005) argues that interpretation, metaphysical presupposition, and background may intrude
when scientists introduce their concepts. The difference between various scientists manifests itself in the selec-
tion of theories and in the way of interpreting empirical data. This is particularly true when dealing with general
explanatory theories (Golshani, 2000). Theistic scientists, philosophers, and researchers look at the facts and try to
assimilate them in terms of their theistic contexts, whereas atheists interpret the facts in terms of their atheistic
context (Golshani 2000, 2005). However, pre-service teachers were found to argue that if scientists used creativity
and imagination, then they would not obtain accurate results (Buaraphan & Sung-ong, 2009). Pre-service teach-
ers did not seem to think that creativity and imagination were required as steps in scientific investigation (Thye &
Kwen, 2003). However, as noted earlier, imagination and creativity are important in areas such as scientific models
(Abd-El-Khalick, Waters, & Lee, 2008 ; Lederman, 2004).
Scientific Enterprise
Social and cultural influences on scientific enterprise are explicitly recognised by science teachers (Akerson,
Morrison, & McDuffie, 2006). According to Haider (2002), 48% of Arabic university professors agreed that their reli-
gious views influenced their scientific research. As mentioned earlier, scientists in the West also construct theories
that are appropriate for their secular subculture. It is held by science teachers that the link and interaction demon-
strated between technology and science, such as through knowledge, presents a foundational knowledge base for
technology, with technology affecting and influencing the development and progression made in science (Rubba
& Harkness, 1993). However, misconceptions often occur among teachers in this regard, such as the concept that
‘technology is applied science’ (Tairab, 2001).
The Importance of Teachers’ Understanding of the NoS
Learning and understanding the NoS is recognised as fundamental and as one of the key aspects of science
structure (Schwab, 1978). There are two main aspects in any knowledge discipline. The first is substantive knowl-
edge, which is demonstrated through the set of concepts, laws, and theories within the accepted paradigm (Kuhn,
1962). The second is syntactic knowledge, which is demonstrated by evidence determined by discipline profes-
sionals, and by the way in which knowledge is provided and accepted. Within the natural sciences, Alshamrani
(2012) emphasises that substantive knowledge refers to scientific knowledge, while syntactic knowledge refers to
the NoS. It is noteworthy that concepts, theories, and scientific laws are insufficient alone; it is necessary to learn
how such scientific knowledge can be obtained and accepted.
Thus, the wide-ranging and detailed history of the NoS is a critical aspect of science curricula (Lederman,
1992). This is mainly because having an understanding of the NoS assists individuals in garnering scientific
knowledge on their own; they can then apply this knowledge to gain a well-rounded view of their own envi-
ronment. Similarly, an understanding of NoS may be pivotal in allowing people to identify and acknowledge
the value of science and its restrictions and effects (Lederman, 1992). In essence, understanding the NoS helps
students to become capable and well-informed consumers of scientific knowledge; this subsequently enables
them to make informed and well-considered choices. There is a common association between citizenship goals
and decision-making, and the science curriculum, which centres on the links between science, technology, and
society (STS). Highlighting and identifying the value of the investigative nature of science, and acknowledging
science as an approach to developing knowledge, implies that the curriculum affects the overall understanding
of students in relation to NoS.
Driver, Leach, Millar, & Scott (1996) presented five reasons supporting NoS inclusion as a foundation of science
teaching. An understanding of the NoS improves the following aspects in science teachers and students: (1) science
content learning; (2) understanding of science; (3) interest in science; (4) understanding of science-related issues,
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and corresponding decision-making; and (5) deliverance of science instruction. Clearly, in order for teaching and
learning to be a success, it is pivotal to ensure that teachers have a good understanding of the NoS.
Similarly, Clough & Olson (2012) consider that effective NoS instruction can help students to understand
science content. These scholars argue that the NoS assists learners in understanding and moving forward from
the statements and hypotheses that underlie scientific knowledge. They also consider that an understanding of
the NoS piques learners’ interest in science; as a result, enthusiasm and passion surround the learning of science
content. Clough and Olson note that when teachers explain how science concepts are constructed and recon-
structed as part of the NoS, students can better understand that some of their own ideas are not dissimilar from
those of ‘real’ scientists.
Focusing on students’ understanding of the NoS will clearly bring forward a number of epistemological con-
siderations, which can be seen as a way of assisting learners to develop science competence (Matthews, 1998).
Such justifications are valuable, since few science learners go on to become scientists. Therefore, it is more pressing
than ever to focus on the NoS and its understanding, and on how teachers can influence students in this regard
(Lederman, 1992). Furthermore, such a focus could influence the way in which science is taught in the classroom.
Teachers’ Views on the NoS
The views of pre-service science teachers on the NoS were examined by Palmquist & Finley (1997). These
scholars focused on explaining the changes that occur in such views throughout the course of teacher education.
A total of 15 student teachers from a post-baccalaureate secondary science teaching programme were involved
in the research. The subjects’ views on subjects pertaining to science were collected through an investigator-
devised survey and a follow-up interview. The survey was carried out before the science education stages of the
programme, and the interview was conducted at the end. Prior to the teaching programme, the subjects were
seen to have adopted a modern-day – that is, post-positivist – view on scientific knowledge, scientific theory, and
the role adopted by scientists. They also had a more conventional – that is, positivist or empiricist – perception of
the scientific method. At first, relatively equal numbers of student teachers fell into the categories of ‘modern-day’,
‘mixed’, and ‘conventional’ perspectives on science. However, after the programme, subjects with ‘modern-day’ views
were double those with ‘mixed’ views, which had declined by more than half. The subjects with a ‘modern-day’
view of science had increased from two to seven. Interestingly, the programme in question contained no direct
instruction on the NoS. Thus, this research indicates that it is feasible to positively impact the views of pre-service
teachers on the NoS by focusing on teaching contemporary teaching methods, including cooperative learning
and conceptual change.
Abd-El-Khalick et al. (1998) investigated the factors that affected how the views of 14 pre-service second-
ary science teachers on the NoS were translated into their instructional planning and classroom practice. To
evaluate their overall views of the NoS, the subjects were asked to complete open-ended questionnaires. The
subjects then underwent individual interviews to validate their responses to the questionnaire and to establish
any limitations or factors that might affect the translation of their NoS-related views into their science teach-
ing. The subjects were seen to have a sound understanding of various NoS elements, such as the difference
between inference and observation, the tentative and empirical nature of science, and the roles of creativity
and subjectivity in science. A number of the subjects stated that they had already been involved in NoS teach-
ing through science-related activities. Nonetheless, the researchers recognised that clear NoS-based references
were lacking in the planning and instruction of the pre-service teachers. The subjects communicated a number
of factors that could be responsible for this lack of emphasis. These factors included: considering the NoS to
be less valuable than other instructional outcomes, having a lack of comfort with their own perceptions of the
NoS, having inadequate experience and resources in NoS teaching, having a lack of planning time, and having
a fixation on classroom management.
Murcia & Schibeci (1999) investigated a sample of 73 teachers regarding their views on science using a ques-
tionnaire on health and alcohol consumption. One of the questions asked whether the respondent considered
that alcohol consumption of more than once a week could lead to serious illness or death; however, the true aim
of the question was to establish whether the respondent believed that a scientific fact could be identified from a
single study. Importantly, only one third (29%) of the subjects suggested the need for further work to ensure the
proof of the statement. The teachers were subsequently asked a variety of true or false questions on other elements
of science. One question specifically targeted the way in which scientific theory could be defined. The answers
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showed that fewer than half (45%) of the subjects were able to indicate that theories have explanatory power that
extends beyond the direct observations that were applied to the generation of the theory.
Craven, Hand, & Prain (2002) sought to investigate the views of elementary pre-service teachers on the NoS.
A 15 week course was designed to teach student teachers about the NoS and help them progress from a limited
perception of the NoS to a more in-depth, comprehensive view. A number of key changes were established regard-
ing the language that was used by the pre-service teachers when explaining the NoS. Craven et al. concluded that
when learners are able to communicate their explicit and tacit knowledge of science, a richer and more compre-
hensive view of science may result.
Buaraphan & Sung-ong (2009) applied the Myths of Science Questionnaire (MOSQ) to a sample of 113 Thai
pre-service science teachers with the aim of investigating their perspectives on the NoS. The research focused on
perspectives regarding the scientific method and scientific knowledge, the work of scientists, and scientific enter-
prise. The findings showed that nine of the 14 items on the MOSQ demonstrated consistent response patterns, of
which five were informed and four were uninformed. The most significant percentage of uninformed responses
related to science as cumulative knowledge; that of informed responses related to the tentativeness of science;
and that of uncertain responses related to the overall capacity of science to provide answers to all questions.
Örnek (2014) examined the perceptions of science teachers in Turkey towards the NoS. The methodology
applied in the work comprised the Views of Nature of Science questionnaire form C (VNOS-C; Abd-El-Khalick et
al., 1998), the Myths of Science survey (McComas, 1998), interviews to monitor and identify changes in the NoS
perspectives held by the pre-service science teachers upon the conclusion of the course, and video recordings of
the NoS workshop that was held during the second semester. The purpose was to adopt an explicit-reflective in-
structional practice that improved pre-service science teachers’ overall views on the NoS. Importantly, it was found
that teachers’ views on NoS-relevant aspects were significantly improved and expanded. It is notable, however,
that less significant gains were seen regarding the cultural, social, and subjective aspects of the NoS. These findings
provide valuable information on the effects of an explicit-reflective NoS instruction.
The Saudi Context
One of the most valuable roles of scientific education relates to the rehabilitation for life among students;
the method used to achieve this rehabilitation is a focus on scientific culture. In line with this view, Bybee (1997)
posits that one of the most apparent and commonplace patterns in present and future restructuring of scientific
education is and will be the aim to establish scientific culture. In fact, scientific culture has become one of the
most pivotal trends in science curricula in most countries across the globe, including the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia (KSA) (Alshamrani, 2012). Many science curricula from around the world are known to focus on helping
learners gain sound insight into the NoS, with science being recognised as a means of obtaining knowledge.
The KSA has devised its science curricula to attain a number of different objectives. These include: the acquisi-
tion of scientific knowledge, scientific thinking, problem-solving, and scientific trends; and the attainment of
an overall understanding of the NoS, the environment, society, and technology (Alshamrani, 2012; Abu-Athera,
2013). Therefore, it is fundamental to ensure that Saudi universities provide an education that prepares science
teachers to achieve these goals.
Alshahrani (1996, cited by Abu-Athera, 2013) examined the overall degree of understanding that pre-
service science teachers have of the NoS, within the specific context of the College of Education and College
of Teachers at Abha in the south of Saudi Arabia. That work also examined the results that were obtained after
teaching an NoS-based understanding. In addition, Alshahrani considered the statistical differences between
pre-service science teachers’ understanding of the NoS and their views on the NoS. Lastly, that work examined
the link between degree of NoS understanding and attitude towards the NoS, as held by student teachers. The
research data were gathered using the Science Attitude Questionnaire, along with a test that aimed to gain
insight into the NoS, as devised by Al-Shargi (1993, cited by Abu-Athera, 2013). Examination of the data led to
a number of conclusions, as follows:
Understanding of the NoS was low;
•• Science was viewed positively;
•• Teaching a science method course with a focus on NoS understanding had a positive effect;
•• A greater understanding of the NoS was achieved by pre-service science teachers at the College of
Education than by those at the College of Teachers;
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•• No changes in the attitudes towards science regarding NoS understanding were identified; and
•• No significant statistical differences were identified between attitude mean scores towards science
across both the college populations.
Abu-Athera (2013) also investigated the views of pre-service science teachers on the NoS. This research utilised
a sample of 40 pre-service science teachers at the University of Taif in the west of Saudi Arabia – notably, those
who were at the diploma level in the Faculty of Education. The MOSQ was used in this research, and the findings
were as follows. (1) Pre-service science teachers hold the view that scientific theories are not as consistent as laws.
Scientific knowledge is recognised as continuously evolving, and 34% of the respondents consider that scientific
models represent reality. (2) The respondents believe that the scientific method and science itself cannot provide
answers to all questions, and that knowledge is not derived from the completion of experiments. (3) The respond-
ents recognise that scientists utilise imagination and creativity when developing scientific knowledge. (4) The
respondents consider that scientific enterprise is not an individual entity, and that the development of scientific
knowledge affects culture, politics, and society.
Furthermore, the findings suggested that there is a lack of understanding and clarity pertaining to the NoS
among pre-service science teachers, as follows: (1) Some of the respondents considered that mere assumptions
are built upon in order to develop theories. They viewed scientific laws as stemming from scientific theories and
their development. They also considered that gathering evidence positions scientific knowledge in a more con-
sistent and reliable light. (2) More than one third (38%) of the respondents held the view that reality is reflected
in scientific models. (3) Respondents considered that the scientific approach is a strict, step-by-step approach. (4)
Respondents lacked understanding of scientific enterprise, and maintained the view that technology and science
are one and the same.
As described above, a number of different works have been carried out to establish the views, conceptions,
and understanding that pre-service teachers have of the NoS. This research shows that student teachers from dif-
ferent age groups, and even teachers, hold misleading views of the NoS, irrespective of the tools applied when
conducting investigations (Lederman, 1992). Furthermore, various studies have emphasised that misconceptions
on the NoS are frequent and commonplace among teachers (Lederman, 2007).
Nonetheless, research is lacking on teachers in the Saudi context; therefore, the present work seeks to fill this
gap. As noted by Saif (2016), very few works have been carried out in the KSA regarding different NoS elements.
Problem of Research
One of the main aims incorporated within the new science curriculum in Saudi Arabia is the development of
the viewpoints of learners in relation to NoS (Alshamrani, 2012).Irrespectively, however, significant professional
development afforded to teaching staff remains lacking when it comes to the demands inherent in the new cur-
riculum. Accordingly, this research presents the view that, if teachers are lacking in sound and reasonable levels
of insight in regards NoS, they will be unable to communicate NoS views to students—even in cases when NoS
views are well considered and discussed in the curriculum and textbooks. Conventional scientific professional sci-
ence education, in the modern-day world, requires supplementation with more novel, modern general science.
As a result, pre-service science teachers’ views in regards NoS are acknowledged as being fundamental due to
their capacity to affect the implementation of science curricula, with adoption carried out in such a way that is
complimentary with their own view of NoS.
The following questions guided the research:
1. What are the views of pre-service science teachers on scientific knowledge, specifically within the
context of the KSA?
2. What are the views of pre-service science teachers on the scientific method, specifically within the
context of the KSA?
3. What are the views of pre-service science teachers on scientists’ work, specifically within the context
of the KSA?
4. What are the views of pre-service science teachers on scientific enterprise, specifically within the
context of the KSA?
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Research Focus

