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Assala mu alykum My Name is saqib imran and I am the

student of b.tech (civil) in sarhad univeristy of
science and technology peshawer.
I have written this notes by different websites and
some by self and prepare it for the student and also
for engineer who work on field to get some knowledge
from it.
I hope you all students may like it.
Remember me in your pray, allah bless me and all of
you friends.
If u have any confusion in this notes contact me on my
gmail id: Saqibimran43@gmail.com
or text me on 0341-7549889.

Saqib imran.

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Surveying

Surveying is the art of determining the relative positions of different objects on the surface of
the earth by measuring the horizontal distances between them, and by preparing a map to any
suitable scale. Thus, in discipline, the measurements are taken only in the horizontal plane.

Contents:

 Object
 Uses
 Principles
Object of surveying

The aim of surveying is to prepare a map to show the relative positions of the objects on the
surface of the earth. The map is drawn to some suitable scale. It shows the natural features of
a country, such as towns, villages, roads, railways, rivers, etc. Maps also include details of
different engineering works, such as roads, railways, irrigation canals, etc.

Uses of surveying

Surveying may be used for the following various applications:

1. To prepare a topographical map which shows the hills, valleys, rivers, villages, towns,
forests, etc. of a country.
2. To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of fields, houses and other
properties.
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3. To prepare an engineering map which shows the details of engineering works such as
roads, railways, reservoirs, irrigation canals, etc.
4. To prepare a military map showing the road and railway communications with different
parts of a country. Such a map also shows the different strategic points important for
the defence of a country.
5. To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity of a reservoir and to find the best
possible route for roads, railways, etc.
6. To prepare a geological map showing areas including underground resources.
7. To prepare an archaeological map including places where ancient relics exist.
General Principles of surveying
The general principles of surveying are:

1. To work from the whole to the part

2. To locate a new station by at least two measurements (linear or angular) from fixed
reference points.

According to the first principle, the whole area is first enclosed by main stations (i.e.
Controlling stations) and main survey lines (i.e. controlling lines). The area is then divided
into a number of parts by forming well conditioned triangles. A nearly equilateral triangle is
considered to be the best well-conditioned triangle.The main survey lines are measured very
accurately with a standard chain. Then the sides of the triangles are measured. The purpose of
this process of working is to prevent accumulation of error. During the procedure, if there is
any error in the measurement of any side of a triangle, then it will not affect the whole work.
The error can always be detected and eliminated.

According to the second principle, the new stations should always be fixed by at least two
measurements (linear or angular) from fixed reference points. Linear measurements refer to
horizontal distances measured by chain or tape. Angular measurements refer to the magnetic
bearing or horizontal angle taken by a prismatic compass or theodolite.

In chain surveying, the positions of main stations and directions of main survey lines are fixed
by tie lines and check lines.

Types of Surveying

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Surveying is primarily classified as under:

1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying is that type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane and the spheroidal shape is neglected. All triangles formed by survey
lines are considered plane triangles. The level line is considered straight and all plumb lines
are considered parallel. In everyday life were are concerned with small portion of earth’s
surface and the above assumptions seems to be reasonable in light of the fact that the length of
an arc 12 kilometers long lying in the earth’s surface is only 1cm greater than the subtended
chord and further that the difference between the sum of the angles in a plane triangle and the
sum of those in a spherical triangle is only one second for a triangle at the earth’s surface
having an area of 195 sq. km.

Geodetic Surveying is that type of surveying in which the shape of the earth is taken into
account. All lines lying in the surface are curved lines and the triangles are spherical triangles.
It therefore, involves spherical trigonometry. All Geodetic surveys include work of larger
magnitude and high degree of precision. The object of geodetic survey is to determine the
precise position on the surface of the earth, of a system of widely distant points which form
control stations to which surveys of less precision may be referred.

Classification of surveying

Surveys may be secondarily classified under no. of headings which define the uses or purpose
of resulting maps.

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Classification based upon nature of field:

There are three types of surveying based upon the nature of field which are as follows:

1. Land Surveying: It can be further classified as i) Topographical survey ii) Cadastrial

Survey and iii) City Survey. It generally deals with natural or artificial features on land
such as rivers, streams, lakes, wood, hills, roads, railways, canals, towns, water supply
systems, buildings & properties etc.
2. Marine Surveying: Marine or hydrographic survey deals with bodies of water for
purpose of navigation, water supply, harbour works or for determination of mean sea
level. The work consists in measurement of discharge of streams, making topographic
survey of shores and banks, taking and locating soundings to determine the depth of
water and observing the fluctutations of the ocean tide.
3. Astronomical Surveying: The astronomical survey offers the surveyor means of
determining the absolute location of any point or the absolute location of and direction
of any line on the surface of the earth. This consists in observations to the heavenly
bodies such as the sun or any fixed star.
Classification based on object:

Based on object, there are four types of surveying which are as follows:

1. Geological Surveying
2. Mine Surveying
3. Archaeological surveying
4. Military surveying
Classification based on instruments used:

Based on various types of instruments used, surveying can be classified into six types.

1. Chain surveying
2. Compass surveying
3. Plane table surveying
4. Theodolite surveying
5. Tacheometric surveying
6. Photographic surveying
Classification based on methods used:

Based on methods adopted, surveying can be categorized into:

1. Triangulation surveying
2. Traverse surveying

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Levelling

Levelling (or Leveling) is a branch of surveying, the object of which is: i) to find the elevations
of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum, and ii) to establish points at a given
or assumed datum. The first operation is required to enable the works to be designed while the
second operation is required in the setting out of all kinds of engineering works. Levelling
deals with measurements in a vertical plane.

Level surface: A level surface is defined as a curved surface which at each point is
perpendicular to the direction of gravity at the point. The surface of a still water is a truly level
surface. Any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth is, therefore, a level
surface.

Level line: A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is, therefore, normal to the plumb
line at all points.

Horizontal plane: Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level surface
at that point. It is, therefore, perpendicular to the plumb line through the point.

Horizontal line: It is a straight line tangential to the level line at a point. It is also perpendicular
to the plumb line.

Vertical line: It is a line normal to the level line at a point. It is commonly considered to be
the line defined by a plumb line.

Datum: Datum is any surface to which elevation are referred. The mean sea level affords a
convenient datum world over, and elevations are commonly given as so much above or below
sea level. It is often more convenient, however, to assume some other datum, specially, if only
the relative elevation of points are required.

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Elevation: The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance
above or below an arbitrarily assumed level surface or datum. The difference in elevation
between two points is the vertical distance between the two level surface in which the two
points lie.