To achieve effective science teaching, teachers’ understanding of the NoS should be sound and comprehen-
sive (McComas et al., 1998). Therefore, the present research explores the conceptions held by pre-service science
teachers on the NoS, within the Saudi context. The findings of this research contribute to the somewhat limited
literature in this domain. In addition, this research may support science educators in their plans to promote and
encourage a thorough understanding of NoS among both pre-service teachers and acting teachers.
General Background of Research
The research data were obtained through methodological triangulation, utilising a sample of 35 pre-service
science teachers at a university in a northern province of Saudi Arabia. The research focused on establishing the
viewpoints held by pre-service science teachers on key concepts of the NoS. Quantitative data were collected
in 2018 using a method based on the MOSQ. A qualitative approach was then applied through an open-ended
questionnaire and semi-structured interview adopted from the VNOS-C.
Research Participants
Convenience sampling was applied to choose the sample of pre-service science teachers for this research. The
administrative staff at the College of Education at Jouf University in northern Saudi Arabia was asked to devise a
list of emails for all pre-service science teachers (N = 35). An e-mail was then distributed to all pre-service science
teachers, detailing the research purpose. Two weeks later, responses to the e-mail were reviewed. A total of ten
teachers showed interest in being involved in the research and agreed to participate in a semi-structured interview.
First, the MOSQ was administered by the researchers at Jouf University to the sample of 35 pre-service science
teachers. After 10 days, the VNOS-C was administered to the same sample of 35 teachers. Two weeks later, semi-
structured interviews were carried out with the ten pre-service science teachers who had agreed to be involved.
Although the number of participants participating in the semi-structured interview was very small, the possibility
of volunteer bias was mitigated somewhat by the researchers making no attempts to generalise the results to ap-
ply to a wider population. As per the tenets of qualitative research, insights from these data were confined to this
sample (McGregor, 2018; Polit & Beck 2008).
Triangulation was implemented in this research by using multiple methods to cross-reference the collected
data, thus enriching its overall validity. Although every method has its own strengths and weaknesses, applying
different strategies to investigate the same phenomenon permits a more in-depth, comprehensive, and reliable
insight to be achieved. Hence, interviews were performed with pre-service science teachers to ensure that real
and accurate points of view were ascertained and thus to establish the overall validity of the answers received. In
future, educational researchers focusing on the Saudi context are encouraged to employ more rigorous sampling
protocols with larger sample frames. It is worth mentioning that the city from which the pre-service teachers in
this research were selected – that is, Al-Jouf City – is a typical city with very similar cultural features to other cities
in Saudi Arabia. Therefore, choosing a different region would be unlikely to affect the representativeness of the
sample. Furthermore, all pre-service science teachers in Saudi Arabia study in colleges of education that offer
the same courses and training. In this case, Al-Jouf City was chosen because the researcher lives and works there,
making it easier to conduct the research.
Data Collection
After reviewing and analysing the answers to the research questions, a methodological triangulation ap-
proach was adopted, including a quantitative (Likert-type) approach and a qualitative approach (using open-ended
questionnaires and interviews). Only two works have been carried out to examine the understanding of science
teachers towards the NoS within the same context (Abu-Athera, 2013), and both adopted a quantitative approach.
Therefore, this research provides a first attempt at garnering both qualitative and quantitative data within this
context. The gathered evidence was cross-checked, as suggested by Scott & Morrison (2007), by collecting differ-
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ent forms of data relating to the same phenomenon. This method is recognised as a means of providing validation
and ensuring data accuracy.
Phase One
In the first phase, the MOSQ (McComas, 1998) was applied. This tool comprises 14 items centred on dealing
with four different elements of the NoS, namely: scientific knowledge, which spans items 1–4, 8, and 9; the scientific
method, which spans items 5–7; scientists’ work, which spans items 10–11; and scientific enterprise, which spans
items 12–14. The respondent chooses one of three possible answers – agree, uncertain, or disagree – depending
on his or her opinion.
The MOSQ was validated by five science educators, with a focus on relevance and clarity. Revisions were then
made in line with the professionals’ feedback, resulting in a revised version of the MOSQ. A pilot study was then
carried out across a sample of 17 pre-service science teachers in order to establish whether or not the question-
naire could be well understood and easily completed.
Phase Two
In the second phase, pre-service science teachers completed the open-ended questionnaire (N = 35) and un-
derwent semi-structured interviews (N = 10). The questionnaire was based on the VNOS-C, as presented in another
work. Lederman, Abd-El-Khalick, Bell, & Schwartz (2002) developed an open-ended questionnaire emphasising
various NoS-related aspects, including the empirical nature of the NoS, the link between observational inference
and theoretical entities in science, the differences between theories and laws, scientific knowledge and its creative
and imaginative nature, scientific knowledge’s nature of theory, the cultural and social core of scientific knowledge,
the scientific method and related myths, and the tentative nature of scientific knowledge. This questionnaire was
validated through testing across a number of college students (graduate and undergraduate) and teachers (both
in-service and pre-service from elementary and secondary schools) (Lederman et al., 2002). NoS profiles were
created of the participants after individual examinations of the interview transcripts and questionnaires. By draw-
ing a comparison between participants’ NoS profiles and their responses to the VNOS-C, it was seen that the NoS
conceptions held by the participants as revealed through the VNOS-C aligned with the conceptions communicated
by the participants throughout the course of the interviews.
The devised questions were translated from English into Arabic, and were then distributed to two assistant
professors who had completed Ph.D. degrees in Biology at Glasgow University and in Science Education at York
University, respectively. Content validity of the questions that were posed in the semi-structured interviews and
open-ended questionnaires was established by more than ten different faculty members from Jouf University, in
addition to various science education course supervisors and teachers. Furthermore, opinions on the overall suit-
ability of the questions’ content were sought.
As mentioned earlier, in order to establish the overall validity of the data obtained from the pre-service sci-
ence teachers, various data-collection approaches (triangulation) were applied. A total of ten pre-service teachers
were interviewed two weeks after their first responses. A comparison was subsequently drawn between the ten
participants’ responses to the MOSQ and VNOS-C, and their responses during the interviews; significant agreement
was established. The validity of the participants’ responses was further established through an analysis that was
completed with another researcher: the current researcher examined ten responses from a student, while another
researcher in the field of scientific education examined the same responses from the same student. Compatibility
between the results of the current researcher and those of the other specialist was 98.5%.
Ethical Issues
To ensure ethical considerations, the pre-service science teachers involved in this research were provided with
informed consent forms to read and sign prior to the research being completed. The teachers were informed of
the purpose of the research and what tasks would be carried out. They were also advised that they could withdraw
from the research at any stage without providing a reason. During the research, the pre-service science teachers’
privacy was respected and taken seriously. During data collection, participant confidentiality was ensured by hav-
ing the participants not disclose their names or personal information, and by only collecting relevant details that
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would help in answering the research questions. In addition, the pre-service science teachers were assured that
the data-collection process would have no influence on their professional position.
All of the collected data were securely protected on a password-protected computer during the research. The
participants had the right to be fully briefed about the aims, process, and findings of the research. The resulting
feedback, implications for research, and findings gave the participants a sense of the data that had been collected.
It also allowed them to confirm that the data portrayed their true views and ideas, and accurately reflected their
knowledge and opinions.
Results of Research
The findings ascertained from this research are presented in two parts: the first part describes the data
that was gathered through the completion of the MOSQ, and the second part describes the data that was gathered
through the completion of the VNOS-C and the semi-structured interviews.
The Views of Pre-Service Science Teachers on the NoS: Data from the MOSQ
Each response’s frequency, i.e. agrees, uncertain and disagree, were first counted and then accordingly cal-
culated in order to establish their individual percentages. Interpretations were made, in this regard, detailed as
informed, uncertain and uninformed in regards NoS.
The MOSQ: Scientific Knowledge
As shown in Table 1, more than one third (37.8%) of the sample held a traditional view pertaining to hypotheses
and theories, as shown by their agreement with Statement 1 – ‘Hypotheses are devised only in mind of becoming
theories.’ Almost one in four (24.3%) of the sample were uncertain regarding Statement 1. These findings could be
because pre-service teachers in Saudi consider that when hypotheses are validated, they become theories. Thus, a
scientific theory is viewed as the final state in the scientific method-devising process. Moreover, most pre-service
science teachers (81.1%) communicated a conventional view by agreeing with Statement 2 – ‘Scientific laws are
more secure than theories’. This view may relate to the opinion that theories are not as credible as laws, which
stems from the fact that theories can be changed, whereas laws are fixed and cannot be changed. This association
becomes apparent when considering that more than two thirds (67.6%) of the subjects agreed with Statement
3 – ‘Laws can become laws provided there is development in scientific theories’. In other words, 67.6% agree that
laws are derived following the development of scientific theory. This data further suggests that pre-service science
teachers in the Saudi context consider laws to be mature theories.
Table 1. Scientific knowledge.
Percentages (%)
Items
Agree Uncertain Disagree
1. Hypotheses are devised only in mind of becoming theories. 37.8 24.3 37.8
2. Scientific laws are more secure than theories. 81.1 8.1 10.8
3. Laws can become laws provided there is development in scientific theories. 67.6 16.2 16.2
4. No changes can be made to scientific knowledge. 2.7 24.3 73.0
8. Evidence-gathering ensures stability in scientific knowledge. 64.9 18.9 16.2
9. Scientific models (such as the atomic model) may be considered a replication of reality. 62.2 0 37.8
A large portion of the sample of teachers (73%) held a traditional view on scientific knowledge being unable
to undergo change (Statement 4). This finding indicates that pre-service teachers in the KSA consider science to be
static, consistent, and therefore unchanging (Craven et al., 2002). Thus, they perceive science as a body of knowledge
or facts that provides explanations of the world and our environment, and that does not require further expansion.
Similarly, a large proportion of the sample (64.9%) agreed with the conventional view that gathering evidence en-
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sures a greater degree of stability in scientific knowledge (Statement 8). The members of this group thus appear to
have a minor degree of awareness regarding the tentative nature of science and the role of cumulative knowledge.
In addition, almost two thirds (62.2%) of the subjects agreed with Statement 9 – ‘Scientific models (such as
the atomic model) may be considered a replication of reality’. This finding may be rationalised by considering
that the student teachers view scientific models as being created and established in line with the completion of
experiments, devising of theories, and finalisation of laws. Thus, these individuals may view the atomic model as
an example of empirical concepts.
The MOSQ: Scientific Method
As shown in Table 2, almost half (48.6%) of the sample showed agreed with Statement 5 – ‘A strict step-by-
step approach is applied in scientific methods’. This finding indicates that these individuals consider the scientific
method to be consistent and fixed. Statement 6 – ‘All questions can be answered through science and scientific
methods’ – yielded a relatively wide distribution of answers between Agree, Uncertain, and Disagree; almost half
(40.5%) of the sample disagreed with Statement 6, more than a third (37.8%) were uncertain, and one fifth (21.6%)
agreed. Nonetheless, the majority (83.8%) of the respondents held a conventional perspective in relation to
Statement 7 – ‘Experiments are the only means of arriving at scientific knowledge’. Accordingly, the data suggests
that the sample under study is aligned with the view that experiments are the key means of arriving at scientific
knowledge (McComas, 1998).
Table 2. Scientific method.
Percentages (%)
Items
5. A strict step-by-step approach is applied in scientific methods. 48.6 24.3 27.0

6. All questions can be answered through science and scientific methods. 21.6 37.8 40.5
7. Experiments are the only means of arriving at scientific knowledge. 5.4 10.8 83.8
The MOSQ: Scientists’ Work
A large proportion of the sample (83.3%) disagreed with Statement 10 – ‘When developing scientific knowl-
edge, imagination and creativity are not used by scientists’. Thus, this research sample holds a modern view on the
role of creativity and imagination in the work of scientists, and considers scientific creativity to be important. In
contrast, however, almost two thirds (64.9%) agreed with Statement 11 – ‘Scientists demonstrate open-mindedness
without bias’.
Table 3. Scientists’ work.
Percentages (%)
Items
10. When developing scientific knowledge, imagination and creativity are not used by
10.8 2.7 86.5
scientists.
11. Scientists demonstrate open-mindedness without bias. 64.9 21.6 13.5
The MOSQ: Scientific Enterprise
As shown in Table 4, the pre-service teachers making up the research sample adopt both conventional and
modern views on the link between science and technology; the same proportion of the sample (40.5%) both agreed
and disagreed with this statement. Nonetheless, a large portion (83.8%) disagreed with Statement 13 – ‘Scientific
enterprise is recognised as only one enterprise’. In addition, the vast majority (91.9%) of the subjects disagreed with
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Statement 14 – ‘Culture, politics, and society do not influence scientific knowledge development’. This suggests
that the pre-service teachers are aware of the influences of cultural and social factors on scientific practice, and
that many of the teachers dismiss the idea of science as a social enterprise or as a type of human cultural activity.
Table 4. Scientific enterprise.
Percentages (%)
Items
12. Science and technology may be viewed as one and the same. 40.5 18.9 40.5
13. Scientific enterprise is recognised as only one enterprise. 2.7 13.5 83.8
14. Culture, politics, and society do not influence scientific knowledge development. 8.1 0 91.9
The Views of Pre-Service Science Teachers on the NoS: Data from the VNOS-C and
Semi- Structured Interviews
This section presents the thoughts of the subjects on the NoS, as obtained from the VNOS-C questionnaire
and the subsequent semi-structured interviews. Individual attention is given to the perspectives of the subjects
on each of the individual elements of the NoS, as follows: science as tentative and subjective, science as empiri-
cally based, science as influenced by human inference, creativity and imagination in science, science as culturally
and socially embedded, the identifiable differences between scientific laws and theories, the differentiation to be
made between inference and observation, and myths relating to scientific approaches.
The VNOS-C and Semi-Structured Interviews: Science is Tentative and Subjective
Questions 4 and 8 were posed in order to establish the ideas of the pre-service teachers on the percentage
of practical knowledge and its overall inconsistency. Question 4 aimed to establish the subjects’ perception of a
scientific theory and its propensity towards changeability. The findings showed that six of the subjects chose not
to answer this question, while three considered theories to be unable to change:
Theories cannot change. (S 6)
Most of the respondents (N = 26) considered that a scientific theory develops without changing; that is, that
a scientific theory encompasses an invariable aspect, although the aspect remains open to change, development,
and increase:
There is the chance that theory could change, although the main idea at the core would be the same. (S 20)
Of the subjects who responded to the question on the ability of scientific theory to change and develop, 15
gave examples to support their answers, and six emphasised atomic theory development.
A theory can change. Take the atomic theory, for example. People think Dalton was at the beginning of this, with
Faraday, Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr providing further developments until the modern atomic theory was finally
presented. (S 21)
Three subjects provided examples regarding the scientific approach to a cell; another three provided exam-
ples regarding space, and noted how theories on the universe have changed from the centrality of the earth to
that of the sun:
Scientists used to hold the view that the sun rotates around the earth, and it was more common than not to hold that
view in those days. But it was then discovered that the sun rotates around its own axis. In other words, it doesn’t move.
And against what was initially thought, planets, such as our own earth, were then found to rotate around the sun. (S23)
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Two other subjects provided examples on the theory of evolution and how scientists’ own perspectives changed
regarding the origin of life. Another subject provided an example that went from classical physics and its changes,
with an emphasis on the Newton’s three laws, through to modern-day physics, with an emphasis on the theory of
relativity. It was notable that one subject maintained that a scientific theory is able to change and develop, and
another nine subjects suggested that scientific theories evolve as a result of newly discovered evidence, research,
and other approaches to scientific study. During one of the interviews, a subject provided the following statement:
A scientific theory can be seen to grow and develop owing to the fact that scientists in the field implement innovative
approaches and consider alternate theories when performing scientific research. (S 22)
Three of the subjects stated that other factors – namely, religious and social factors – encouraged scientific
theory development, and two subjects stated that new tools and resources are a key consideration that facilitate
the development of scientific theories:
A theory can be continuously changing owing to theories benefitting from religion fundamentals. Take evolution theory,
for example, which has presented the view that man has changed from being a monkey. But then consider evidence
detailed in the Islamic faith, which suggests that humans are honoured and were actually made from clay. (S 29)
The resources and instruments used when performing experiments – and then the accuracy of such tools – have
resulted in new scientific theories being developed. (S 15)
The purpose of Question 8 was to investigate the subjects’ views on whether or not science may be considered
to be theory-laden. Seven of the subjects chose not to respond, and 12 gave answers in an effort to consider the
two theories presented in the question. Three of these respondents supported the two theories, while another
two supported just one. Another subject supported neither theory:
It is my opinion that both theories are credible, whether a massive meteor or volcanic eruptions. Both can be viewed
as rational and as affording credibility to extinction and its causes. (S 1)
Volcanic eruption might be seen to be plausible when considering that the surface of the earth was experiencing
evaporation. If we were to consider Asia and Africa, both were connected and attached. But then, if we think about
the Arabian Peninsula, this was part of Africa. Some scientists have considered volcanoes to be responsible, and I
hold the same view, especially when you think about the Red Sea as having a number of different volcanoes, and the
western coast of Saudi Arabia also having volcanic soil. (S 9)
There’s no evidence to support either a volcanic eruption or a meteor strike. Nothing. (S 20).
The other six respondents considered the type of data utilised:
We would need to examine the remaining aspects and relics of meteors, volcanoes, etc. (S 33)
It is noteworthy that all of the subjects quoted above considered the theories that were presented in Ques-
tion 8 without examining the more important aspects of the question, such as why there are differences between
theories. Three of the respondents considered that scientists arrived at their own conclusions by gathering evi-
dence and examining data. On the other hand, one of the respondents maintained that different tools may be
responsible for different theories:
There are different theories of extinction because of the different tools applied when analysing extinction causes, and
the different periods of time when research was carried out and the duration of such studies. It is sensible to consider
that changes in natural circumstances and topography not only were apparent but should be taken into account. (S 15)
Nine of the subjects considered the presence of different theories to be due to different theories being un-
stable hypotheses:
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There is a need to recognise that these are hypotheses. Nothing more. And so it would be far more reasonable to
identify such difference, especially when considering there is never anything constant. We are talking about events
that happened 65 million years ago! There is therefore a need for hypotheses to be devised and presented that are
at least somewhat correct. (S 5)
Only three students recognised differences between theories as being due to the preconceived ideas of
scientists:
There are differences from one scientist to the next, with different theories acceptable when considering their dis-
similar scientific philosophies. (S 11)
The VNOS-C and Semi-Structured Interviews: Science is Empirically Based
The purpose of Question 1 was to establish the ideas of the subjects on science. The results suggest that ten
subjects recognised science as being knowledge. In contrast, six subjects considered science to be a human activity.
Another two subjects held the view that science is made up of a combination of both human activity and knowledge:
Garnering miscellaneous knowledge. (S 2)
It is a human activity. (S9)
Science could be viewed as knowledge and human activity. Both. (S 35)
Importantly, however, six of the participants considered science as being a place for theories and facts, and
the validation of such. Science was determined by three of the subjects as being identical to understanding and
thought, in line with their own view. Another three subjects recognised science as academic teaching comprising
hypotheses, laws, and theories. Only three subjects considered science as depending on experiments, whereas
two viewed science as being acquired through studying nature.
Regarding the difference between science and other types of knowledge, three of the subjects did not respond.
Thirteen subjects considered the difference between religion and science to be greater than the difference between
science and any other field of knowledge; they emphasised factors of change, testability and stability. The subjects
indicated their cultural and religious backgrounds when providing the following statements:
Since the time we were created by Allah, religion has been invariable. But then consider science, which changes all
the time. (S 10)
One student provided further explanation when probed during the semi-structured interview:
Scientific specialisations should be recognised as a human activity rather than being revealed by God. But then the
Quran remains consistent and therefore unchanged. (S 4)
Eight other subjects considered scientific facts to be verifiable in line with other fields of knowledge. Seven
subjects considered other sciences as being focused on the adoption of science for practical purposes, whereas
four maintained that science can be differentiated through thought and insight, as opposed to other knowledge
divisions, such as those in which memorisation is most dominant.
The VNOS-C and Semi-Structured Interviews: Science as dependent on human inference,