Vertical angle: Vertical angle is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane.
Generally, one of these lines is horizontal.

Mean sea level: It is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any particular
place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19 years.

Bench Mark: It is a relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to
some assumed datum is known. It is used either as a starting point for levelling or as a point
upon which to close as a check.

Methods of levelling

Three principle methods are used for determining differences in elevation, namely, barometric
levelling, trigonometric levelling and spirit levelling.

Barometric levelling

Barometric levelling makes use of the phenomenon that difference in elevation between two
points is proportional to the difference in atmospheric pressures at these points. A barometer,
therefore, may be used and the readings observed at different points would yield a measure of
the relative elevation of those points.

At a given point, the atmospheric pressure doesn’t remain constant in the course of the day,
even in the course of an hour. The method is, therefore, relatively inaccurate and is little used
in surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory survey.

Trigonometric Levelling (Indirect Levelling)

Trigonometric or Indirect levelling is the process of levelling in which the elevations of points
are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances measured in the field, just as
the length of any side in any triangle can be computed from proper trigonometric relations. In
a modified form called stadia levelling, commonly used in mapping, both the difference in
elevation and the horizontal distance between the points are directly computed from the
measured vertical angles and staff readings.

Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling)

It is that branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to a horizontal line
(perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may be used to determine the relative difference in
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elevation between two adjacent points. A horizontal plane of sight tangent to level surface at
any point is readily established by means of a spirit level or a level vial. In spirit levelling, a
spirit level and a sighting device (telescope) are combined and vertical distances are measured
by observing on graduated rods placed on the points. The method is also known as direct
levelling. It is the most precise method of determining elevations and the one most commonly
used by engineers.

Levelling Instruments

The instruments commonly used in direct levelling are:

1. A level
2. A levelling staff
Dumpy Level

The dumpy level originally designed by Gravatt, consists of a telescope tube firmly secured in
two collars fixed by adjusting screws to the stage carried by the vertical spindle. The modern
form of dumpy level has the telescope tube and the vertical spindle cast in one piece and a long
bubble tube is attached to the top of the telescope. This form is known as solid dumpy.

Components of Dumpy Level

The name “dumpy level” originated from the fact that formerly this level was equipped with
an inverting eye-piece and hence was shorter than Wye level of the same magnifying power.
However, modern forms of dumpy level generally have erecting eye-piece so that inverted
image of the staff is visible in the field of view. In some of the instruments, a clamp screw is
provided to control the movements of the spindle about the vertical axis. For small or precise
movement, a slow motion screw ( or tangent screw) is also provided. Some of the important
parts of Dumpy Level are listed and described below:

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1. Tripod Stand: The tripod consists of three legs which may be solid or framed. The
legs are made of light and hard wood. The lower ends of the legs are fitted with steel
shoes.
2. Levelling head: The levelling head consists of two parallel triangular plates having
three grooves to support the foot screws.
3. Foot screws: Three foot screws are provided between the trivet and tribrach. By turning
the foot screws the tribrach can be raised or lowered to bring the bubble to the center
of its run.
4. Telescope: The telescope consists of two metal tubes, one moving within the other. It
also consists of an object glass and an eye-piece on opposite ends. A diaphragm is fixed
with the telescope just in front of the eye-piece. The diaphragm carries cross-hairs. The
telescope is focused by means of the focusing screw and may have either external
focusing, or internal focusing.
In the external focusing telescope, the diaphragm is fixed to the outer tube and the
objective to the inner tube. By turning the focusing screw the distance between the
objective and diaphragm is altered to form a real image or the plane of cross hairs.
In the internal focusing telescope, the objective and eye-piece do not move when the
focusing screw is turned. Here, a double concave lens is fitted with rack and pinion
arrangement between the eye-piece and the objective. This lens moves to and fro when
the focusing screw is turned and a real image is formed on the plane of cross-hairs.
5. Bubble tubes: Two bubble tubes, one called the longitudinal bubble tube and other
the cross bubble tube, are placed at right angles to each other. These tubes contain spirit

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bubble. The bubble is brought to the center with the help of foot screws. The bubble
tube are fixed on top of the telescope.
6. Compass: A compass is provided just below the telescope for taking the magnetic
bearing of a line when required.
The compass is graduated in such a way that a ‘pointer’, which is fixed to the body of
compass, indicates a reading of 0 degree when the telescope is directed along the north
line.In some compasses, the pointer shows a reading of a few degrees when the
telescope is directed towards the north. This reading should be taken as the initial
reading. The bearing is obtained by deducting the initial reading from the final reading
of the compass.

Advantages of Dumpy Level

The advantages of dumpy level over the Wye Level are:

1. Simpler construction with fewer movable parts.

2. Fewer adjustments to be made.
3. Longer life of the adjustments.

Surveying and Levelling

What is Surveying and Levelling?
Surveying is an art of making measurements on as will determine the relative position of
different points on the surface of the earth.

It is essentially a process of finding position of different points

on the horizontal plane.

Levelling is the art of determining and representing the relative heights or elevations of
different points on the surface of earth.

Surveying deals with the position of points in the horizontal plane whereas Levelling
includes relative position of points in a vertical plane.

Although Surveying and Levelling are two different distinct operations.

Whereas if we see in the broader sense Then the term Surveying also includes
Levelling.

Plan and a Map | Basic difference between Plan and

Map
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The main Object of the survey is to develop a plan and a map.

The results of surveys when drawn on a paper forms a plan or a map.

On a plan or a map only horizontal distances are shown.

The plan or map is made according to some scale chosen.

If the scale is small ,the representation is called map, while it is called plan
if the scale is large.

We can understand this by considering that the map of a country is made to a very small
scale.
So that information represented should not exceed to the paper.

While the plan of the building is made large and large scale is chosen for that.
Therefore the basic difference between plan and a map is that of scale.

Only horizontal distances are shown on a plan or a map.

Vertical distances are correctly shown by means of vertical sections called sections.

Geodetic Surveying | Trigonometrical Surveying

When the survey conducted by considering the earth’s surface spheroidal, or by
considering the curvature of earth.Then this type of survey is known as Geodetic
Surveying.

Since we consider earth to be spheroidal so the line joining any two points on the surface
of the earth must be curve or is an arc of great circle.

It is also known as trigonometrical surveying. This type of survey is conducted where

Large distances and areas are to be surveyed.

Characteristics of Geodetic Surveying :

Following are the characteristics of Geodetic Survey.

 Very refined instruments are used in this survey.

 High precision is achieved through this.