creativity, and imagination
The purpose of Question 10 was to establish the subjects’ ideas on the role played by creativity and imagina-
tion in the professional lives of scientists. Ten of the subjects did not answer the question, and three subjects stated
that scientists do not make use of imagination or creativity:
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It is possible that creativity is surplus. But there is a need to make efforts and suggest solutions in order for questions
to be posed and answered. (S 22)
Imagination or creativity is not used by scientists; they depend on scientific concepts and theories, which they pro-
gress and enhance. (S 32)
These three respondents provided answers justifying why scientists did not use creativity or imagination;
reasons included that scientists depend on scientific research, that they attempt to provide answers to questions,
and that they apply concrete, testable theories. In contrast, most of the subjects (N = 22) considered that scientists
make use of both imagination and creativity.
Scientists definitely use imagination and creativity; they are known to have higher-order thinking skills. These include
imagination and creativity. (S 28)
These 22 respondents also provided rationalisations for their perspectives. Some considered that scientists
need to utilise imagination and creativity in order to arrive at new scientific ideas.
Scientists utilise creativity and imagination in order to satisfy their scientific purposes. (S 16)
Creativity and imagination among scientists go some way to explaining various unknown phenomena, how they first
came to light and when they were first presented. (S 11)
Some of these participants considered that scientists utilise imagination and creativity when completing their
own experiments. One of the interviewees stated:
Without question, creativity and imagination are used by scientists before they even devise hypotheses or carry
out experiments, or predict findings, and they use their imaginative ideas as validation after the experiment. (S 14)
Another example provided by the respondents was the history of science, in which imagination was recognised
as a key aspect underpinning scientific development and qualitative scientific contributions. Various fields were
mentioned by the respondents, including biology, chemistry, classical physics, and space:
Take Newton as an example, who identified the link between gravitational forces and bodies, which he did when the
apple fell from the tree. This ignited his imagination and led to him developing insight into gravitational force. (S 4)
Imagination has been used by scientists whenever they contrast atoms and electrons alongside the solar system.
Think about it. (S 29)
Recognising the moon and then walking on it was nothing more than imagination once! But now it’s been done, and
that wouldn’t have been possible without creativity and imagination. (S 15)
Imagination is fundamental to scientists. Take genetics, genetic inheritance, and the transmission of genetic traits, as
highlighted by Mendel: he was creative in hybridisation, and ultimately was successful in achieving new and never-
before-considered horizons in genetics. This led to scientific revolution! (S 30)
Only 19 participants in the sample answered the questions that centred on the various phases through which
creativity and imagination can be implemented. These 19 subjects maintained that scientists utilise both creativity
and imagination when practicing science. Twelve subjects considered imagination and creativity to be utilised only
in the designing and planning stages. On the other hand, four subjects believed these traits to be utilised only fol-
lowing data collection. Another three subjects stated that creativity and imagination are utilised across all stages
of science: beginning with research problems, design, and planning, and continuing until conclusions are reached.
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The VNOS-C and Semi-Structured Interviews: Science as Culturally and Socially Embedded
The purpose of Question 9 was to establish the subjects’ ideas on whether there may be an overlap be-
tween scientific, cultural, and social values. Seven subjects chose not to answer the question. Fourteen subjects
maintained the non-existence of an overlap between science and the cultural values of science:
Facts associated with life or the environment are not linked to the society of the individual person. (S 32)
Nonetheless, all of the respondents agreed on why such views are adopted – that is, because science is of
a universal nature:
Science is universal, and therefore extends far beyond the parameters of culture and society. Cloning and embryol-
ogy provide valuable examples of this. (S 19)
Science is universal, meaning that laws going against social values aren’t permitted. (S 4)
Science is universal, and therefore does not represent any social values of any country, people, or even society. (S 23).
In contrast, ten of the respondents maintained that science does, in fact, overlap with cultural and social
values, and indicated religious factors to justify their views.
Without question, science represents cultural and social values owing to the fact that experiments might go against
belief, faith, and religion. (S 14)
Various divisions of science are not aligned with Islamic teachings, as in the case of the theory of evolution. Such
a theory is not adopted by Muslims. (S 19)
Other respondents maintained that an overlap is due to the complementary link that can be identified
between society and science. These respondents (N = 4) considered science to be universal in nature, although
they maintained that it reflects cultural and social values:
Science forms the foundation of society. In my view, there is a complementary link; no science can be without
cultural and societal values, and similarly, if there is no science, there are no social values. (S 16)
Without question, science highlights social values. If we are to get on board with the idea of Darwin’s theory of
evolution, this goes against the Islamic faith, which subsequently impacts cultural and societal values – and these
have formed the foundation of our upbringing and lives. Furthermore, science is universal when considering that
there is no link between it and scientists, such as the Jewish Newton. Of course, he is not of the same religion,
faith, or nationality, but it remains that his contribution of laws are widely applied in our modern-day society. (S28)
The Nature of, and Differentiation to be Made between, Scientific Laws and Theories
The purpose of Question 5 was to address the difference between scientific laws and theories. Four subjects
did not reply to this question, while another subject emphasised that there was no difference between laws and
theories. However, the justification that the latter subject provided was contradicted by the subject’s statement:
There is no difference between the two, although a scientific theory seeks to provide an explanation of particular
behaviours, whether from a philosophical or theoretical standpoint, whereas scientific laws explain patterns through
mathematical problems that might actually need to be applied. (S 11)
However, 30 other respondents maintained that there was a difference between scientific law and scientific
theory, albeit with differing justifications. Two subjects did not describe any differences between laws and theo-
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ries; 12 subjects suggested that scientific law is constant, in contrast to scientific theory, which can be changed
and fluctuates. This comment was obtained during an interview:
There is a difference between a scientific law and a scientific theory, with a scientific theory being changeable; a law,
on the other hand, does not change. It is a law. It is absolute. (S 32)
Five of the respondents stated that laws are not as complicated as theories. Four subjects considered that a
scientific theory presents the most valuable events and observations, whereas a law is a statement that predicts
events in nature. Four of the subjects suggest that a scientific law can be expressed through a mathematical formula,
whereas a theory may be considered a law’s verbal expression. Two subjects considered the difference between
theories and laws to be that the validity percentage is low in a theory, but high in a law:
In scientific law, the likelihood of error is low, whereas in the case of scientific theory, it can be high. (S 12)
In scientific law, the error percentage is 0.99%. It’s as simple as that. (S 13)
Two of the subjects noted that when laws and evidence are accessible, theories develop to become laws;
this comment presents a clear difference between laws and theories and highlights the presence of a sequential
hierarchical correlation:
Scientific theory can be enhanced and developed so that it becomes a scientific law. (S 15)
Only ten respondents provided examples to support their answers. Two of these examples were considered to
be irrelevant, such as when considering mathematical formulae, and so forth. Other examples that were provided
were accurate, including those that centred on the atomic theory, immersion law, the theory of relativity, Newton’s
law, Mendel’s theory, and the rate law.
The VNOS-C and Semi-Structured Interviews: The Identifiable Difference between

Inference and Observation
The purpose of Question 6 was to investigate the subjects’ understanding of the link between inference and
observation. This was achieved by examining the first aspect of the question, which centred on the certainty held
by scientists regarding their views on the atom and its contents. It is notable that 17 subjects within the sample did
not provide an answer to the question; however, 15 subjects provided answers stating that scientific knowledge has
not only been asserted, but also proven and validated through various experiments, research, and students (N = 8).
Studies, experiments, laboratories, research… All of these have helped scientists to ensure their own certainty of
the atom. (S 1)
Two subjects cited modern devices and four subjects mentioned microscopes as confirming the presence of
the atom. In contrast, one respondent emphasised the use of predictions, imagination, and studies:
Studies and predictions, and possibly scientific imagination, have all helped contribute. (S 2)
Another three subjects stated that scientists are not entirely certain about the atom because these beliefs
remain mere hypotheses.
Scientific knowledge is simply opinion or hypothesising. It is temporary and can change. (S 3)
Most of the subjects (26) in the sample chose not to answer the question about the evidence that has resulted
in scientists creating the conception of an atom. However, five subjects did note that scientists have used the
Milky Way Galaxy as an example when describing the atom. Two other subjects noted that scientists have used
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fruit as an example to describe the atom, while another two mentioned the conception of an atom as determined
through atomic spectra:
There is not much difference between the Milky Way Galaxy and an atom. In essence, the sun may be seen to be the
nucleus, whereas the atomic orbitals are the orbitals. (S4)
The present conception of an atom has been devised through evidence focused on fruit, with fruit recognised as
having an internal nucleus, with scientists therefore drawing the conclusion that everything has a nucleus. And we
are well aware that a nucleus holds a positive charge. (S 4)
Physicists have applied the atomic spectra to establish the overall constitution of the atom. (S 5)
The VNOS-C and Semi-Structured Interviews: The Myth of the Scientific Method
The purpose of Question 2 was to reveal the subjects’ conceptions of scientific experiments. Six subjects
chose not to answer the question, while 16 subjects considered the completion of an experiment to be necessary
in order to establish what has been examined, or develop a theory into practice. This comment was made in one
of the interviews:
An experiment could be carried out to provide a practical application of what has been under examination or deter-
mined through experience, knowledge, or skill, with effort centred on seeking to identify what might not have been
determined through theory. (S 11)
Another six subjects, however, provided answers that centred on the overall linguistic meaning of the term
‘experiment’. In particular, these subjects used terms such as ‘assert’, ‘validation’, and ‘test’. Interestingly, six subjects
viewed experiments as a group of different processes. One of the subjects presented this view of what may be
recognised as a scientific experiment:
An experiment could be defined as a particular that seeks to establish a fact or otherwise present evidence to the
contrary. It can be incredibly valuable in validating an event through variable control or isolation. (S 4)
The purpose of Question 3 was to establish subjects’ perception of the overall value of scientific experiments
for scientific knowledge development, and of how such development may rely on scientific experiments rather than
on any other means of obtaining scientific findings. Only one respondent held the view that scientific knowledge
does not warrant experimentation:
Scientific knowledge development should not warrant the conduction of experiments. (S6)
In contrast, 34 of the respondents considered that scientific knowledge requires the completion of experi-
ments. This finding suggests that most of the respondents involved in this research do not hold accurate views of
how scientific knowledge may be acquired by scientists. Furthermore, only 20 of the subjects provided examples
to support their answers. It is the researcher’s opinion that in order to expand further on the lack of clarity in the
views of pre-service science teachers regarding the need for scientific experiments, it would be necessary to obtain
examples from the respondents. This comment was obtained during one of the interviews:
The presence of the chemical element Uranium was not recognised in the past, but, thanks to modern-day develop-
ments, the element was identified. (S 7)
The majority of the respondents provided examples that related to Newton’s three laws of motion. One
respondent provided an example to back up the answer that with the development of knowledge, it becomes
increasingly necessary to complete experiments, and that there is a positive link between the development of
knowledge and experimentation:
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The development of knowledge warrants the need to complete experiments. As an example, take Newton who, when
experiencing the apple falling, suddenly stumbled across the realisation of gravitational force. (S 17).
Baumgartner is known to have come up with his theory regarding the speed of sound when skydiving. He did this
at an altitude of 36 576 m with the aim of breaking the sound barrier and the record for the highest-ever jump. Felix
was therefore successful in extending his knowledge through experiments, which shows that constant laws can be
extended through knowledge development. (S 15)
Importantly, however, two of the respondents gave examples that went against their answers, which stated
that scientific knowledge development warrants the completion of experiments. One of these respondents stated
that zoology can be developed through body dissection, despite the fact that observation is warranted in this
regard and not experimentation. The other subject recognised that observation was needed when examining the
behaviours of organisms:
Comparative anatomy experiments could be carried out to establish the presence of internal biological systems or
otherwise to determine whether organisms have particular systems. (S 19)
Any experiment carried out has the potential to extend the knowledge base, with experiences in this regard prov-
ing valuable in knowledge development. Through examining an organism’s behaviour in various different settings,
for example, we can come to establish that behaviour in a natural environment might differ from that exhibited in
non-natural surroundings. (S 8)
The purpose of Question 7 was to validate the application of observations by scientists in their pursuit of
scientific knowledge. Ten subjects did not provide an answer, while 25 subjects considered that scientists direct a
great deal of emphasis towards classification. The answers provided by the respondents were associated with the
second part of the question, which emphasised the provision of evidence applied by scientists when seeking to
establish the identity of those established. A large number of the subjects (N = 16) provided generalised insights
without making any reference to observation; these answers tended to centre on examining colour, external
characteristics, and external properties, for example, although certain recognised scientists place more emphasis
on genetics and genes when classifying organisms, rather than on any other traits.
Types were classified in line with taxonomy, in consideration to their recognised shared traits. (S 15)
Nonetheless, it was held by two subjects that scientists carry out experiments to classify organisms:
Scientists carry out experiments to complete classifications in order to categorise organisms, as can be seen when
evaluating similar formation and characteristics. (S 14)
One of the students provided several different examples of research, whereas another communicated the
view that studies and experiments should be used in combination. On the other hand, four of the respondents
suggested the use of observations by scientists:
…through the completion of organism observations in relation to formation and the way in which they co-exist, as
well as by carrying out observations on the surroundings and community of organisms. (S 23)
One of the students mentioned observations and experiments:
Observations of organisms can be carried out in order to validate similarities in various regards, such as external
construction, movements, and type, for example, with experiments carried out in order to validate their views on
types. (S 32)
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Discussion
The research findings showed that the understanding pre-service science teachers in the KSA have of the
NoS is both basic and inadequate. The responses to the MOSQ questionnaire revealed that the majority of the re-
spondents adopted a conventional perspective on theories and hypotheses. This particular finding aligns with the
findings of Abu-Athera (2013), who notes that Saudi pre-service teachers perceive laws as being far stronger than
scientific theories. Like pre-service science teachers in other contexts, the majority of the sample in this research
was found to hold misconceptions on hypotheses and the role they play (Abd-El-Khalick et al., 1998; Buaraphan
& Sung-ong, 2009).
The responses to the VNOS-C suggested that only eight of the subjects held informed views on the difference
between scientific theories and laws. Such a large number of uninformed answers may be due to a weakness in
addressing such concepts within the science curriculum books that are available in the KSA, as was suggested by
Alshamarni (2012).
The pre-service science teachers considered in this work communicated a conventional view of scientific
knowledge, and held the belief that scientific knowledge cannot be changed. The responses to the VNOS-C showed
that the majority of the teachers in the sample consider that a scientific theory can be expanded further and
developed, but does not change. One rationalisation for this finding may be that the teachers perceive theories
as not being as valid or credible as laws, because laws are non-wavering and consistent, whereas theories can be
changed. This perception became apparent when considering that two thirds (67%) of the sample considered that
scientific theories could be developed into laws. Thus, the teachers in the sample perceive laws as being mature,
whereas theories are not. This result goes against the work of Buaraphan and Sung-ong (2009), who recognised the
tentativeness of science or scientific dynamics as being well recognised by pre-service teachers in the Thai context.
The sample agreed that evidence gathering provides a greater degree of consistency in scientific knowledge.
Regarding the responses to the VNOS-C, almost half of the subjects answered questions to validate their view that
knowledge in science has been both verified and proven through the completion of experiments, research, and
studies. Importantly, scientific knowledge was viewed as requiring experiments, which validate scientific knowledge
through scientific data ‘showcasing’ the truth. As shown by Haidar (1999), pre-service science teachers consider
that scientific knowledge is able to grow and develop, and that its expansion depends on observation.
The sample in this research considered that scientific frameworks would be devised and implemented following
the completion of experiments. In the results of the VNOS-C, only one subject emphasised the use of predictions,
imagination, and studies. Some of the subjects provided the example of the Milky Way Galaxy as a way of portray-
ing the concept of the atom; atomic spectra were also suggested as a means by which the atom concept has been
verified. Pre-service science teachers in the KSA were shown to be unable to differentiate between inference and
observation; however, a proper understanding of this difference is fundamental if various theoretical and inferential
entities and terms present in science are to be understood. Such entities might include atoms, genes, gravitational
forces, magnetic fields, molecular orbitals, and species.
The myth of the scientific method was commonly identified in the views of the pre-service teachers in the
sample, who considered that there is a predefined process to be adopted by scientists (Lederman et al., 2002). A
number of the teachers stated that science follows a systematised approach, and that the various stages should be
implemented in a particular order for scientific knowledge to be constructed and validated. Moreover, this research
shows that the teachers disagreed with the statement that scientific methods and science are able to provide an-
swers to all questions; this is predominantly because science, as a defined term, is associated with knowledge. In
this vein, Haidar (1999, p. 808) noted that the Arabic word ‘ilm’, which is utilised in Arabic in an effort to provide a
partner for the English term ‘science’, might actually be assigned a different meaning. That is, the meaning of ‘science’
in English might not be identical to the meaning of ‘ilm’ in Arabic (Haidar, 1999; Tymieniecka, 2010). This may be
why three quarters of the sample held the view that scientific knowledge does not stem from experiments alone.
Since 34 of the respondents considered that experimentation underpins the development of scientific knowledge,
the research sample in general seems to lack insight into the ways in which scientific knowledge may be garnered.
Regarding the work done by scientists, many of the pre-service science teachers in the sample emphasised
scientific objectivity, which is clearly founded on value-free and theory-free observation. For example, Question
8 of the VNOS-C, which suggests that scientists ensure an open-minded approach free from bias, and which is
intended to investigate the subjects’ views on whether science is theory-laden, achieved agreement from more
than half of the sample. The findings aligned with the research of Buaraphan & Sung-ong (2009), which emphasised
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that a portion of the most commonly held bipolar perspectives pertaining to NoS are objectivity and subjectivity,
theory-free and theory-laden, or value-free and value-laden. In the case of the majority of the sample, subjectivity
was recognised as pivotal in the development and expansion of scientific ideas.
Most of the subjects considered that scientists do not make use of imagination or creativity when seeking to
obtain scientific knowledge. However, creativity and imagination in the construction of scientific ideas was rec-
ognised by the majority of the sample (Abd-El-Khalick et al., 1998). Only 19 members of the sample answered the
questions posed in the VNOS-C regarding when creativity and imagination might be utilised by scientists; these
respondents considered that creativity and imagination are used by scientists in scientific practices. Twelve of the
subjects, however, considered that these qualities are used only in the design and planning stages, while four
considered that these qualities are used only during data collection. This result shows that the sample recognised
that creativity and imagination are used at some point in the scientific process (Lederman, Lederman, Byoung, &
Eun, 2012). However, some of the subjects considered that all the steps of the scientific knowledge development
process benefitted from creativity and imagination (Yuenyong, 2010).
Regarding scientific enterprise, the sample adopted both conventional and modern perspectives on the link
between technology and science, with roughly the same percentage of subjects holding each perspective. There-
fore, differentiating between technology and science is likely a problematic task (Buaraphan & Sung-ong, 2009).
Nonetheless, most of the subjects disagreed with the view that scientific enterprise is an individual enterprise.
Similarly, most disagreed with the statement that culture, politics, and society do not influence scientific knowledge
development. On the other hand, based on the results from the VNOS-C, a number of the subjects were found to
consider that the overlap between social and cultural values and the sciences was non-existent. These answers
revealed that the majority of the sample in this research does not have well-informed views regarding the degree
of overlap between science, culture, and society (Alshamarani, 2012). More specifically, a number of the subjects
failed to consider science as a social enterprise (Buaraphan & Sung-ong, 2009).
Conclusions
In light of these findings, it can be concluded that helping science teachers to acquire an adequate un-
derstanding of the NoS should be a basic requirement for professional development programmes for teachers. This
research revealed that a significant number of pre-service science teachers need urgent assistance from relevant
stakeholders, because these teachers hold uninformed conceptions of four aspects of the NoS: scientific knowledge,
the scientific method, scientists’ work, and scientific enterprise. These findings are consistent with the results of a
great deal of research in local and global contexts. The involved stakeholders, such as science educators in both
local (e.g. the Ministry of Education of Saudi Arabia) and global contexts should employ these findings as a basis
for designing a professional development programme to help science teachers develop their understanding of the
NoS. Including NOS in the science curriculum is not enough to ensure the effective teaching and learning of NOS.
Pre-service science need well-designed NOS professional development programs teaching how to integrate NOS
into their classrooms, including the related curriculum materials. The views and perceptions of science teachers
regarding the NoS may influence the way in which they teach in a classroom environment. Furthermore, science
teachers’ understanding has been recognised as inadequate for teaching students about the NoS. Therefore, the
NoS should be a critical component in the training of pre-service science teachers.
The findings of this research imply that the most valuable approach to develop students’ thinking is to provide
them with the opportunity to discuss their ideas, investigate the limitations associated with science, and discover
how scientific knowledge may differ from other types of knowledge. Furthermore, students should be given the
opportunity to discover the importance and value of science as a way of explaining phenomena, and should be
encouraged to develop an awareness of the impacts of science on society. It may also be worthwhile to include
appropriate topics and attitudes in the educational programs in pre-service teacher preparation in a way that will
help them to understand the NoS and that will highlight appropriate classroom practices during the mini-teaching
and education process.
The need for teachers and students to learn about the NoS should be recognised as critical across the various
levels of science education in the KSA. Further work is required to obtain an in-depth insight into the perspec-
tives of Saudi science teachers on teaching the NoS in a classroom environment, and on how teacher-education
pedagogies can affect and influence how the NoS is taught. Another implication stemming from this research is
the need to examine the link between the views relating to the NoS that are held by pre-service teachers, and their
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teaching practices. This question remains somewhat unanswered in the existing literature, so more focus should
be directed to this arena, particularly in the context of the KSA.
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E-mail: fayad@ju.edu.sa
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STYLE VARIATIONS
Zulfiani Zulfiani, Abstract. Students with their different