 Very refined methods of observation and adjustment are used.

Definition of Plane survey :

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The type of survey in which curvature of earth is not taken into account,as the
survey is extend over small areas, is known as the plane Survey.

 This is called plane survey because the Earth’s surface is considered to be Plane
in this kind of Survey.

 The line connecting any two points will be the straight line and the angles thus
formed are also plane angles.

 It therefore involves knowledge of Geometry and plane trigonometry.

 The accuracy required for this type of survey is comparatively low as compare to
Geodetic surveying.

 American Surveyors put the limit of 250 sq km for treating Survey as a plane
survey.

 However degree of precision is also very important.

 If high precision is required then the survey should be Geodetic otherwise for low
precision we can prefer plane survey.

Topographical Survey
“The type of Land survey in which we determine the natural features of a country such
as hills, valleys, rivers, nallas, lakes, woods, etc.
and also determine the artificial features such as roads, railways, canals, buildings,
towns, villages, etc., is known as Topographical Survey.”

From Artificial features we mean the structures made by man or man made structures
which are not exist in nature
but made by man using resources found in nature.

Cadastral Survey
The type of Land Survey in which further details such as boundaries of houses, fields and
other properties are determined in known as cadastral survey.

This type of Survey includes additional details.

Engineering Survey | Reconnaissance Survey |

Preliminary Survey | Location Survey

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The survey which is conducted for determining quantities and for collecting data for the
designing of engineering works such as roads, railways, etc., is known as Engineering
Survey.
Engineering survey have following types:

Reconnaissance Survey
The Survey which is done for the feasibility* and rough cost of the project
is known as Reconnaissance Survey.
Preliminary Survey
The survey in which more precise information is required for the choice of best location
for the project and to estimate the exact quantities and costs of project is known as
PreliminarySurvey.
Location Survey
The survey for setting out the work on the ground is known as location survey.

Reconnaissance means military observation of an area to gain information.

Feasibility means either the project will complete or not.

Control Points | Reference Points

The points which are used as a reference to conduct other kind of Survey are known as
Control points.

These points are formed by triangulation or precise traversing.

High precision is required to form control points as other surveys are being conducted
with reference to these control points.

Triangulation
Triangulation is the process in which the area to be surveyed are divided into large
triangles, which are surveyed with great accuracy.These triangles are further sub
divided into small triangles
which are surveyed with less accuracy.

This process is done to prevent the accumulation of error and to control or minimize minor
errors.

What are Cumulative Errors ?

The errors which are accumulate at the end of the survey are known as Cumulative
errors. These type of errors occur when we contradict the main principle of Survey
which is

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To work from whole to part.

When we work from part to whole* than errors are magnified in the end and the process
becomes
uncontrollable at the end.

Part to whole means that first we surveyed small triangles and then expand these small
triangles
into large triangles covering the area.
The error in survey in the small triangles will be magnified when we expand it to large
triangle.

What is a Scale ?
Scale of a map or a drawing is actually the proportion between the distance on the map
or drawing to the corresponding distance on the ground.Thus if on a map it is written 1
cm = 10 m It means that 1 cm on the drawing is actually 10 m on the ground.

What is Pacing?
The method of measuring distance with the help of pace length is known as pacing.
This type of method is used where approximate results are required.
The length of the pace (generally vary from person to person) is multiplied by the
number of paces to measure the total distance.

Passometer | Pedometer
Passometer is a pocket instrument which count the number of paces. It automatically
records the number of paces. Its mechanism is being operated by the motion of the body.It
should be held vertically in pocket.

Pedometer The device which measured the distance automatically is known as

pedometer. It is similar to passometer but difference is that passometer count the number
of paces whereas pedometer records the distance.It is adjusted according to the length
of the pace of the person carrying it.

Odometer | Perambulator
Odometer

The device which attached with the wheel of any vehicle and records the number of
revolutions of the wheel is known as odometer.
The number of revolutions multiplied by the circumference of the wheel and records the

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distance.

Perambulator
The instrument provided with single wheel with forks and handle to measure the
distance between
two points is known as perambulator.
The instrument is wheeled along the line the length of which is desired.The distance
traverse
is automatically registered on the dials.

Chaining and Taping

The measurement of distance with the help of chain or tape is known as chaining.
However the term chaining should be used for the distance measured with the help of
chain,
the term taping should be used when measuring distance with the help of tape.
However the term chaining is still used for measuring distance either by tape or chain.

Ranging | Direct Ranging | Indirect Ranging

The process of establishing or developing intermediate points between two terminal
points or end points on a straight line is known as ranging.

Ranging is of two types

Direct Ranging
The ranging in which intermediate ranging rods are placed in a straight line by direct
observation from either end.

Direct ranging is possible only when the end stations are inter visible.

Indirect Ranging
The ranging in which intermediate points are interpolated by reciprocal ranging or
running an auxiliary line.

Indirect ranging is done where end points are not visible and the ground is high .

Survey Stations | Main Stations | Subsidiary or Tie

Station
A Survey Station is a point of Importance at the beginning and end of a chain line. There
are two main types of stations namely Main station and Subsidiary or Tie station.

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Main stations are the ends of the lines which command the Boundary of the survey,
and the lines joining the main stations are called main Survey or Chain lines.
Subsidiary or tie station
Any Point selected on the main survey line where it is necessary to run the auxiliary
lines to locate the interior details such as fences, hedges, buildings,etc., when they are
at some distance from the main survey lines are known as Subsidiary or Tie stations .

The lines joining such stations are known as tie line or subsidiary line.

Base Line
This term is often used in Chain Surveying, The longest of the chain lines formed in
doing a survey is generally regarded as the base line.

It is the most important line in doing survey .

The framework of the whole survey built up on the base line as it fixes up the direction
of all other lines.It should be measured with great accuracy and precision .For accuracy
The base line should be measured twice or thrice.

Hooke’s Law of Elasticity | Definition of Elastic

Materials
Hooke’s law of elasticity:

In mechanics, and physics, Hooke’s law of elasticity is an approximation that states that
the amount by which a material body is deformed (the strain) is linearly related to the
force causing the deformation (the stress).

Behavior is linear, If shown on a graph, the line should show a direct

variation.

Mathematical Form of Hookes Law:

For systems that obey Hooke’s law, the extension produced is directly proportional to
the load:
F=-kX Where
X=is the distance that the spring has been stretched or compressed away from the
equilibrium position.
F=is the restoring force exerted by the material (usually in newtons), and
K=is the force constant (or spring constant). The constant has units of force per unit
length (usually in newton per meter).

Elastic Materials:
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Objects that quickly regain their original shape after being deformed by a force, with the
molecules or atoms of their material returning to the initial state of stable equilibrium,
often obey Hooke’s law.

Hydrologic Cycle | Various Aspects of Hydrologic

Cycle | Engineering applications
Hydrologic Cycle:

The various aspects of water related to earth and their interaction can be explained in
terms of a cycleknown as hydrologic cycle.

Evaporation of water from the water bodies such as oceans and lakes,
evapotranspiration, formation and movement of clouds, precipitation in the form of rainfall,
snowfall, etc. surface runoff, stream flow and ground water movement are some dynamic
aspects of water.

In each path of the hydrologic cycle there are further more aspects involve, which are

 Transportation of water,

 Temporary storage and

 Change of state.

For example:

The process of rainfall includes the change of state and transportation of water.

Ground water movement includes the temporary storage and transportation aspects.

Various Aspects or paths of Hydrologic cycle:

 Evaporation from ocean,

 Raindrop evaporation,

 Interception,

 Transpiration,

 Evaporation from land and water bodies,

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 Surface runoff,

 Infiltration,

 Ground water,

 Deep Percolation.

The sequence of events describe above is the very simple form of a complex cycle that
has been taking place since the formation of earth. It is a continuous recirculating cycle
because there is neither a beginning nor an end or a pause. However, the convenient
starting point to describe the cycle is from the oceans.

Engineering Applications of hydrologic cycle:

The knowledge of hydrologic cycle is important in the design of projects dealing with water
supply, irrigation, coastal works, and salinity control etc.

Terms related to Contouring | Objects of Contouring |

Uses of Contour maps | Characteristics of Contours |
Methods of Contouring
Contouring:

1. Contour line

The intersection of ground surface and level surface is called contour line.

2. Contour interval

The perpendicular distance between two successive contours is known as contour

interval.

3. Horizontal equivalent

The horizontal distance between two successive contours is known as horizontal

equivalent

Objects of contouring:

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In engineering projects knowledge of contouring is important for determining nature of

ground surface.

Uses of contour maps

1. Ground surface is examined by it.

2. Its widely used in site selection.
3. Storage power of reservoir is calculated.
4. Two distinct stations are visible or not is determined.
5. Catchment can be determined by drawing in any direction.

Characteristics of contours

1. At top of hills contour lines are near to each other.

2. If contour lines are equally spaced it represents a uniform slope.
3. Contour lines never meet each one another.
4. Contours that are close to each other represents depressions.
5. Depression between summits is called saddles.

Methods of contouring

There are two methods of contouring

1. Direct method.

2. Method of interpolation.

3. Indirect method.

Principles of Surveying
Principles of Surveying

Followings are the principles of surveying which should be kept in mind while determining
the relative positions of points on the surface of earth:

To work from whole to part

Working from whole to part is done in surveying in order to ensure that errors and
mistakes of one portion do not affect the remaining portion. First step in the extensive
surveys such as topographic surveys, is to establish a system of control points with high
precision. For the horizontal control, the points are established by triangulation or precise

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traversing. To do this by triangulation, the area to be surveyed are divided in to large

triangles. These triangles are surveyed with greatest accuracy. These large triangles are
further divided in to small triangles which are surveyed with less accuracy. The object of
this system is to prevent the accumulation of errors, and to control minor errors.

On the other hand if we work from part to whole, small errors are magnified in the process
of expansion of survey. These errors become uncontrollable at the end.

Fix the positions by two independent process

To fix the positions of new stations by two independent process. The new stations are
fixed from points already fixed by linear measurements, angular measurements or by both
linear and angular measurements.

Definition of Change Point and Station

Change Point

It may be defined as:

A Change Point ( C.P) is a point which shows the shifting of the level. It is a point on
which fore and back sights are taken. Any stable and well defined object such as
boundary stone, curb stone, rail, rock, etc., is used as a change point. A Benchmark
may also be taken as change point. It is also known as turning point. (T.P)

Station

Any point whose elevation is to be determined is known as station. Or a point which is

to be established at a given elevation. It is the point where the staff is held not the point
where the level is set up.

Simple and Differential levelling

Simple levelling

When it is required to find the difference between two points which are visible from a
single position of level. Then the method used is simple levelling.

Suppose A and B are two points and the level is set up at approximately midway between
them, suppose at O. After the instrument is correctly levelled, the telescope is directed
toward the staff held vertically on A and focused. Reading at which Horizontal hair of the
diaphragm appears to cut the staff is taken. Ensure that bubble of the level is in center.
Then the staff is held vertically on B. Again reading is taken at point B from point O. Let
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the respective readings on A and B be 2.350 and 3.315 . The difference between these
readings give the difference of level between A and B which is equal to 3.315 m – 2.350
m = 0.965 m

If the reduced level of A is 100 m, then we can find the reduced level of B.

Height of instrument at O = R.L of A + 2.350 m

Height of instrument at O = 100 m + 2.350 m = 102.350 m

R.L of B = 102.350 m – 3.315 m = 99.035 m

Note

1. When the point is lower, the staff reading is greater. When the point is higher, the staff
reading is smaller.
2. The bubble must be in center while the readings are being taken.
3. If the true difference of level between two points is required, then level must be set up
exactly midway between them.

Differential levelling

This method is used in order to find the difference between two points which are far
apart or if the difference in elevation between them is too great or if there are obstacles
in between them.

In such case, it is necessary to set up level in several positions and to work in series of
stages. The method of simple levelling is applied on every stage. It is also known
as compound or continuous levelling.

Layout Of Simple Circular Horizontal curve | Degree of

Curvature | Length of Curve | Circular Curve Geometry
Layout of Simple Circular Curve :

The typical layout of simple circular curve is shown in the figure below.

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R = Radius of Circular Curve

BC = Beginning of Curve

(or PC = Point of Curvature)

EC = End of Curve

(or PT = Point of Tangency)

PI = Point of Intersection

T = Tangent Length

(T = PI – BC = EC – PI)

L = Length of Curvature

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(L = EC – BC)

M = Middle Ordinate

E = External Distance

C = Chord Length

Δ = Deflection Angle

Circular Curve Components

Properties of Circular Curve:

Degree of Curvature:

Traditionally, the “steepness” of the curvature is defined by either the radius (R) or the
degree of curvature (D).

Degree of curvature = angle subtended by an arc of length 100 feet.

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The diagram below is showing the degree of curvature.

If the arc length is 100 feet then the angle will be the degree of curvature as shown in
the figure below.