learning styles also have their own differ-
Iwan Permana Suwarna,
ent learning approaches, and teachers
Sujiyo Miranto cannot simultaneously facilitate them all.
Teachers’ limitation in serving all students’
learning styles can be anticipated by the
use of computer-based instructions. This
research aims to develop ScEd-Adaptive
Learning System (ScEd-ASL) as a com-
puter-based science learning media by
Introduction accommodating students’ learning style
variations. The research method used is
Indonesia still finds obstacles in the implementation of learning and a mixed method at junior high schools in
assessment during the learning process of Integrated Science at Junior Tangerang Selatan. The final product of
High School. Some of the obstacles are identified by various factors, such the research is a special learning media
as teacher competence, facilities and infrastructure, and learners’ low appropriate to students’ visual, aural, read/
literacy ability which impact on the achievement of learning outcomes. write and kinesthetic learning styles. The
Thus, in accordance with Wenno (2010) who indicates science subject is a uniqueness of the media is its form of inte-
school subject that has always become problematic for both schools and grated science materials, accommodating
teachers in terms of students final learning results. The science subject fast and slow learners, and appropriate
has become the school subject with the last ranking on both general and to their learning styles. ScEd-Adaptive
islamic schools’ national exam. The National examination average scores Learning System as a developed com-
for the science subject at the level of general and islamic junior high puter-based science learning media was
schools in DKI Jakarta since 2011 and 2012 are 7.24 and 7.47 respectively declared as good and valid by four media
(Puspendik, 2016). Meanwhile, based on the data from Simdik Info (2016), experts and five learning material experts.
the science subject national examination average score for general junior ScEd-ALS for kinesthetic style has a high
high schools of 2014 in DKI Jakarta is 73.38. This achievement average effectivity to improve students learning
is not that good if it is seen from the minimum achievement average for mastery (100%), consecutively aural (63%),
the science subject, which is 75. Problems also arise at the school level, read/write (55%), and visual (20%). This
where the students’ learning mastery on science subject is still consider- media development can be continued with
ably low on each level of general junior high schools and islamic junior the Android version or iOS to make it more
high schools (Halim, 2012; Medriati, 2013). operationally practical.
On each islamic school level, students categorized as slow learners
Keywords: adaptive learning system,
are generally found. This slow learner category is seldom handled by the
science learning media, computer-based
teachers, so the expected learning result has never been achieved. The
instruction, learning style.
number of this slow learner category is not small, about 35% from the
overall students in both experiment and control groups (Shofiana, 2014).
Zulfiani Zulfiani,
This incomplete learning is generally experienced by the slow learner Iwan Permana Suwarna,
category. The implementation of Curriculum 2013 stipulates an Inte- Sujiyo Miranto
grated Science material for the general and islamic junior high schools. Syarif Hidayatullah State Islamic University
Jakarta, Indonesia
From the preliminary research reports the concepts of Movement and
Simple Machines are the material for biology (Movement) and physics
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(Simple Machines), and in the odd semester is covered as Integrated Science. The research result shows 35%
of the students (Movement concept) and 55% of students (Simple Machines concept) experienced remedial
or incomplete result.
The treatment for these incomplete learning students does not receive enough attention and serious
preparation either from the schools or the teachers. The treatment for the incomplete learning students in
general and islamic schools is managed mostly through remedial test. The improvement on the number
of complete learning students after the remedial test was not resulted from the improvement of students’
competence. The lower quality and difficulty level and the low monitoring are the main causes. This will of
course only have a brief effect, where this is definitely invalid. On a different concept, the same result will be
achieved, where the same students will again experience low learning results.
The students’ low learning result and low level of learning mastery are resulted from the incorrect
selection of learning stimulus or teachers’ mono stimulus. Each student has a different background, habits,
intellectual competence, and physical appearance. The difference influences the students’ competence in
responding to the teacher’s selected learning stimulus. The way the students respond to the teacher’s given
stimulus inside the classroom is known as learning style. Theories about learning styles were heavily debated
in order to explain the differences in individual learning and related ideas were popular in the 1970s (Coffield,
Moseley, Hall, & Ecclestone, 2004) and greatly influenced each level of education (Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer,
& Bjork, 2009). Researchers suggest that teachers should identify the learning styles of learners and adjust
the learning methods according to each participant learning styles. There are at least seven theories related
to learning styles: David Kolb Model, Peter Honey and Alan Mumford Model, Learning modalities, VAK/VARK
Neil Fleming Model, Anthony Gregorc Model, Cognitive Approach, and NASSP Model. Hawk and Shah (2007)
investigated five learning style instruments (Kolb Learning Style Indicator, Gregoric Style Delineator, the
Felder-Silverman Index of Learning Styles and the VARK questionnaire and the Dunn and Dunn Productivity
Environmental Preference Survey) reports validity, reliability and recommends adjustment of classroom ac-
tivities based on learning styles. The VARK learning style model in Eicher (1987) is an extension of the earlier
neurolinguistic model (Hawk and Shah, 2007) classifies learners based on teaching preferences to convey and
obtain information; used to assess the learning style (Liew, Sidhu, & Barua, 2015). This model is very useful to
enhance learning (Marcy, 2001). The third model is the VARK Model (Fleming, 2001), a sensory model that is
an extension of the earlier neuro-linguistic model (Eicher, 1987) The third model is the VARK Model (Fleming,
2001), a sensory model that is an extension of the earlier neuro-linguistic model (Eicher, 198
Student’s learning style is different from one another. Some students are aural learners, some visual, and
others are kinesthetic. Visual learners are easier to learn with images, graphics, charts, while aural learners
remember anything they listen to and they can express it verbally. Kinesthetic learners love to touch objects
and are physically involved with whatever they learn (Beck, 2007). Most teachers do not pay attention to this
when they are teaching. When the teacher selects only one stimulus from one of the learning styles, then
the students with different learning styles will face difficulties to receive knowledge or to understand it. The
students need appropriate stimulus with their learning style.
The Individual difference on the students is supposed to be the teachers’ focus of attention in using
multiple approaches and stimuli. If the teachers pay attention to this factor, the students will receive the
learning opportunity appropriate to their learning style, and they can achieve an optimum learning mastery
appropriate to their ability. The research result shows the identification of student’s learning style is found to
be a significant factor in effectivity (Aisami, 2015). Further, students with different learning styles also have
a different learning approach (Baeten, Dochy, Struyven, Parmentier, & Vanderbruggen, 2015; Balakrishnan &
Gan, 2016). The teachers’ success in identifying students’ learning style will direct the teachers to a variety of
learning strategies (Magdalena, 2015). Škoda, Doulík, Bílek, & Šimonová (2016) apply Inquiry Based Science Edu-
cation (IBSE) in science subject that can accommodate the variation of learning styles in15-year-old students.
Providing various learning methods, strategies, approaches in each classroom session will technically
make it difficult for the teachers. Teachers have to serve all students’ learning style at the same time, and this
is impossible to be maximally done. The problems above will be difficult to be solved conventionally.
The use of computer media in learning may assist to solve those mentioned problems. Aisami (2015)
asserts that visual literacy in the form of visual presentation can connect students’ learning style with mul-
tiple intelligence. Other researchers prove that technology/multimedia technology can be used to improve
students learning comprehension through a variety of learning styles (Balakrishnan & Gan, 2016). Further,
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the use of audiovisual presentation provides a better effect compared to a standalone visual presentation
(Brünken, Plass, & Leutner, 2004). Computer-based instructions can help teachers in serving students in slow
learner category who had an incomplete learning with their different learning styles to maximally improve
their learning at relatively the same time.
Therefore, computer-based science learning media/computer-based science instructions have to be ap-
propriate to the students’ aural, visual, read-write and kinesthetic learning style. The development of media/
multimedia/IT related to the learning styles have often been reported (Balakrishnan & Gan, 2016; Brünken et
al., 2004; Nilsson, Östergren, Fors, Rickenlund, Jorfeldt, Caidahl, & Bolinder, 2012; Pruet, Ang, & Farzin, 2014with
three types of modules (learning content, self-assessment questions and interactive ECG interpretation training;
Halim, 2012; Truong, 2015). Besides, the resulted media will not give an extra burden for teachers, remedial
teaching can be done outside of the classroom or school session, which is at the students’ own homes. This
will make it easier for the teachers’ task, but it can facilitate the students with their material preparation us-
ing a thoroughly prepared stimulus (Balakrishnan & Gan, 2016). The existing media are generally informative
through providing evaluation items, and by having the program designer’s general view or perception, or a
specific learning mode. The existing media have not been made specific for slow learner students, to provide
additional supplements for fast learner students, and not specifically made based on students’ learning styles.
Based on the background above, the researchers develop a science learning media Science Education
Adaptive Learning System (ScEd-ALS), which adopts the Minnesota Adaptive Learning System (MAIS) Program
(Tennyson, 1984). MAIS Program designed an artificial intelligence on computer-based instructions. The pro-
gram initiated rewards for the varieties of students’ learning styles (Siadaty & Taghiyareh, 2007). The quality
of presentation technique on this program was made valid with the development of the current information
technology, where information is accessible both offline and online (Stash, 2007; Sterbini & Temperini, 2009;
Truong., 2015).
The developed media is used to improve students’ learning mastery according to each of their learning
style. Media is on offline state, means that students can use it outside the class and have enough time to fully
understand of certain cases the learners are still confused about.
Research Questions
1. ScEd-ALS as what kind of a computer-based science learning media that can accommodate the
varieties of students’ learning styles at the level of general junior high school and islamic junior
high schools?
2. What is the validity level of ScEd-ALS as computer-based science learning media/computer-based
science instructions with the students’ varieties of learning styles at the level of general junior high
school and islamic junior high schools?
3. What is the effectiveness of ScEd-ALS as computer-based science learning media/computer-based
science instructions with the varieties of students’ learning styles at the level of general junior high
school and islamic junior high schools?
The research uses a mixed method. The taken research procedures use Akker, Gravemeijer, McKenney,
& Nieveen (2006) as follows: a preliminary research, prototyping stage, summative evaluation, systematic
reflection and documentation. The research lasts for 10 months, starting from January 2017 to November
2017, odd semester academic year 2017/2018 at three general and islamic junior high schools in Tangerang
Selatan. The following is the explanation for each stage.
1. Preliminary Research
The preliminary research covers both literature study and field research. The literature study is aimed at
identifying the existing problems, while the field research is aimed at finding the information on the existing
problems related to learning style and the students’ response on the learning media commonly used by the
teacher.
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2. Prototyping Stage
In this stage, the prototype for the computer-based science learning media/computer-based science in-
structions is developed using the variations in students’ learning styles. The developed prototype is the result
of the design stage. In this stage, a test is performed using formative evaluation on the design of computer-
based science learning media/computer-based science instructions with the variations in students’ learning
styles. The result of the formative evaluation on the product is used to perform technical reparations on the
developed media prototype. The prototype stage covers the following: design guidelines for media develop-
ment (teaching material selection, media design, software design), prototype design optimization (software
selection, media development procedure, formative evaluation, and revision).
Design guidelines for media development
The stage of designing science learning media consists of several steps, such as the following: (1) teaching
material selection, (2) learning media design, (3) software media design. Teaching material selection is one
of the factors to pay attention to the process of prototype media development. The scope for the selected
materials in this research is as follows:
Figure 1. Teaching material selection.
Computer-based science learning media/computer-based science instructions with the developed