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Steepness of curve can be defined in term of radius as shown in the figure below.

R = 5730 / D

(Degree of curvature is not used with metric units because D is defined in terms of feet.)

Length of Curve:

For a given external angle (Δ), the length of curve (L) is directly related to the radius (R).

L = (RΔπ) / 180

As we know π / 180=1/57.3
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L = RΔ / 57.3

Where

R = Radius of Circular Curve

L = Length of Curvature

Δ = Deflection Angle

Conclusion :

From the above relation L = RΔ / 57.3 . It is concluded that larger the radius of curve
longer will be the curve.

Other Formulas for the Layout of Simple Circular Curve :

Tangent: T = R tan(Δ/2)

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Chord: C = 2R sin(Δ/2)

Mid Ordinate: M = R – R cos(Δ/2)

External Distance: E = R sec(Δ/2) – R

Circular Curve Geometry :

Objectives of triangulation | Classification of

Triangulation System
Objectives of triangulation:

The main objective of triangulation is to provide a number of stations whose relative

and absolute positions, horizontal as well as vertical, are accurately established. More
detailed survey is then carried out from these stations.Further objectives are given below

1. To establish accurate control for plane and geodetic survey of large areas.

2. To establish accurate control for photogrammetric survey.

3. To determine accurate locations of points in engineering works.

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Classification of Triangulation System:

Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on the degree of
accuracy desired, triangulation survey is classified as

 First order (primary)

 Second order (secondary)
 Third order (tertiary)

First order

It is used to determine the shape and the size of the earth or cover vast area like whole
country with control points.

Second order

It is used to cover areas of a region, small country, province. It Consists of network within
the first order.

Third order

It serves the purpose of furnishing the immediate control of detailed engineering and
location survey.

Surveying
Surveying is the science of determining relative positions of objects on the
surface of the earth by taking measurements of distances, directions, and
elevations and plotting them to convenient reduced size on papers.
Basic principles : 1. Locating a point on the surface of the earth by at least
two reference points.
2. Working from whole to the part. In this system first a system of control
points are fixed with great precision.
Surveying is the science of map making. To start any development activity,
the relative positions of various objects in the area with respect to horizontal
and vertical axes through a reference point is required. This is achieved by
surveying the area. Earlier, the conventional instruments like chain, tape
and levelling instruments were used. In this electronic era, modern
electronic equipments like electronic distance meters (EDM) and total
stations are used, to get more accurate results easily.

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Preparing topo maps of talukas, districts, states and countries and showing
all important features like rivers, hills, forests, lakes, towns and cities in plan
and elevation (by contour lines) also forms part of surveying. When maps of
large areas are to be made corrections for earth curvature are to be made
for all measurements. Such survey is called geodetic surveying also.

Explain Tacheometric survey

Tacheometry is a branch of surveying in which the horizontal and vertical
distances are determined by angular observations with a tacheometer. The
chaining operations are altogether eliminated. Tacheometry is not as
accurate as in chaining.
The main instruments used in tacheometry is a tacheometer. Tacheometric
survey may be carried but by stadia hair system or tangential system.

What is Tapes
Tapes are used for more accurate measurement and are classified
according, to the material of which they are made.
For example
1. Cloth or linen tape
2. Metallic tape
3. Steel tape
4. Invar tape
Triangulation
It is the process of measuring the angles of a network of triangles formed by
stations marked on the surface of the earth.
Types of triangulation
1. Primary triangulation
2. Secondary triangulation
3. Tertiary triangulation
Different terms used in triangulation
1. True value
2. Observed value
3. True errors
4. Most probable error
5. Residual error
6. Weight of the observations
7. Laws of weights

Astronomy

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1. The celestial sphere : The imaginary sphere on which

heavenly bodies, i.e., stars, sun, moon etc. appear to lie is known
as celestial sphere.
2. The Zenith : The point on the celestial sphere above the
observer's station is known as the Zenith.
3. The Nadir : The point on the celestial sphere exactly below
the observer's station is known as the Nadir.
4. The Zenith-Nadir line : The Zenith, the observer's station
the centre of the earth and the Nadir all lie on a line which is
known as Zenith Nadir line.
5. The celestial horizon : The great circle of the celestial sphere
obtained by a plane passing through the centre of the earth and
perpendicular to the Zenith-Nadir line is known as the celestial
horizon.
6. The visible horizon : The small circle of the earth which is
obtained by visual rays passing through the point of observation
is known as visible horizon.
7. The sensible horizon : The small circle which is obtained by
a plane-passing through the observer's station and tangential to
the earth's surface and perpendicular to the Zenith-Nadir line at
the point of observation is known as the sensible horizon.
8. The terrestrial equator : The great circle of the earth the

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plane of which is perpendicular to its axis of rotation is known as

the terrestrial equator.
9. The terrestrial poles : The points at which earth's axis of
rotation meets the earth's surface, are known as the terrestrial
poles.
10. The celestial poles : The points at which earth's axis of
rotation on prolongation on either side meets the surface of the
celestial sphere are known as celestial poles.
11. Vertical circles : The great circles of the celestial sphere
passing through the Zenith and Nadir are known as vertical
circles.
12. The observer's meridian : The vertical circle which passes
through Zenith and Nadir of the station of the observation as well
as through the poles, is known as observer's meridian.
13. The prime vertical : The vertical which is perpendicular to
the observer's meridian and passes through the east and west
points of the horizon is known as the prime vertical.
14. North and south points : The projections of the elevated
north and depressed south poles on the horizon are known as
north and south points respectively.
15. East and west points : The points on which the prime
vertical meets the horizon, are known as east and west points.
These points may also be obtained by the intersection of the
equator and horizon.
16. Ecliptic : The great circle of the celestial sphere which the
sun appears to describe with earth as centre in the course of one
year, is known as ecliptic.
17. Altitude : The angular distance of a heavenly body above
the horizon, measured on the vertical circle passing through it, is
called altitude.
18. The azimuth : The angle between the observer's meridian
and the vertical circle passing through the celestial body and the
Zenith is known as azimuth.
19. The celestial latitude : The arc of a great circle
perpendicular to the ecliptic, intercepted between the celestial
body and the ecliptic is known as the celestial latitude of the
body.