variations of students’ learning styles have the following characteristics: the media provide various learning
processes based on the students’ learning styles, such as visual learning, auditory learning, read/write learning,
kinesthetic learning, which refer to the Neil Fleming’s VARK model learning style theory (Fleming and Neils,
1992); the media interfacing each of the four learning styles is different. The following is the characteristic of
the learning model for each of the learning styles in the Science Education Adaptive Learning System (ScEd-
ALS) learning media (Table 1).
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Table 1. The characteristic of the learning model for each of the learning styles in the ScEd-ALS
Read/Write Kinesthetic
Visual learning model Auditory learning model
learning model learning model
Presenting interesting interface Providing music options, narration Presenting article/text, a lot of sup- Performing a lot of options
design audio, conversation plementary information readings through click-a-button activity
Showing diagrams, graphics, Expert narration recordings Presenting narrations of experiment Showing
experiment results procedures demonstration in the forms of
films/animations
Showing repetitive texts. Makin predictions (making Rewriting (creating a resume/sum- Students are requested to try to
scenario), planning (imagining), mary) do an activity or to perform.
can be in the form of question like
“what will happen if?”
Planning. Explaining (close gaps to fill Showing sections of the materials in Performing experiment (offline
in or to write explanations are the form of images. experiment), reporting the result
provided). of the offline experiment.
Making predictions. Discussions in the form of voices, Making plans for experiments Practice the theories, being
voiced questions. assertive.
Showing demonstration in the Recordings on the material expla- Reading other people’s conclusions/ Straight to practice.
forms of films/animations. nation (auditory narration). comments/testimonies.
Showing images. Expert explanations (auditory Demonstrate events through anal- Has to be scientific explanation
narration). ogy. (reasonable).
Following in the forms of Discussing with friends (plenty of Reading instructions. Straight to practice.
diagrams (flowcharts, concept conversations).
maps).
Selecting thoroughly (interpre- Reading out loud. Searching for additional information, Writing.
tation). comparing, searching in the form
of texts.
Searching for clues. Discussion. Finding ideas from passages, “what Practice.
is the main idea of this passage”,
showing relevant writings.
Drawing/making concept map. Discussion Making details Practice.
Seeing aesthetics. Considering the information from Providing passages (features). Practice.
several experts.
Using graphics. Searching for experts’ opinions Make a written review (summary). Ask about the experience ever
and discussion. done.
Diagrams, flow chart. Discussion. Detailed explanations. Practice, direct evidence.
Diagrams, charts, with detailed Discussion online, chatting, Books, modules. Problem base learning, video,
notes lecture. practice.
Making diagrams or graphics Writing keywords and practice Rewriting and reading it repeatedly. Compiling material related facts,
them, retyping. (typing activity) selecting real examples.
and dictation.
The media are completed with the following menus: material, item examples, material summary and item
practice. For the students who have not understood the concept, there are some requirements that they need to
repeat the concepts they have not understood before they continue to the next material. Figure 2 portrays the
scenario of ScEd-ALS learning media software design.
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Figure 2. The scenario of ScEd-ALS learning media software design.
Prototype optimization
Prototype optimization is done through several steps. Appropriate software selection with the characteristics
of the developed media prototype. Software selection is considered as one of the important stages of material
selection in the process of prototype making. The software used is Adobe Flash Profesional CS 5, Audacity, Format
Factory, Microsoft power point, Blue Stacks android for Windows, T2S Google Narration, and Camtasia studio. Be-
sides the software, the hardware also influences the process of prototype making where the use of recommended
hardware is minimum a laptop or a personal computer with an i3 specification above, i7 preferred with a minimum
RAM of 4 Gb. The steps to perform prototype optimization are the following (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Prototype optimization.
Formative evaluation is the stage to evaluate the built product prototype. The used formative evaluation is
the formative evaluation from Tessmer (1993), which consists of expert review, one-to-one evaluation, small group
evaluation, and field research. The field research is the testing phase of the product in the field. At this stage, the
prototype tested has become a prototype that assembles all the criteria and is a result of improvements from
previous revisions. The effectiveness of the product can be identified through administering a post-test to the
students and calculate the percentage of the students’ achievement with the minimum achievement criteria. To
identify the product’s practicality, the teacher and the students are requested to fill-in a response questionnaire
on the practicality of the used media.
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3. Summative Evaluation Stage

Summative evaluation is a stage to identify the effectivity and practicality of the developed science learning
media prototype addresses broad range. This stage is not done on this research.
4. Systematic Reflection and Documentation

The stage of systematic reflection and documentation is the final stage of Akker’s development procedure. This
stage has to visualize the process of the science learning media development, starting from the design, specifica-
tion, its conceptual principles and relations are systematically narrated to picture of the research process and flow.
Sample
There were teachers and students from three schools, i.e Islamic Junior High School A, General Junior High
School B and Islamic Junior High School C in Tangerang Selatan, Indonesia. Selection of the research at junior high
school with respect using the following characteristics. The basic considerations of school selection include the
availability of Information and Computer Technology (ICT) tools, teacher constraints, science laboratory facilities,
teaching tools and material, schools which have implemented Integrated Science as Indonesia’s 2013 National
Curriculum recommended. The demographics sample is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. The demographics sample.
Research stage Sample Number Male Female
Students from Islamic Junior High School B. 30 12 18
Preliminary research Teachers from Islamic Junior High School A,

Islamic Junior High School B and General 3 3
Junior High School C
Media expert 4 2 2
Expert review
Science materials expert 5 2 3
One to one evaluation Students from General Junior High School C 2 1 1
Small groups of students

Small group 6 3 3
General Junior High School C
Field test Students Islamic Junior High School B 30 12 18
Research Instrument
The instruments used in the research are the following: (1) preliminary research instruments, (2) product
validation instruments, and (3) product effectiveness instruments.
1. Preliminary research instruments. It consists of VARK instrument, structured interview instrument, and
questionnaire. Instrument VARK (Fleming, 2014), the preliminary instruments used to identify student’s
learning style as the information on the profile of the learning style appearing on year 8 students. The
number of the items are 16 test items consisting of four options, visual, aural, read/write, and kinesthetic
learning style characteristics. Structured interview instrument, the preliminary instruments used to collect
information from teachers on the issues of science learning in year 8 and learning style at schools, and
the use of learning media at schools. Questionnaire, preliminary instrument used to identify the science
learning process, and the use of learning media such as computer/laptop in the science learning at
schools, especially year 8. The agreed instrument uses Likert scale. The instrument employed the use of
a five-point Likert scale (5 = strongly agree, 4 = agree, 3 = neutral, 2 = disagree, 1 = strongly disagree).
2. Product validation instruments. The instruments used to identify the validity of the developed media.
The instrument for validation is a rating questionnaire given to the educational technology experts and
material experts. The questionnaire used is a rating-scale with five rating categories (4, 3, 2, 1, 0). The
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experts perform the validation on the ScEd-ALS media product in the materials of simple machines and
movement apparatus (muscle and frame). Then product is divided into four categories: visual ScEd-ALS
media product, aural ScEd-ALS media product, read/write ScEd-ALS media product, and kinesthetic
ScEd-ALS media product. Each of the products consists of four meetings (sub concepts).
3. Product effectivity instruments. The instrument used to identify the media effectivity and the practicality
is through the response from the users of the developed product. This instrument uses a rating-scale
questionnaire with five categories (4, 3, 2, 1, 0) given during the field test. Besides using user response
questionnaire, the effectiveness is also decided from the students’ post-test results who have used the
science learning media. It is calculated based on the percentage of the students’ achievement.
Data Analysis
The collected data is then analysed. The data in this research consist of the preliminary research result (interview
and students’ questionnaire), expert review questionnaire (validity), students and teachers’ response questionnaire.
The following is the analysis on the data:
1. Preliminary research data, the data in this stage are in the forms of qualitative and quantitative. The
quantitative data are: science students’ learning style conditions in the general and islamic junior high
schools were analyzed with the help of excel to identify the percentage of the students with visual,
aural, read, or kinesthetic learning style.
The percentage of students with the learning style:
The qualitative data are: the condition of science learning in the islamic junior high school (literature
and field), the conditions of science learning mastery in both general and islamic junior high schools,
and the interview result with the teachers are analyzed by taking the gist out of the data and converted
through tally to change the qualitative data into quantitative data.
2. Prototyping stage data, the data in this stage is the program design evaluation from the following: Media/
IT experts, material experts, and students. Experts’ validation data was analyzed using a rating scale.
The rating scale used are five alternative answers made into numbers 4 - 0. For a very good response
is given the score = 4, good = 3, good enough = 2, not good enough = 1 and not very good = 0. The
rating scale criteria are as follows (Sugiyono, 2014):
To draw the conclusions from the media validity on each item, the following method is used:
The experts’ validation conclusion used the Guttmann scale. The instrument used the “valid or invalid”
scale. The decision making note is as follows:
0 - 50% = Invalid
51% - 100% = Valid
Field test data, the data in this stage are quantitative data on the effectiveness of ScEd-ALS media prod-
uct use. Based on the user response data: were received from the students in form of post-test score
on the field’s try-out. Then product effectiveness was seen through students’ achievement percentage
during the field research. The achievement score was received from the post-test results (Table 3). The
students were deemed to have made achievement if their score is higher than the (Minimum Mastery
Criteria). The calculation for the effectiveness percentage is the following:
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Table 3. Effectiveness criteria based on cognitive learning results.
Percentage Note
≥ 80% Very effective

70% - 79% Effective
60% - 69 % Quite effective
50% - 59% Less effective
< 50% Not effective
3. Systematic reflection and documentation data, the following research data documentation was per-
formed in this stage: photographs, questionnaire data, expert validation questionnaire data, ScEd-ALS
media use portfolio at the general and islamic junior high schools from the preliminary study and the
field research. The students and teachers’ response questionnaire was analyzed using a rating scale.
With the rating scale, the collected data were interpreted qualitatively. In a rating scale model scale,
the respondents respond to one of the provided quantitative response. The questionnaire data were
processed in two ways, the percentage of each item’s response and by calculating the mean of the
responses based on the score of each respondent’s response.
Results of Research
Preliminary Research Stage

1.Learning Style
There were two stages on the preliminary research, which were performing literature study and field research.
The results from the literature study were the variables ScEd-ALS product development as computer-based science
learning media/computer-based science instructions with learning style variations. Learning style studies from
195 students (Figure 3). Then, based on the preliminary data students’ learning style distribution was found to
be unimodal dominated by four VARK learning styles, visual (24%), aural (63%), read/write (42%), and kinesthetic
(22%) compared to multimodal learning style.
Figure 4. Learning style from 195 students for 13-14 years old.
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2. Science Learning at Schools
It can be concluded from the interview result with the teachers that in the odd semester 2017/2018 on the
general and islamic junior high school level, the materials on Integrated Science, such as movement concept (35%
of students) and simple machine (55% of students) have a remedial and the remedial process was done through
providing new assignments or by providing extra time to study at home to be retested. The schools have had an
interactive CD, science learning media, computer lab, and the laboratory to teach the materials on movement and
simple machine. Then, the teachers required an alternative technique to perform remedial teaching. So far, assign-
ment instructions were initiated through the use of internet, email, or google classroom. The use of computer-based
media that accommodate science materials learning style is interesting and needed to gain quick feedback process
and better material visualization. The use of this computer-based media is expected to improve the students’ learn-
ing results. The next field research is through providing questionnaires to 30 students of Islamic Junior High School
B in Tangerang Selatan. The preliminary research questionnaire results are the following (Table 4)
Table 4. Student response on preliminary research.
No. Subject Mean SDV
1. Science teacher often uses computer-assisted learning media such as power point, 3,97 0,88
prezi and others.
2. I understand the science materials delivered by my teacher through the use of the 3,97 0,60
existing learning media.
3. The learning media used by the teacher can improve my ways of thinking deeper on the 3,67 0,55
concepts of science.
4. I expect for computer-based learning media that show images, material explanation 4,00 0,86
videos, and science evaluation items.
5. I expect for the learning media that can relate the science concept with the daily life. 4,00 0,80
6. I usually make use of a computer/laptop at home to work on my papers or if the assign- 4,17 0,80
ment requires typing.
7. I often use a computer/laptop for entertainment (social media, play games, watch mov- 3,57 1,19
ies) than for learning.
Note: Scale strongly agree (5), agree (4), neutral (3), disagree (2), strongly disagree (1)
The questionnaire results show that the students have been used to make use of computer-assisted learning
media, especially to understand the science materials, to improve their deeper thinking on the concepts of sci-
ence. The existing learning media can interest them to learn science. The students expect for the learning media
that can show images, animation, material explanation videos, and science evaluation items. The students expect
for the learning media that can relate the concepts of science in their daily life. The students can make use of their
computer/laptop at home to work on their papers or if the assignments require typing.
Prototyping Stage
1. Teaching material selection

The teaching materials for this research are the materials on movement and simple machines learned in year
8 semester 1st for Indonesia’s 2013 National Curriculum. The material selection was based on the problems of the
learning for the materials of movement and simple machines. The consideration was based on the results of the
preliminary study through interviews with the teachers.
2. ScEd-ALS design development
The ScEd-ALS concept design development refers to two following components: display and content. The first
component is displayed. The designed display consists of the homepage, apperception in the form of conversation,
and texts accompanied by images, animations, videos, item examples and item practice (Figure 5).
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Figures 5. ScEd-ALS media display development: Texts, images, animations, videos.
The second component is content. The content designed by the researchers is expected to be able to im-
prove the students’ learning result for the remedial teaching using the learning style variations. The materials on
the computer-assisted media, therefore, are presented through four pedagogic acts made appropriate with the
VARK learning styles.
Visual learning style Design Read & Write Learning style Design
Kinesthetic Learning style Design Aural Learning style Design
Figure 6. The Examples of ScEd-ALS content design result.
2.1 ScEd-ALS software technical design

ScEd-ALS is technically designed to have a screen splash of UIN Jakarta logo after the application is run.
After that the student (user) enters the user identity page, and after the identity is filled-in the student
enters the homepage consisting of the buttons on the instructions manual, learning objectives, mate-
rial 1, material 2, material 3, practice demo video, references, and designer profile.
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2.2 ScEd-ALS design optimization result

Software selection for the ScEd-ALS is with adobe flash professional and ispring quiz maker. Both have
the function and time placements on the ScEd-ALS program design (Table 5)
Table 5. Software selection result.
Software Name Function Time
Make the main template such as background

Adobe flash professional CS 6 Beginning to the end of the media development
and supporting animation.
Ispring quiz maker Make the evaluation items After the objective of the media is completed
Expert Review Result
1. Evaluation result according to media expert

Media expert declares the ScEd-ASL in each learning style is possible to use or valid. The result of media expert
with four learning styles is as follows in Table 6.
Table 6. ScEd-ALS media evaluation result with four learning styles according to media expert.
Mean Score
Indicators Read/
Visual Aural Kines-thetics
Write
Software Engineering Aspect
Efficiency 4 4 4 3
Reliable 3,5 3 3 4
Maintainable 3,5 4 4 4
Usability 3 4 4 4
Software selection appropriate 3 4 4 3
Compatibility 3 3 3,5 4
Program maquette 3,5 4 4 4
Documentation program 3,5 4 4 3,5
Reusable 3,5 4 4 4
Visual Media Communication Aspect
Communicative 4 4 4 3
Creative 4 4 4 4
Simple and attention getting 3,5 4 4 4
Visual 3,5 3 3 4
Layout interactive 3 3 3 3
Font selection and text size appropriate 3 3 3 3
audio selection appropriate 3 3 3 3
Image quality 4 4 4 4
Animation quality 4 3,5 3 3
Media user-friendliness 3,5 4 4 4
Mean 3,47 3,66 3,66 3,61
% 86,84 91,45 91,45 90,13
Conclusion Valid Valid Valid Valid
Note: Maximum score (4)
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2. Evaluation result according to teaching material expert
Teaching material expert states ScEd-ASL is feasible to use or valid. The result of teaching material expert is
as follows in Table 7.
Table 7. Evaluation result according to teaching material expert.
Mean Score
Indicator
Read/
Visual Aural Kines-thetics
Write
The appropriateness of images, animations, observation videos, and expla-