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20. The celestial longitude : The arc of an ecliptic intercepted

between the great circle passing through the point of Aries (y)
and the great circle passing through the celestial body is called
celestial longitude.
360° of longitude = 14 hours of time
15° of longitude = 1 hour
15' of longitude = I minute
15" of longitude 1 second
Apparent time = Mean time + Equation of time
What is Bearing
Bearing is the horizontal angle which a line makes with some reference
direction, known as meridian. The reference direction may be any of the
following three :-
1. True meridian
2. Magnetic meridian
3. Arbitrary meridian
Bearing is of the following types :-
1. Whole circle bearing
2. Quadrantal bearing
3. Reduced bearing
4. Fore bearing
5. Back bearing.
Back bearing = Fore bearing ± 180°

Explain Compass survey

It is a survey conducted with the help of prismatic or surveyors' compass.
Unit of measurement is an angle. It is the difference in directions of two
intersecting lines.
Contouring
A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal
elevation.
Characteristics of Contours
1. Two contours of different elevations do not cross each other except in the
case of an over hanging cliff.
2. Contours of different elevations do not unite to form one contour except
in the case of a vertical cliff.
3. Contours drawn closer depict a steep and if drawn far apart it represent a
gentle slope.

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4. Contours equally spaced depict a uniform slope.

5. A contour at any point is perpendicular to the line of the steepest slope at
the point.
6. A contour must close itself or go out of the limit of the map.
7. A set of ring contours with higher values inside, depict a hill whereas a set
of ring contours with lower values inside, depict a pond or a depression.
8. When contours cross a ridge or V-shaped valley these form sharp V-
shaped across them.
9. The same contour must appear an both the sides of a ridge or a valley.

Explain Curves
Curves are regular bends provided in the lines of communication like roads,
railways and canals to bring about the gradual change of direction. They are
also used in the vertical plane at all changes of grade to avoid the abrupt
change of grade at the apex. Curves provided in the horizontal plane to have
the gradual change in direction are known as horizontal curves whereas
those provided in the vertical plane to obtain the gradual change in the
grade are known as vertical curves.

Explain Geodetic surveying

That survey, where the curvature of the earth is taken into account is called
geodetic surveying. It is known as trigonometrical survey.

Levelling is an important branch of surveying.

Principle of levelling :
Essentially a level consists of the following five parts
1. A telescope to provide a line of sight
2. A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal
3. Levelling head to bring the bubble in the centre of tube
4. A cross bubble tube to provide a horizontal plane
5. A tripod to support the instrument
Types of levels :
Following are commonly used levels-
1. Dumpy level
2. Wye level
3. Cooke's reversible level
4. Cushing's level
5. Modern Titing level of Indian office Pattern
Levelling Terminology :
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Level surface
Level line
Horizontal surface
Horizontal line
Vertical surface
Vertical line
Datum
Reduced level
Line of collimation
Back sight
Fore sight
Intermediate sight
Height of instrument
Changing point
Station
Bench mark
Parallax
Temporary adjustment of a level
Permanent adjustment of a level
Level book
Reduced levels
Reciprocal levelling
Explain Methods of Plane Tabling
1. Radiation : This method is used when distance are small.
2. Intersection : It is used when the distance between the point
and the instrument station is either too large or can not be
measured accurately due to field conditions.
3. Traversing
4. Re-section
The following are the four methods of orientations :
1. Orientation by compass
2. Orientation by back sighting
3. Orientation by three point problem
4. Orientation by two point problem
What is Offset

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It is the lateral distance of an object or ground feature measured

from a survey line. There are two types of offsets :-
1. Perpendicular offset
2. Oblique offset
Various instruments are used in chain survey.
They are (1) Chain (2) Arrows (3) Pegs (4) Ranging rods (5) Offset
rods (6) Plasterer's laths and whites (7) Plumb bob
The following are the precise instruments used for setting out
right angles :-
1. Cross staff
2. French cross staff
3. Adjustable cross staff
4. Optical square
5. Prism square
Explain Plane surveying
The survey where the effect of curvature of the earth is neglected assuming
the earth's surface to be plane is called plane surveying. Generally areas less
than 260 sq. km are treated as plane. For engineering works, this type of
survey is generally followed.

Positive errors are those which make the result too great and
negative errors make result too small.

What is Scale
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Scale is the fixed ratio that a distance on map bears with the corresponding
distance on the ground i.e.,1 cm = 10 m.

What is Stadia hair system

This system may further be divided into two different methods :
1. Fixed hair method
2. Movable hair method

What is Survey chain

It is the method of surveying in which the area is divided into a network of
triangles and the sides of the various triangles are measured directly in the
field with chain or tape and no angular measurement are taken.
Various chains used for the survey work are
1. Metric chains : They are available in lengths of 5, 10, 20 and
30 meter.
2. Gunless chain : They are available in 66 ft. length provided
with 100 links.
3. Engineer's chain : It is 100 ft. Ion with 100 links
4. Revenue chain : It is 33 ft. long provided with 10 links.
Tacheometric calculations
There are four cases of tacheometric calculations. They are
1. Staff held vertical
2. Inclined sights staff held vertical
3. Inclined sights upwards, staff held normal
4. Inclined sights downwards, staff held normal
Tangential method of tacheometry
1. Both angles being elevations
2. Both angles being depressions
3. One angle elevation and the other depression

What is Tie line

The line connects tie stations or subsidiary stations on the main survey lines
and is provided primarily with the object to facilitate taking offsets to objects
distant from the main lines.

What is Base line

The longest line of the main survey lines is designated as the base line.

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Uses of Contour Maps

1. To study the general character of the tract of the country without visiting
the ground.
2. To decide the most economical and suitable sites for engineering works
such as canal, sewer, reservoir, road, railway etc.
3. To determine the catchment area of the drainage basic and hence the
capacity of the proposed reservoir.
4. To compute the earth work required for filling or cutting along the linear
alignment of projects such as canals, roads etc.
5. To ascertain the intervisibility of the points.
6. To trace a contour gradient for road alignments.
7. To draw longitudinal sections and cross-sections to ascertain the nature of
the ground.
8. To calculate water capacities of reservoirs.

Corrections in linear measurements

For precise measurements, the following corrections are generally applied :-
1.Correction for standard length
2. Correction for alignment
3. Correction for slope
4. Correction for tension
5. Correction for temperature
6. Correction for sag.

Define Errors
Errors may arise due to any of the following reasons-
1. Instrumental : Imperfect or faulty adjustments of
instruments cause instrumental error.
2. Personal : Errors clue to lack of perfection of human sight in
observing are called personal errors.
3. Natural : Errors due to variations in natural phenomena such
as temperature, humidity, refraction, magnetic declination etc.
are called natural errors.
Errors in survey work may be classification as :
1. Mistakes : These errors arise from inattention, inexperience,
carelessness and misjudgement or confusion in the mind of an
observer.
2. Cumulative errors : These are the errors which under the
same conditions, will always be of the same size and sign.
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3. Accidental or compensation errors : These are the errors

which remain even after mistakes and cumulative errors have
been eliminated and are caused by a combination of reasons over
which the observer has no control.
Hydrographic survey
Survey carried out to depict accurately fathoms and other
topographical features of large water bodies like sea rivers, lakes,
bays etc. is known as Hydrographic survey.
The requirements of hydrographic survey
1. Close soundings
2. Continuous record of meteorological conditions
3. Position of least depth on shoals
4. Position of breakers
5. Position of light vessels and buoys
6. High and low water line
7. Tide tables
8. Measurement of ideal sream and currents
9. Observation magnetic variations
What is Magnetic compass
Three types of compasses are commonly used which are :-
1. Prismatic compass
2. Surveyor's compass
3. Transit compass

What are Minor instruments

The main minor instruments are as follows :
1. Hand level
2. Clinometer
3. Abney's level
4. Tangent clinometer
5. Ceylon chat tracer
6. Box sextant
7. Pantagraph
8. Planimeter

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Permissible errors in chaining for measurements made

with
1. lnvar tape, spring balances, thermometers = 1 in 10,000
2. Steel tape, plumb bob = 1 in 2000
3. Tested chain, plump bob = 1 in 1000
4. Chain under average conditions = 1 in 500
Explain Plane table survey
Plane table survey is a method of surveying in which field work
and office work are done simultaneously on a plane table.
Following instruments are used in plane tabling.
1. Plane Table
2. Alidade
3. Plumbing fork and plumb bob
4. Spirit level
5. Compass
6. Rain proof cover for the plane table
7. Chain or tap
8. Ranging rods
9. Drawing sheets
10. Drawing, equipment
What is Representative fraction (R.F.
The ratio of map distance to the corresponding ground distance is called
representative fraction. It is independent of unit of measurement.
Sexagesimal system
In this system
1 circumference = 360° (degrees)
1 degree 60' (minutes)
1 minute = 60" (seconds)

What is Station
The end points of a chain line are called station and the station on beginning
or end of main chain line is known as main survey station. The tie station
are selected anywhere on the chain line.

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Civil Engineering Land Surveying Basics

The history of surveying started with plane surveying when the first line was measured.
Today the land surveying basics are the same but the instruments and technology has
changed. The surveying equipment used today are much more different than the simple
surveying instruments in the past. The land surveying methods too have changed and the
surveyor uses more advanced tools and techniques in Land survey.

Civil Engineering Surveying

Definition

The process of determining by measurement, the relative positions of points above, on, or
beneath the earth surface, in order to produce map or plan (which shows feature of the
surface) in horizontal or vertical plane. The Term surveying refers to those measurements
or operation, which deal in production of map or plan in horizontal plane.

Or

Surveying is the science of measuring and representing natural and artificial features on
the ground in a limited area, regarding the earth as flat.

Leveling
 The art of determining the relative heights or elevation of different points on the surface
of earth.
 Determining position of points in vertical plane.

Surveying and leveling are considered as distinct operations, however in broad sense, the
term surveying includes leveling.

Objectives of Survey

The Primary objective of survey is the preparation of plan and map of an area. The result
of survey in the form of data when plotted and drawn on paper, we get a plan/map. If the
scale is large it is called Plan. E.g. Plan of a Building, say 1:100. If the scale is small, it is
called Map. E.g. Map of Pakistan, say 1:25,000

Why Should We Study Surveying?

You may be required to perform simple surveying operations (particularly if you're

employed in construction company and Local Gov.), or you will need to discuss your
needs with surveyors. Every Engineer needs surveying skills

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Parts of Surveyor’s Work

 Decision making (selecting techniques and equipment, etc.)
 Fieldwork (data acquisition)
 Data processing (calculations to give locations, areas, volumes, etc.)
 Mapping (maps, plans, charts)
 Reporting (conclusion of the task)
Principle of Surveying
1. To work from the Whole to the Part, not from the part to the Whole. e.g. set out the main
frame first, and add details onto the frame. Object of this system is to prevent
accumulation of errors and to control and localized minor errors.
2. To Fix Position of New point (Station) by at least two independent processes. New
Station can be fixed from points already fixed

By

1. Linear measurement
2. Angular measurement or
3. Both

Common Definitions in Surveying

Leveling Definition:

Levelling is the most widely used method of obtaining the elevations of ground points
relative to a reference datum and is usually carried out as a separate procedure to those
used in fixing planimetric position.

The basic concept of levelling involves the measurement of vertical distance relative to a
horizontal line of sight. Hence it requires a graduated staff for the vertical measurements
and an instrument that will provide a horizontal line of sight.

Level line

A level line or level surface is one which at all points is normal to the direction of the force
of gravity as defined by a freely suspended plumb-bob. As already indicated in Chapter 1
during the discussion of the geoid, such surfaces are ellipsoidal in shape. Thus in Figure
2.1 the difference in level between A and B is the distance A'B.

Horizontal line

A horizontal line or surface is one which is normal to the direction of the force of gravity
at a particular point. Figure 2.1 shows a horizontal line through point C.

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Datum

A datum is any reference surface to which the elevations of points are referred. The most
commonly used datum is that of mean sea level (MSL). In the UK the MSL datum was
fixed by the Ordnance Survey (OS) of Great Britain, and hence it is often referred to as
Ordnance Datum (OD). It is the mean level of the sea at Newlyn in Cornwall calculated
from hourly readings of the sea level, taken by an automatic tide gauge over a six-year
period from 1 May 1915 to 30 April 1921.

Bench mark (BM)

In order to make OD accessible to all users throughout the country, a series of permanent
marks were established, called bench marks. The height of these marks relative to OD has
been established by differential levelling and is regularly checked for any change in
elevation.

Levelling in Engineering Survey

Definition:

Levelling is the most widely used method of obtaining the elevations of ground points
relative to a reference datum and is usually carried out as a separate procedure to those
used in fixing planimetric position. The basic concept of leveling involves the measurement
of vertical distance relative to a horizontal line of sight. Hence it requires a graduated staff
for the vertical measurements & an instrument that provides a horizontal line of sight.

Types of Levelling Survey are:

1. Precise or Geodetic Levelling

2. Ordinary or Simple Levelling
Methods of Levelling

Methods of levelling may be direct e.g.