4 3.5 3.5 3.5
nation videos with the materials
The clarity in explaining the physics formula and organ parts through texts or
3.5 3.5 3.5 3.5
learning video
The clarity of item example of each material 3.5 4 4 4
The accuracy of evaluation item answer on each material 4 4 4 4
The accuracy of an answer (systematic) and does not lead to misconception
4 3.5 3.5 3.5
on each material
The scope and depth of the materials 4 3.5 3.5 3.5
Mean 3.83 3.67 3.67 3.67
% 95,75 91,75 91,75 91,75
Conclusion Valid Valid Valid Valid
One-to-One Evaluation Result
The one-to-one evaluation result was performed with two students. Each of the student’s from General Junior
High School C, ScEd-ALS visual learning style media were used and the students were asked for their opinion (Table
8). Overall, the students gave a good opinion on the developed media.
Table 8. The evaluation result of ScEd-ALS visual learning style on One-to-one evaluation.
Aspect Mean Score Note
Material 3.5 Good

Learning Design 3.5 Good
Implementation 3.5 Good
Technical Quality 3 Good
Mean 3.34 Good
Small Group Evaluation Result
Small group evaluation was performed with six students and two teachers’ opinions on the media from General
Junior High School C were expressed. Six students have three learning styles, two students in each learning style,
kinesthetic, aural, and read/write. Table 9 describes the evaluation result for three learning styles of each. The results
show ScEd-ASL kinesthetic has a good response comparing to two other media (ScEd-ASL aural and read/write).
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Table 9. Student’s evaluation result of ScEd-ALS kinesthetic-aural-read/write learning style on Small group
evaluation.
Mean Score
Aspect
Kinesthetic Note Aural Note Read/Write Note
Material 3,4 Good 2,5 Good enough 2,6 Good enough

Learning Design 3,5 Good 3,17 Good 2,33 Good enough
Implementation 3,25 Good 3,25 Good 2 Good enough
Technical Quality 3 Good 2,6 Good enough 2,9 Good enough
Mean 3,29 Good 2,88 Good enough 2,46 Good enough
Field Test
A Field test was done at Islamic Junior High School B in Tangerang Selatan with a number of 30 students. Field
test was meant to identify the ScEd-ALS media effectivity to improve students’ learning mastery. The students then
use the ScEd-ALS media in class, where each of their learning styles has been identified. A post-test was performed
at the end of the learning. The following is the result of pre-test and post-test in Table 10.
Table 10. Learning result based on learning style.
N Mastery
Pre-test Post-test
Number of Mean Score >75
Learning style Effectiveness (%)
student (N) n gain
Mean/SDV Mean/SDV
Visual 5 52.10/5.30 68.00/9.55 0.30 1 20

Aural 8 62.5/67.13 77.50/5.63 0.24 5 63
Read/Write 11 58.9/58.19 75.27/6.65 0.51 6 55
Kinesthetic 6 57.67/5.71 79.33/3.59 0.30 6 100
The result showed the effectiveness of the use of ScEd-ASL kinesthetic (100%), aural learning style (63%), read/
write learning style (55%) and visual learning style (20%). Then, each student was requested to give their opinion
in relation to the ScEd-ALS media use implementation (Table 11).
Table 11. Students’ evaluation result on each media aspect in the field test.
Aspect Mean Score Conclusion
Material 3 Good
Learning Design 3 Good
Implementation 3.5 Good
Technical Quality 3.5 Good
Mean 3.25 Good
From Table 11, student response is good to all aspects of the media, including material, learning media,
implementation, and technical quality aspects.
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Discussion
This result produces the Science Education Adaptive Learning System (ScEd-ALS) product as a computer-based
science learning media. ScEd-ALS can become a solution to improve the students’ learning result to achieve learning
mastery. The developed ScEd-ALS learning media is holistically following the development procedure, appropriate,
effective, and practical.
The preliminary research aims at identifying the concrete problems found in the field and to find their solutions.
The researchers found that implementation of Indonesia’s 2013 National Curriculum 2013 has resulted in the complex-
ity of science learning at schools, i.e science learning is emphasized on both its learning process and evaluation. It was
found that in the year 8 odd semester, incomplete learning mastery existed in the concepts of movement and simple
machine. This is indicated by the percentage of 35% of student (Movement concept) and 55% (Simple Machines con-
cept) of students following remedial test on those concepts. The full learning hours have often caused teachers to give
remedial test or assignment to the students to achieve learning mastery. The commercial interactive CD has also been
used as the schools’ own device. The packaging of the materials is interesting, although the pedagogic intervention has
not fully accommodated the students’learning style variation. Besides, feedback on the evaluation item has not precisely
provided a clear guidance. The ScEd-ALS media is developed by accommodating students’ learning style variation and
pedagogic intervention can give a positive effect on the learning result and to achieve mastery.
This prototyping stage consists of prototype design; optimizing the result of prototype design; formative evaluation
that consists of expert review, one-to-one evaluation, small group evaluation, and field test. In this stage, the researchers
perfect the ScEd-ALS learning media by identifying the appropriateness and the students’ response on the ScEd-ALS
learning media. Then, the researchers revised the ScEd-ALS learning media based on the suggestions from the experts,
teachers and the students, so the ScEd-ALS learning media’s quality becomes better. In Field Test stage, the researchers
tested the effectivity and practicality of the revised ScEd-ALS learning media. The effectivity of the ScEd-ALS learning
media can be seen from the percentage of students who have the score ≥ Minimum Mastery Criteria (MMC) and from
the teachers’ response on the effectiveness of the ScEd-ALS learning media. The practicality of the ScEd-ALS learning
media was obtained from the teachers and students’ responses on the given ScEd-ALS.
ScEd-ALS learning media is declared worthy and appropriate by nine experts. These nine experts are four media
experts and five teaching material experts. According to the media experts, the ScEd-ALS learning media has validity
from the aspect of software engineering and the aspect of visual media communication. Likewise, from the material
expert, the media has validity from teaching material aspect.
The One-to-one evaluation results show the ScEd-ALS media is good in the components of material, learning de-
sign, implementation and technical quality. The result of Small group evaluation shows the aspect of media (ScEd-ASL
with kinesthetic) a ‘good’ was awarded several notes for the betterment of the media interface. From the Field test, it
was found that the ScEd-ALS media with kinesthetic learning style is highly effective to improve the students learning
mastery. Meanwhile, the lowest effectivity is on the ScEd-ALS media with visual learning style.
The research results are in line with the development of Kamardeen’s (2014) adaptive e-learning that an adaptive
learning approach can facilitate a more meaningful learning since it provides participation, interaction, real-time feedback,
improved flexibility. Besides, the implementation of adaptive e-learning gives a good learning experience and quick
feedback to immediately check for comprehension. In line with that, the development of adaptive learning in a mobile
setting is a successful teaching method (Tortorella & Graf, 2010). The fact is people learn in different ways and with dif-
ferent learning style (Graf, Lan, & Liu, 2009; Popescu, 2010). Further research in AeLS or hypermedia has provided a fun
experience for the students using internal logic system to create a specific model for the students’ needs and to use the
model to provide the students with an adaptive learning experience (McNutt & Brennan, 2005).
Conclusions
Research result shows the identification of students’ learning style as a significant factor in learning effectiveness.
Students with different learning styles also have their own different learning approach and a teacher cannot facilitate all
of them at the same time. Teachers’ limitation in serving all students’ learning style can be anticipated through the use
of Computer-Based Instructions. The conclusions from the developmental research result are the following:
1. ScEd-Adaptive Learning System as developed computer-based science learning media/computer-based
science instructions is declared appropriate. The characteristics of ScEd-Adaptive Learning System as
computer-based science learning media/computer-based science instructions integrate learning with the
varieties of visual, aural, read/write, and kinesthetic learning style students.
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2. ScEd-Adaptive Learning System as computer-based science learning media/computer-based science instruc-

tions having kinesthetic learning has a high effectivity in improving students’ learning mastery.
The unique ScEd-ALS media in the Integrated Science material is accommodating fast and slow learner accord-
ing to their learning styles. ScEd-ALS as developed computer-based science learning media/computer-based science
instructions is declared appropriate. Kinesthetic ScEd-ALS has a high effectivity in improving students’ learning mastery.
The expected effects are the following: (1) for the government, as one of the alternatives to make the process of sci-
ence learning in schools more efficient with limited laboratory facilities. (2) for schools that do not have an adequate
number of science teachers, but they have good IT facility can have the media to replace the needs for teachers; (3) for
the students, the media can accommodate slow and fast learners by giving quick motivation/feedback; (5) for teachers,
the media can be used for remedial teaching.
ScEd-Adaptive Learning System learning media as computer-based science learning media/computer-based science
instructions with the learning style variations have not been measured for their mass effect. For further research, the use
of the media in a setting of quasi-experiment to achieve high generalization can be used. Learning media ScEd-Adaptive
Learning System as computer-based science learning media/computer-based science instructions with learning style
variations are declared good by both experts and students, and the development of the media can be continued with
the Android or iOS versions, so the media can be more operationally practical.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank PUSLITPEN UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta for the Grant-HAKI Development Cluster (2017).
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727
DEVELOPMENT OF PRE-
SERVICE TEACHERS’
UNDERSTANDING OF THE
NATURE OF SCIENCE THROUGH
AN INTERDISCIPLINARY
CURRICULUM: A CASE STUDY
Abstract. In the research, the purpose was

to implement and evaluate an interdiscipli-
Melis Yeşilpınar Uyar,
nary curriculum that aimed at developing
Tuba Demirel,
social sciences pre-service teachers’ under-
Ahmet Doğanay
standing and knowledge about the nature
of science. This research was based on case
study design. In order to collect the research
data, the methods of observation, interview
and document analysis were used. For the Introduction
analysis of the data, the inductive content
Rapid changes in the field of science and technology, lead to increased
analysis approach was applied. The results
knowledge in different fields. Increased knowledge accumulation also brings
of the analysis demonstrated that the
about a transformation that requires questioning the quality of the produced
curriculum implemented had positive influ- and shared knowledge. This situation affects the social, cultural and economic
ence on the pre-service teachers’ under- activities of the societies. Therefore, it is seen that the targeted knowledge,
standing and knowledge about the nature skills and values that are gained to the students through the curriculum
of science. In this respect, it was found that have changed. Among these knowledge, skills and values that are aimed
to be gained to the students, it has been determined that the skills such as
the curriculum helped develop the partici-
information literacy, critical thinking, creative thinking and the basic and
pants’ lack of skills and knowledge about
high level scientific process skills that serve the achievement of these skills
the subjects related to “nature of scientific have become more important recently.
models, nature of observations and values In this context, in today’s education systems, it is pointed out that stu-
guiding scientists in their work and social dents’ awareness of science and technology should be increased and that it is
lives” included in the content of nature of an evitable part of a curriculum to help students at all education levels from
elementary school level to university level understand the nature of science
science. In addition, it was revealed that the
(Tatar, Karakuyu & Tüysüz, 2011). The recent change in the understanding
pre-service teachers’ lack of readiness made
of nature of science has now required individuals in the society not only to
the implementation process difficult. have sufficient knowledge about the nature of science so that they can be
Key words: curriculum development, inter- considered to be science-literate but also to revise and renew their current
disciplinary curriculum, nature of science, knowledge (Köseoğlu, Tümay & Budak, 2008; McComas, 1998; Tatar, Karakuyu
teacher education. & Tüysüz, 2011).
It is reported that in the initial phase of the development phase, it is
necessary to examine and develop the related understandings of teachers
Melis Yeşilpınar Uyar and pre-service teachers, who are expected to reflect the nature of science to
Dumlupınar University, Turkey
Tuba Demirel, Ahmet Doğanay the instruction process (Aslan, Yalçın & Taşar, 2009; Capps & Crawford, 2013;
Çukurova University, Turkey Köseoğlu, Tümay & Üstün, 2010; Tufan, 2007). However, the results of national
and international studies show that teachers and pre-service teachers do not
have sufficient knowledge about this subject and that they have numerous
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ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/ (P. 728-741)
misconceptions and have wrong or insufficient views about it (Abd-El-Khalick & Boujaoude, 1997; Abd-El Khalick,
Bell & Lederman, 1998; Aslan, Yalçın &Taşar, 2009; Çınar & Köksal, 2013; Doğan et.al., 2011; Kang, Scharmann, & Noh,
2005; Lederman, 1992; McComas, 1998; Moss, Abramsand & Robb, 2001; Tatar, Karakuyu &Tüysüz, 2011).
Up to now, different approaches or curricula have been tested regarding the teaching of nature of science to
overcome the related problems identified and to structure the nature of science appropriately (Akindehin, 1988;
Abd-El-Khalick & Lederman, 2000; Doğan et.al., 2011; Köseoğlu, Tümay & Budak, 2008; Köseoğlu, Tümay & Üstün,
2010). It is seen that these approaches, known as history-based, implicit and explicit-reflective, include different
specific features in relation to the teaching of nature of science and that most of the related studies were conducted
in a single discipline in the field of science education. On the other hand, it is claimed that nature of science also
includes such areas as history, sociology, psychology and philosophy (Abd-El-Khalick & Lederman, 2000; Clough,
2006) and that it is shaped on ethical and political bases (Özdemir, 2014). This situation indicates the importance
of an interdisciplinary approach which supports meaningful learning in the instruction process and which aims at
developing higher-order thinking skills (Erickson, 1995; Loepp, 1999).
Jacobs (1989, p.8) defines interdisciplinary approach as “a curriculum approach that applies the language
and methodology based on more than one discipline to examine a theme, issue, problem or an experience”. In
interdisciplinary approach, there is a need for an instruction process that simultaneously integrates the knowledge,
skills and perspectives of different disciplines rather than simultaneously teaching the subjects in these disciplines
(Jones, 2009). In this respect, it is pointed out that it is necessary to establish distinct connections between sub-
jects regarding related disciplines (Drake, 2007). In addition, it is stated that it is possible to teach experiences and
concepts related to science and social sciences via a holistic approach by drawing attention to the complex and
multi-faceted structure of human behavior and of the instruction process and overcoming the disciplinary bound-
aries (Şimşek & Adıgüzel, 2012). Studies focusing on interdisciplinary teaching demonstrate that this approach is
an effective way of increasing academic achievement and motivation, developing higher-order thinking skills and
giving meaning to concepts in different fields (Caplinger, 2013; Faulkner, 2012, Guthrie, Wigfield & VonSecker, 2000;
Kelly, 2011; Martin, 2011; Spelt, Biemans, Tobi, Luning & Mulder, 2009; Tsui, 1999). In this respect, it is seen that
interdisciplinary approach used in teaching different field subjects and concepts could be an alternative approach
for the development of understanding of nature of science.
Background to the Problem
In literature, related studies revealed that different teaching approaches and curricula have been implemented
in relation to the nature of science (Akerson & Hanuscin, 2007; Bilen, 2012; Bianchini & Colburn, 2000; Capps &
Crawford, 2013; Doğan et.al., 2011; Köseoğlu, Tümay & Üstün, 2010; Leblebicioğlu, Metin & Yardımcı, 2012; Schwartz,
Lederman & Crawford, 2004; Sevim, 2012; Sevim & Altındağ-Pekbay, 2012), yet it is seen that there is no research on
curriculum development based on the interdisciplinary approach. Therefore, there is a need for a curriculum based
on the interdisciplinary approach in order for pre-service teachers to understand the nature of science and scien-
tific knowledge and to reflect their knowledge and skills to in-class implementations using appropriate strategies.
In line with this need, first, a need assessment research was conducted (Author, Author & Author, 2014). The
participants of this research were third year pre-service science & technology, social sciences and classroom teach-
ers. Also, semi-structured interviews were held with six volunteering pre-service social science teachers. In this
research, it was found that the social science pre-service teachers did not have sufficient knowledge and under-
standing regarding such subjects as “nature of observations, scientific models and classification; tentativeness of
scientific knowledge; hypotheses, theories and laws; scientific approach to research; and epistemological state of
scientific knowledge” in category of nature of scientific knowledge; “values guiding people in their work and social
lives” in the category of characteristics of a scientist and “scientific decisions” in the category of social structure of
scientific knowledge. In other words, it was found that there was a need of an interdisciplinary curriculum for the
social science pre-service teachers.
In order to meet the needs determined in the research, a curriculum which was designed based on interdis-
ciplinary approach and which aimed to develop social sciences pre-service teachers’ understanding of nature of
science was implemented and evaluated. In line with this purpose, the following research questions were directed:
•• How does curriculum implemented change pre-service teachers’ understanding of nature of science?
•• What are positive factors leading to a change in pre-service teachers’ understanding of nature of science?
•• What are difficulties experienced in the implementation process?
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Research Model
In the research the case study design one of qualitative research designs, was applied. In case studies, the analy-
sis process could not only focus on one or more than one individual but also allows investigating a phenomenon,
school or a curriculum in depth and in a multidimensional way (Patton, 2002; Yıldırım & Şimşek, 2008; Yin, 2003). In
the present research, the purpose was to examine how a curriculum regarding the nature of science designed and
implemented in an interdisciplinary approach changed pre-service teachers’ understanding of nature of science. For
this purpose, the case described in this research was function of nature of science curriculum in implementation.
Case: Function of Nature of Science Curriculum in Implementation
The case described in this research was function of nature of science curriculum in implementation. The
development of this curriculum is based on an interdisciplinary approach. Interdisciplinary curriculum describes
a curriculum approach that applies the language and methodology based on more than one discipline (Jacobs,
1989). In the process of designing the curriculum, first, in line with the needs revealed via the need assessment
study (Doğanay, Demircioğlu, & Yeşilpınar, 2014), the learning outcomes and generalizations of the curriculum
were determined. In the following phase, the content which was necessary to obtain the 10 learning outcomes
and six generalizations determined was formed.
The content of the curriculum included the subjects of “values guiding people in their work and social lives,
nature of observations, nature of scientific models, hypotheses, theories and laws”. While preparing the content,
the concept of “nature of science” was taken as basis and integrated with the fields of history, geography, physics,
chemistry, biology and mathematics. Figure 1 presents the visual association network regarding the integrated fields.
Figure 1. Interdisciplinary visual association network.
While preparing the lesson plans which constituted the basis of the learning and teaching process, the
planning process suggested by McTighe and Wiggins (1999) was taken into account. For the implementation of
the plans, directive questions and the learning-teaching and assessment activities prepared were used. For the
learning-teaching process activities, four worksheets were used, and in the assessment process, two assessment
sheets, open-ended questions and a reflective assessment form were used.
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General Background of Implementation
The curriculum designed was implemented in eight class hours, in the 2014-2015 Academic Year Spring
Semester. The implementation process was carried out in two weeks’ time period. The first implementation was
carried out on April 14, 2015. The first plan lasted for four lessons and was designed to attain the following learning
outcomes: explain the values that guide scientists in their works and social lives; notice that a scientist has char-
acteristics such as imagination, intelligence and honesty; explain the steps of scientific research method; notice
that imagination and creativity should be among the methods to be used in research; notice that the results of
scientific observations can change to the thoughts of scientists, the ways of scientists use their experiments, the
social context in which observations are obtained. The second implementation was carried out on April 21, 2015.
The second plan lasted for four lessons and was designed to attain the following learning outcomes: give examples
of scientific models used in social and science fields; notice that scientific models are not a copy of the truth; no-
tice that scientific models can change according to time and knowledge; distinguish the difference between the
hypothesis, theory and laws associated with different disciplines; explain the relationship between the hypothesis,
theory and law by taking account of the examples from different disciplines.
As the social sciences 3rd grade teaching curriculum did not include the course of Nature of Science, the
implementation process was conducted within the scope of drama lessons. Following the process, the function
of the curriculum in implementation was examined and evaluated in terms of the “change in the understanding of
nature of science”, “the factors leading to the change” and the “difficulties experienced during the implementation”.
Participants
In the research, the convenience sampling method was used. The participants in the research included 25
third-grade pre-service teachers from the department of Social Sciences Teaching at Education Faculty and one of
the researchers who developed and implemented the curriculum (implementer-researcher). The reason why the
participants were pre-service teachers from the department of Social Sciences Teaching was that the students from
this department were those who received the lowest total score (among three departments) from the questionnaire
of “Nature of Scientific Knowledge Scale (NKSC) and “Views on Science-Technology-Society (VOSTS) Questionnaire”
conducted within the scope of the need assessment study (Author, Author and Author 2014).
For the interviews held at the end of the implementation process, the focus students were determined based
on the criterion sampling. The criteria used to determine the participants included participation in the whole pro-
cess and the participants’ levels of participation in lessons. In this respect, the focus students were three female
and three male volunteering pre-service teachers, six in total, who demonstrated low, moderate and high levels
of participation.
The researcher who conducted the implementation had a master’s degree in the field of science teaching
and was taking PhD education in the field of curriculum and instruction at the time of the research. The researcher
also conducted several studies on science teaching, teacher education and curriculum development during her
postgraduate education. Besides the implementation of the curriculum, the researcher took active role together
with the other researchers in the process of designing and evaluating the curriculum.
Data Collection and Analysis

In order to collect the research data, the methods of observation, interview and document analysis were
used. In the first phase of the data collection process, the curriculum was implemented in a time period of eight
class hours in two weeks. In this process, the unstructured observation method was used, and one of the research-
ers video-recorded the implementation process. Within the scope of document analysis, the reflective assessment
forms filled out by the students at the end of each lesson were used. In this form, the students were expected to
state and reason what they had learned during the lesson, what knowledge and skills they had acquired to use
in their daily lives, in which parts of the instruction process they experienced difficulties, which activities and
subjects drew their attention most, and which scientific areas were more associated with what they had learned.
Following the observations, semi-structured interviews were held with six volunteering pre-service teachers who
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met the criteria of research. The interview form included 10 questions directed to the students to determine their
understanding of the characteristics of scientists as well as their understanding of the nature of scientific knowl-
edge and to identify their views about the implementation process. The interviews were held between 29 May
2015-2 June 2015 by one of the researchers in the researcher’s office. Before the interviews, an interview protocol
was prepared for the questions that were planned to be asked, and the aim of the interview was shared with the
participants. In this process, the participants stated that they would like to participate voluntarily. The interviews
with six participants took 15 minutes on average. The interviews and pre-interview procedures were audio-recorded
with the permission from participants.
For the analysis of the research data, the inductive content analysis method was used (Patton 2002). In the
analysis process, the research data collected via observations, interviews and documents were holistically analyzed.
In the first phase, the categories and sub-categories regarding the change in the understanding of nature of sci-
ence and the factors guiding this change were determined. Following this, the related categories were gathered,
and the models describing the situation were formed.

Validity and Reliability Studies
Within the scope of validity studies, first, to ensure content validity, five faculty members expert in the fields
of science education and curriculum and instruction were asked for their views about the measurement tools
developed. In line with their views, the necessary corrections and changes were done to clarify some of the ques-
tions in the reflective assessment form. In addition, the whole research process was presented to expert review
(Brantlinger Jimenez Klingner Pugach & Richardson, 2005; Creswell, 2008) to determine the appropriateness of the
research design to the research questions directed in the study and to assess the validity of the results obtained.
Moreover, methodological triangulation (Brantlinger et.al., 2005; Creswell, 2008; Guba, 1981; Patton, 2002; Yin,
2003) was done, and the data collected in different ways were compared. The findings obtained were supported
with direct quotations, and at the end of each quotation, the source of data and the method applied to collect the
data were mentioned. For the quotations, such codes as S1 and S2 were used for the focus students, and for the
other students, codes such as AB and HA representing the initials of their names were used. Within the scope of
the verification for reliability (Guba, 1981), an expert in the field of qualitative research examined the relationship
of the categories and sub-categories with the selected raw data texts. Eventually, a consensus was reached on all
the categories and sub-categories related to the raw data texts examined in the research.
Ethical Procedures
Research ethics are guiding rules that guide researchers in subjects such as personal privacy, confidentiality of
data, participant approval to conduct research in accordance with ethical principles (Berg, 2001; Christians, 2000).
Within this scope, participant approval was obtained in the research in line with the voluntary principle, and all
participants were informed about the purpose of the research. At all stages of the research, the identities of the
participants were kept, and the codes given to the participants were used when quoting raw data texts.
Results of Research
Structure of the Implementation Process and the Change in the Understanding of Nature of Science
Figure 2 presents the categories and sub-categories which were obtained via the analysis of the interviews
and observations and which explained both the structure of the implementation process and the change in the
understanding of nature of science.
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Figure 2. Structure of the implementation process and the change in the understanding of the nature of sci-
ence.
As can be seen in Figure 2, the implementer-researcher attracted attention and examined the students’
background knowledge about the subject using the question-and-answer method. According to the results, the
students thought that there was cumulative growth of scientific knowledge and that it was objective; in addition,
the students gave inappropriate examples to the scientific model and had insufficient knowledge and understand-
ing regarding such subjects as characteristics of scientific models and hypothesis, theory and law. It was seen
that one of the students without much knowledge about the subject was unable to understand the distinction
between theory and law:
Law is proved experimentally, and theory is considered to be true without being proved (Observation, 21st April 2015).
Another student claimed that scientific knowledge is objective, saying:
With the development of technology, subjective information turns into objective information… (Observation, 14th April
2015).
For the purpose of overcoming the deficiencies mentioned, it was seen that the implementer-researcher
presented information; that the students were asked to give the warrants for their responses; and mathematical
problem solving was included in the learning-teaching process. In addition, the implementation process was
supported with directive questions and explanations, open-ended questions, audio-visual elements and with
activities related to different scientific areas. An example for the directive questions and explanations used by the
implementer-researcher can be given as follows:
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Well, you all looked at the same things and produced various stories… think that you are scientists, and what did you do
in this process? (Observation, 14th April 2015).
In the implementation carried out in the second week, the implementer-researcher presented information
about scientific models as follows:
We can consider each of these maps, you use in your field, as a scientific model. If we have a look at what modelling is, well,
we can define it as the whole of activities carried out to make an unknown target clear and comprehensible with the help
of current sources. As for the model, it is … (Observation, 21st April 2015).
It was seen that in another dimension of the category and the related sub-categories, the pre-service teachers
achieved the learning outcomes and generalizations to a great extent as a result of the introduction and learning-
teaching process activities. In this respect, according to the observations and interviews, the pre-service teachers
managed to explain the scientific research process (f:5), the characteristics of scientists (f:22), the characteristics
of scientific models (f: 16) and the reasons of the change in the models (f:16), the factors influential on the nature
of scientific observations (f:6) and the relationship between hypothesis, theory and law (f:3) and to exemplify the
scientific models used in different fields (f:6) and recognized the interdisciplinary structure of the nature of science
(f:5), tentativeness of scientific knowledge (f:6) and the importance of creativity and imagination in the process of
scientific research (f:8). In addition, the observations also revealed that the participants made explanations show-
ing that they were able to understand the distinction between observation and inference (f:3) and create a new
product with the help of knowledge and skills in different disciplines (f:2).
To illustrate, one of the focus students who had insufficient knowledge about the characteristics of scientific
models at the beginning of the lesson said:
“Well, it seems to me that the discipline of history does not include any model … For example, you search the sources for
history. You search for all the sources in the field where you will conduct your research … To me, the scientific model is
something like the cult (Observation, 14th April 2015, S6)”
At the end of the implementation, the change in the participant’s knowledge and understanding regarding
this subject was as follows:
If we give an example from maps, I think scientific model is like a small building block of science. It is comprehensive, free
and memorable … For example, science, I mean the periodic table. It is a scientific model used in science. In geography
and history: we have maps in history; for example, the maps of the Torunoğulları State in 1700s and 1800s … To me, it is
not the real map but a similar one. A map cannot represent the reality. I mean it may be corrupted … (Interview, S6, p. 3).
When the sub-categories of the categories of generalization and learning outcomes were examined in detail,
it was seen that the indicators related to understanding the distinction between hypothesis, theory and law and
explaining the relationship between these concepts were observed less frequently than the other learning out-
comes. In addition, the interviews revealed that the deficiencies regarding this subject were not overcome at all.
One of the focus students reported in the reflective assessment form on 21st April 2015 that s/he learned
this subject, saying “I have learned the real relationship between law and theory. Previously, I thought that theory was
based on untested information, but now I know that theory helps clarify the information in the related law and that it
could exist before or after the law. Additionally, I’ve learned the real meaning of the concept of proof. I have also learned
that endless experiments should be conducted to prove scientific knowledge (S2)”. The participant also stated during
the interview that what s/he had learned was not permanent:
Law is general information, and theory is a sub-step of law. We explained theory based on law. If there were no law, then
theory would be without any support. As for hypothesis, it comes first (Interview, S2, p.3).
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Another focus student made wrong or inefficient explanation regarding the relationship between hypothesis,
theory and law, saying:
I think theory is something unproved. Hypothesis is the idea we put forward. Law is the proved method we use. Now, law
is… These are all science, and all of them have influence on science. Hypothesis, I mean you put forward your proposition.
Theory is something found between law and hypothesis, but it then becomes a law. I think law comes last (Interview, S1, p.3).
Positive Factors Leading to Change
Figure 3 demonstrates the categories related to the positive factors which were revealed via the analysis
of the interviews and the reflective assessment forms and which led to the change in the pre-service teachers’
understanding of nature of science.
Figure 3. Positive factors leading to the change.
When Figure 3 is examined, it is seen that the audio-visual elements, interesting examples and activities which
were related to different scientific fields and used in the implementation process contributed to the change in
understanding of nature of science to a great extent. One of the focus students mentioned the activities related
to different scientific fields, saying:
It was effective. I mean I had the chance to correct my previous wrong knowledge after we learned the subject in detail. I
had given wrong answers to most of the matching exercises regarding hypothesis, theory and law. I learned the right ones,
and I had the chance to overcome the deficiencies… For example, as far as remember, in the questionnaire, there was a
question regarding the surfaces of the moon. While answering that question, I benefitted from different scientific fields like
physics and geography (Interview, S5, p.4).
Another student reported views about the contribution of audio-visual elements, saying:
I have always been interested in the change of the borders on the world map throughout history as well as in the visual
reflection of this change because it is related to our own field (Reflective Assessment Form, 21st April 2015, ZE).
Factors Making the Implementation Process Difficult
Figure 4 presents the categories related to the factors which were revealed via the analysis of the interviews
and the reflective assessment forms and which made the implementation process difficult.
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Figure 4. Factors making the implementation process difficult.
When Figure 4 is examined, it is seen that among the prominent factors making the implementation process
difficult was the students’ low level of readiness. In addition, three participants mentioned the physical conditions
of the classroom environment, and two participants mentioned the unclear visual elements. One of the participants
stated that the instructions used in the implementation of the activities restricted imagination. The focus students
who pointed out that low level of readiness makes teaching difficult said:
For example, we were expected to fill out the given worksheets, and we had difficulty doing so. Initially, we tried to under-
stand what it was. We didn’t know anything about it. We only knew that there would be a training. We did not prepare for
it in advance, and we did that training. While doing it, we had a little difficulty in this phase of thinking (Interview, S3, p.4).
It was a complicated process. We experienced some difficulties because of our lack of readiness (Reflective Assessment Form,
14th April 2015, S1). For example, you showed those two photos. One of them was very close, and the other was very far,
and it took a lot of time to understand it. We tried to understand it and compared it without background knowledge. What
is all your knowledge about planets? (Interview, S1, p.4).
Another student mentioned the characteristics of the physical environment, saying:
Because the lessons were carried out in an environment which was not appropriate at all, I had some difficulties like my
illegible handwriting and the physical discomfort I felt (Reflective Assessment Form, 14th April 2015, SB).
Discussion
The findings obtained in the research revealed that the nature-of-science curriculum based on the inter-
disciplinary approach, included introductory activities which aimed to attract attention to the subject and to
examine the background knowledge and that a positive change in the students’ understanding of nature of sci-
ence was aimed with the help of presentation of information as well as with questions and related explanations,
open-ended questions and activities making connections with different scientific fields. When the literature on
interdisciplinary instruction principles is examined, it is seen that in the instruction process, it is important to
examine background knowledge necessary for interdisciplinary connections and that it is essential to imple-
ment an inquiry-based instruction in which knowledge and skills based on different disciplines are integrated
and in which students take an active part (Campbell & Henning, 2010; Erickson, 1995; Jacobs, 1989; Loepp,
1999; Mallanda, 2011; Mansilla & Duraisingh, 2007; Martinello, 2000). In addition, it is pointed out that students
should make generalizations and use problem-solving and decision-making strategies based on the relation-
ships between concepts (Meeth, 1978 cited in Garkovich, 1982; Erickson, 1995).
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In line with the findings and the data reported in related literature, it could be stated that implementa-
tion appropriate to the features of an interdisciplinary approach was performed in the process of presenting
and giving meaning to information; that the learning outcomes and generalizations of the curriculum were
achieved; and that connections were established with different scientific fields within the curriculum design. In
the research, it was found that among the learning outcomes and the generalizations, the indicators regarding
the outcomes of “explaining the characteristics of scientists and scientific models and recognizing not only the
factors influential on the nature of scientific observations but also the tentativeness of scientific knowledge”
were observed more frequently, and in this respect, it was seen that different generalizations were made. On
the other hand, it was revealed that the deficiencies regarding hypothesis, theory and law were not overcome
at all. As examples of these deficiencies in learning, the pre-service teachers supported a hierarchical relation-
ship between hypothesis, theory and law and maintained an understanding that proved theories turn into law.
The results obtained in other related studies demonstrate that activities carried out in relation to the sub-
ject failed to help understand the concepts of hypothesis, theory and law and the relationships between them
(Küçük, 2008; Leblebicioğlu, Metin & Yardımcı, 2012) and that it was not easy to change the prevalent thought
about the concepts (Abd-El-Khalick, 2005; Akerson & Hanuscin, 2007; Akerson, Morrison & McDuffie, 2006; Ha-
nuscin, Akerson, & Phillipson-Mower, 2006). Leblebicioğlu et al. (2012) pointed out that this situation, which is
also defined as misconception (McComas, 1998), has a relationship with lack of development of the philosophy
of nature of science and that there is a need for long-term implementation for the development of philosophical
understanding. In this respect, the failure to overcome the pre-service teachers’ deficiencies regarding the subject
of hypothesis, theory and law could be attributed to their lack of knowledge and understanding regarding the
philosophy of science. When viewed from a more general perspective, it is thought that this situation is directly
associated with the students’ low level of readiness rather than just with the philosophy of science. The reason is
that background knowledge about a subject is a powerful predictor of the level of learning (Champagne, Klopfer
& Anderson, 1980; Taber, 2001). In contrast with the participants of many other studies, the pre-service teach-
ers participating in this research were students in the department of Social Sciences Teaching. For this reason,
compared to the pre-service teachers from science-related departments, pre-service teachers attending the
department of Social Sciences Teaching might have lower levels of knowledge and skills regarding science and
scientific research process. In addition, designing of the curriculum with an interdisciplinary approach requires
integration of knowledge and skills regarding different fields of science. In studies establishing connection with
interdisciplinary implementations (Barnes, 2011; Özer & Özkan, 2013; Wagner, Murphy, Holderegger, & Waits,
2012), it was reported that deficiencies in background knowledge are among the factors making the instruction
process difficult. Moreover, in the present research, the fact that the pre-service teachers frequently mentioned
their low levels of readiness as one factor making the instruction process difficult demonstrates that this situa-
tion, which was also perceived by the students, is among important issues which should be taken into account
while teaching the nature of science.
More specifically, this situation could also be associated with the resistance to new concepts taught. The
reason is that the process of conceptual change is known to require a multi-dimensional structure which involves
an epistemological, ontological and socio-affective view point (Clough, 2006; Kyriakopoulou & Vosniadou, 2014;
Lin et.al., 2016). It is seen that the factors influential on the process include background knowledge and such
demographic characteristics as class grade, gender, reasoning and motivation as well as other different strategies
regarding instruction process (Lin et.al., 2016). Therefore, it was found that in some short-term implementations
expected to lead to a change, misconceptions show resistance to change and that permanent conceptual change
cannot be achieved at all (Franke & Bogner, 2011; Champagne et.al., 1980; Özsevgeç, Çepni & Bayri, 207 cited
in Gunstone, 1987; Leblebicioğlu, Metin & Yardımcı, 2012; Saka & Akdeniz, 2006). When the other findings were
taken into consideration, it was revealed that among the most frequent positive factors leading to the change
were audio-visual elements used in the process and that the pre-service teachers reported views about unclear
visual elements which made the instruction process difficult. As an example for these views, it was seen that
the participants mentioned photos which were not directly perceived as craters on the surface of the Moon but
interpreted depending on personal experiences. The fact that audio-visual elements were among the positive
elements which led to the change could be associated with the contribution of these elements to the process
of perceiving, interpreting and giving meaning to the knowledge. The reason is that today, the effectiveness of
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the learning and teaching process is claimed to be increased with well-designed visual instruction materials,
but in this process, it is pointed out that the ability to perceive and interpret visual messages should be taken
into account (Yeh & Cheng, 2010). In this case, as mentioned in related literature, teaching of these elements
could be said to contribute to the development of teaching of audio-visual elements, but it could be stated that
some of the participants considered these elements to make the instruction process difficult since they did not
acquire the ability to interpret visual elements at all. Among the other factors making the instruction process
difficult, lack of good physical conditions indicates that physical conditions should be improved to conduct
interactive group works. The basic reason for this situation is that Drama is the course most appropriate to
conduct the implementation process. The reason is that the physical structure of the classroom appropriate to
drama made difficult the process of filling out the worksheets and the assessment sheets within the scope of
the activities. As mentioned by Hanuscin, Akerson and Phillipson-Mower (2006), in teacher education curricula,
there are limited achievement opportunities for the development of understanding of nature of science. In order
to solve this problem, it is pointed out that the related curricula should include different courses regarding the
nature of science.
Conclusions
Consequently, in the present research, it was found that the nature-of-science curriculum, which was
based on the interdisciplinary approach, caused a positive change in the pre-service teachers’ understanding
and knowledge regarding the nature of science. In this respect, it was seen that the deficiencies in learning such
subjects found in the content of nature of science as “nature of scientific models, nature of observations and
values guiding scientists in their work and social lives” were overcome to a great extent. In addition, it was seen
that the participants’ low levels of readiness made the implementation process difficult.
As a result, it was concluded that the curriculum which was developed with an interdisciplinary approach
for the nature of science largely was in line with the requirements arising in the context of the current situa-
tion, provided to the developments of students’ knowledge and understanding about nature of science and
was implementable.
All these results obtained in the research were limited to the implementation of the nature-of-science
curriculum developed with the interdisciplinary approach, in eight class hours in the department of Social Sci-
ences Teaching. However, the results demonstrate that there is a need for structural reorganizations to develop
understanding of nature of science with the help of long-term implementations in teacher education curricula.
Within the scope of these reorganizations, the course of nature of science developed with the interdisciplin-
ary approach could be suggested as a common course to be included in the teacher education curriculum in
the second or third academic term. It is thought that the development of the curriculum of the course with
an interdisciplinary approach could allow addressing different fields like social sciences teaching; that such a
reorganization could help solve problems like resistance to new concepts and lack of background knowledge
and skills; and that implementations lasting at least one academic term could lead to permanent changes in
the understanding of nature of science.
Implications for future research are given below.
•• Low levels of readiness of the pre-service teachers are among the factors that make the implementa-
tion process difficult. Therefore, it is suggested to conduct phenomenological researches on multi-
dimensional and in-depth examinations of the factors affecting the level of readiness.
•• In order to solve the problems encountered during the implementation process, it is thought that
there is a need for action researches in order for pre-service teachers to eliminate the misconcep-
tions about the concepts of hypothesis, theory and law, and to improve their skills to perceiving and
interpreting visual messages.
•• The curriculum implemented in this research can be evaluated at the different department and class
levels in teacher education curricula and this evaluation can be supported by quantitative data.
•• Since the curriculum development is a cyclical process, the curriculum based on the interdisciplinary
approach can be implemented in the current context. With this implementation, development stud-
ies can be realized to make the curriculum more effective.
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Acknowledgements
This research was supported by Çukurova University Scientific Research Projects with grant number of EF-
2013BAP15.
This research was presented at 2nd International Eurasian Educational Research Congress (June 8-10, 2015,
Ankara, Turkey).
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Received: April 06, 2018 Accepted: August 05, 2018
Melis Yeşilpınar Uyar PhD, Lecturer, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational

Sciences, Curriculum and Instruction, Dumlupinar University,
Turkey.
E-mail: myesilpinaruyar@gmail.com
Tuba Demirel PhD, Faculty of Education, Department of Mathematics and
Science Education, Science Education, Çukurova University,
Turkey.
E-mail: tubademircioglu@gmail.com
Ahmet Doğanay PhD, Professor, Faculty of Education, Department of Educational
Sciences, Curriculum and Instruction, Çukurova University, Turkey.
E-mail: adoganay@cu.edu.tr
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conclusions; list of references in APA style.
The papers should be submitted in English. If English is a second language for the author, please consider having the manuscript
proof read and edited before submitting. The preliminary text of the article can be sent as a.doc file in the attachment by e-mail: mail.
jbse@gmail.com
The text must be elaborated in Word for Windows, using 12 point Times New Roman letters. An article should not exceed 7-10 A4 pages,
included figures, tables and bibliography. Publishing of longer articles should be negotiated separately. Texts margins: top and bottom 20mm,
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language must be clear and accurate. The authors have to present the results, propositions and conclusions in a form that can suit scientists
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References in the text should be presented in brackets (Knox, 1988; Martin, 1995). If necessary, the page can be indicated: (Martin,
1995, p.48). The list of references should be presented after the text. The Words List of References: 11pt, bold, small letters. The references
should be listed in full at the end of the paper in the following standard form:
For books: Saxe, G.B. (1991). Cultural and Cognitive Development: Studies in Mathematical Understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
For articles: Bekerian, D.A. (1993). In Search of the Typical Eyewitness. American Psychologist, 48, 574-576.
For chapters within books: Bjork, R.A. (1989). Retrieval Inhibition as an Adaptive Mechanism in Human Memory. In: H.L. Roediger III & F.I.M.
Craik (Eds.), Varieties of Memory & Consciousness (pp. 309-330). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
On a separate page, author - related data should be presented in English: name, surname, degree and academic title, institution, full
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Journal`s requirements for the authors are available online: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/jbse/files/JBSE_requirements_2017.pdf
742
JBSE
Problems of Psychology in the 21st
Century is an international, periodical,
peer reviewed scientific journal, issued by
the Scientia Socialis, UAB in cooperation
with SMC “Scientia Educologica”.
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. dr. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific

Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“,
Republic of Lithuania
Problems of Psychology in the 21st Century

(ISSN 2029-8587) is abstracted and/or indexed
in:
Index Copernicus -
http://journals.indexcopernicus.com
EBSCO - http://search.ebscohost.com
Editorial Board
Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey

Dr., prof. Serhiy Boltivets, Grigory Kostyuk Psychological Institute of the Ukrainian National
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Ukraine
Dr., assoc. prof. Irena Gailiene, SMC "Scientia Educologica", Republic of Lithuania
Dr., prof. Irakli Imedadze, Dimitri Uznadze Georgian Psychological National Society, Georgia
Dr. Julia Lakhvich, Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh.
Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of
Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
Dr., prof. Maria Ledzińska, University of Warsaw, Poland
Dr., prof. Aleksandr Lobanov, Belarusian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., prof. Guna Svence, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Website: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/PPC/Problems_of_Psychology.htm
743
ISSN 1648-3898 /Print/, ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/
Compiled by: Vincentas Lamanauskas

Linguistic Editor: Ilona Ratkevičienė
Cover design by: Jurgina Jankauskienė
Layout design by : Linas Janonis

25 August 2018. Publishing in Quires 10,5. Edition 200
Publisher Scientia Socialis Ltd.,

Donelaicio Street 29, LT-78115 Siauliai, Lithuania
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Vol.17, No.

Published since 2002 Address:

ISSN 1648–3898 (Print) © Scientia Socialis Ltd., Lithuania, 2018

ISSN 2538–7138 (Online)

ISSN 2538–7138 /Online/

INTERCULTURAL LEARNING: CHALLENGES FOR CURRENT SCIENCE EDUCATION

IMPLEMENTATION OF INNOVATIVE CHEMISTRY LEARNING MATERIAL WITH GUIDED TASKS

INFORMATION FOR CONTRIBUTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742

INTERCULTURAL LEARNING: CHALLENGES FOR CURRENT SCIENCE EDUCATION

Received: June 30, 2018 Accepted: July 31, 2018

Martin Bílek PhD. in Pedagogy with orientation to Chemistry Didactics, Professor

GUIDED TASKS TO IMPROVE ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/

Population and Sample

Preparation of Innovative Learning Material for Gravimetry

Teaching and Learning Activities

Students Achievements and Academic Attitudes Measurement

The Development of Innovation of Learning Material

No Chemistry Topic Name of Sub-Topic in Gravimety Guided Tasks in Learning Activities

1 Introduction to Precipitation - Mechanism of Precipitation RT and CJR

3 Precipitating Reagents - Inorganic Reagents RT, MR

4 Special Technique in Gravim- - Homogeneous Precipitation RT, IE, PR

5 Application of Gravimetry - Calculation of Gravimetric Analysis IE, MR, PR

Standardization of Innovative Learning Material

Respondents’ opinion* (M±SD)

Content - Completeness of chemistry contents 3.88±0.35 3.89±0.31 3.88±0.33

- Accuracy of chemistry content 3.88±0.35 3.94±0.24 3.91±0.30

- Chemistry material is clearly derived 3.88±0.35 3.92±0.27 3.90±0.31

- Concepts can be applied in real life 3.75±0.46 3.94±0.24 3.84±0.35

- Involvement of learners in interactive study 4.00±0.00 3.95±0.21 3.98±0.11

Language - Language is in accordance with the development of 3.88±0.35 3.97±0.17 3.92±0.26

- Chemistry material is easy to read, language is simple 3.88±0.35 3.88±0.33 3.88±0.34

- Language is straightforward, accurate on chemistry term 3.75±0.46 3.88±0.33 3.81±0.40

Average 3.84±0.34 3.92±0.27 3.88±0.30

*Marking criteria: 4 = very good; 3 = good; 2 = poor, and 1 = very poor

Implementation of Developed Learning Material in Class

Evaluation Test Experimental Class Control Class

A (n=30) C (n=30) E (n=30) Average B (n=30) D (n=30) F (n=30) Average

Pre-test 22.47±2.01 22.83±2.07 22.83±1.5 22.71±1.86 22.57±1.61 22.87±1.66 22.73±1.57 22.72±1.61

Post-test 1 83.63±4.51 82.67±4.13 83.37±4.1 83.22±4.24 75.60±4.99 77.00±5.86 77.43±4.68 76.68±5.18

Post-test 2 86.70±4.27 86.63±3.35 87.90±4.4 87.08±4.00 72.53±4.65 74.53±6.13 74.63±5.58 73.89±5.45

Learning Activities with Guided Tasks

RT 82.10±16.37 87.17±9.87 83.50±9.71 84.26±11.98 76.63±9.59 81.50±4.71 78.50±9.68 78.88±7.99

CBR 86.63±7.42 83.97±5.44 80.30±6.25 81.63±6.37 72.50±11.10 65.30±10.66 71.43±11.18 69.74±10.98

CJR 88.30±8.45 87.33±8.67 82.43±10.57 86.02±9.23 75.27±6.27 79.57±2.10 75.00±6.61 76.61±4.99

IE 78.33±7.62 81.03±6.81 77.83±6.04 79.07±6.82 70.00±10.07 72.07±14.47 72.43±8.90 71.50±11.14

MR 84.17±8.28 86.47±8.97 81.57±10.99 84.07±9.42 76.90±10.29 74.93±10.15 81.57±11.60 77.80±10.68

PR 84.17±7.14 85.00±9.04 85.47±10.63 84.88±8.94 74.20±11.08 72.13±10.58 75.57±10.91 73.97±10.86

Average 83.28±5.78 85.16±3.48 81.85±4.85 83.43±4.71 74.25±5.13 74.25±5.15 75.57±5.66 74.75±5.31

Students’ Competence and Academic Attitudes on Chemistry

Score of students’ competence and academic attitudes (M±SD)

No Outcomes Experimental Class Control Class

A (n=30) C (n=30) E (n=30) Average B (n=30) D (n=30) F (n=30) Average

Received: March 20, 2018 Accepted: June 06, 2018

Manihar Situmorang Dr. Professor. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and

ACHIEVEMENT ISSN 2538-7138 /Online/

I Gde Wawan Sudatha, Abstract. Students’ spatial ability plays an

General Background of Research

Table 1. Pattern of 2 x 2 factorial experiment.

Spatial Ability High Spatial Group 1 Group 2

Instrument and Procedures

Table 3. Statistical description of the post-test.

Visualization Spatial Ability Mean Std. Deviation N

Dynamic High 84.52 5.86 31

Static High 73.00 5.58 34