1. Simple Levelling
2. Differential Levelling
3. Profile Levelling
4. Cross Sectioning
5. Reciprocal Levelling
6. Precise levelling
7. Check Levelling
8. Fly Levelling

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Or may be indirect e.g

1. Trigonometric Levelling
2. Barometric Levelling
3. Hypsometry
Levelling procedures
(a) Setting up

1. Backsight and foresight distances should be approximately equal to avoid any errors
due to collimation, refraction or earth curvature.
2. Distances must not be so great as to not be able to read the graduations accurately.
3. The points to be observed must be below the level of the instrument, but not lower
than the height of the staff.

(b) Elimination of parallax

1. Parallax is the apparent movement of the image produced by movement of the

observer's eye at the eyepiece.
2. It is eliminated by focusing the telescope on infinity and then adjusting the eyepiece
until the cross-hairs appear in sharp focus. The setting will remain constant for a
particular observer's eye.

(c) Booking

1. Level books or loose-leaf levelling sheets shall be numbered and indexed in a

register.
2. Details of the site, work, date, observer, chainman, booker, weather, wind,
instrument and any other relevant items shall be entered.
3. Enter the first observation (which is on a known point) in the Backsight column,
and sufficient detail in the Remarks column to identify it. Enter the point's R.L. zero
from the site register or plate on the BM, etc.
4. Enter all other points on subsequent lines as intermediates except the point chosen
as the foresight. Identify them in the Remarks column as above. Enter the foresight
on a further line in the Foresight column.
5. Change the instrument to the next setup. Enter the following backsight on the same
line as the previous foresight but in the Backsight column.
6. Repeat the above procedure at each setup on the outward run then reverse it to work
back to the starting point on the return run. The furthest point out is treated as for
all other change points.

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Types of Levels - Instruments used for Levelling

a. Builder's/Engineer's Level:

As implied by the name, these are used by builders and engineers. Their design is basically
as described earlier, and they use graduated staffs in which the smallest graduation is 1cm.
Millimeters must be estimated, and the accuracy of a single reading will be about 2-3mm.

b. Digital Level:

This type of level uses a special bar-coded staff. The image of the staff passes through the
objective lens and then via a beam splitter to a photo detector array, where it is digitized.
The microprocessor compares this image to a copy of the bar code and calculates the staff
reading, which is displayed and/or stored. The sensitivity of the device is such that single
reading accuracies of 0.2mm to 0.3mm can be achieved, and sight lengths can be extended
up to 100m.

c. Precise Level:

This is a modification of the conventional level in which a parallel plate micrometer is

placed in front of the objective lens. This allows the image of the staff graduation to be
moved up or down by very small measurable amounts. For sight lengths of under 50m,
single reading accuracies of 0.02mm to 0.03mm can be achieved.

Errors in Levelling
1. Collimation Error
2. Error due to Curvature & Refraction
3. Instrumental Errors

Curvature and Refraction

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Curvature and Refraction

Curvature of the earth:

The earth appears to “fall away” with distance. The curved shape of the earth means that
the level surface through the telescope will depart from the horizontal plane through the
telescope as the line of sight proceeds to the horizon.

This effect makes actual level rod readings too large by:

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where D is the sight distance in thousands of feet.

Effects of Curvature are:

 Rod reading is too high
 Error increases exponentially with distance
Atmospheric Refraction:

Refraction is largely a function of atmospheric pressure and temperature gradients, which

may cause the bending to be up or down by extremely variable amounts.

There are basically three types of temperature gradient (dT/dh):

1. Absorption: occurs mainly at night when the colder ground absorbs heat from the
atmosphere.
o This causes the atmospheric temperature to increase with distance from the
ground and dT/dh > 0.
2. Emission: occurs mainly during the day when the warmer ground emits heat into
the atmosphere, resulting in a negative temperature gradient, i.e. dT/dh < 0.
3. Equilibrium: no heat transfer takes place (dT/dh = 0) and occurs only briefly in the
evening and morning.
4. The result of dT/dh < 0 is to cause the light ray to be convex to the ground rather
than concave as generally shown.
o This effect increases the closer to the ground the light ray gets and errors in
the region of 5 mm/km have resulted.

The atmosphere refracts the horizontal line of sight downward, making the level rod
reading smaller. The typical effect of refraction is equal to about 14% of the effect of
earth curvature.

Combined Effect of Curvature and Refraction in Survey

The combined effect of curvature and refraction is approximately

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The formula for computing the combined effect of curvature and refraction is:

C + R = 0.021K2

Where C = correction for curvature

R = correction for refraction

K = sighting distance in thousands of feet

Correlations for various distances

Distance Correction
100' 0.00021'
200' 0.00082'

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500' 0.0052'
700' 0.01'
1 mile 0.574'
How to eliminate error due to Curvature and Refraction
1. Proper field procedures (taking shorter shots and balancing shots) can practically reduce
errors
2. Wherever possible, staff readings should be kept at least 0.5 m above the ground,
3. Using short observation distances (25 m) equalized for back sight and foresight
4. Air below is denser than air above Air below is denser than air above, Line of sight is
bent downward which Negates earth curvature error by 14%.
5. Simultaneous Reciprocal Trigonometrical Heightening
6. Observations made at each station at exactly the same time, cancels the effects of
curvature and refraction

Scale and Distortion of a Vertical Photograph

Scale of a Vertical Photograph:

The scale of a photograph is the ratio between the dist measured on the photograph and
the ground distance between the same two points.

Difference between map and photograph:

MAP: Orthographic projection

 scale in uniform.

PHOTOGRAPH: Prospective view

 scale varies form point to point with variation in elevation.

The scale of the photograph is expressed as a representative fraction. (A scale having the
importance that we can take it in any unit). Knowing the height of the airplanes above the
datum and the focal length of the camera. The scale of the photograph can be dot. If the
ground were level as shown in figure by the dotted line A’D the scale of the photograph
would be.

From similar = S (scale) (1)

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The drawing horizontal plane through A and B the scale at A and B will Be

(2)

(3)

The scale of line ab, assuming an elevation AB equal and then.

The scale will become equal to (4)

This is now the scale which is app to both the pts A and B.

From eq. 2 and 3 it is apparent that photo scale increases at higher elves and dec at lower
elev. This concept is seen graphically in figure (2). Ground lengths AB and CD are equal
but photo distances ab and cd are not, cd being longer and at larger scale then ab due to the
higher elves of CD. Average photo scale is obtained by determining ground elevation of
the area photograph. If N is the number of points considered with ground heights h1,h2---
---- hn then average photo scale is given by

Scale for the whole photograph

Where Havg =

As the scale of the photograph depends on the height ‘H’ of the camera above ground, any
variation in ‘H’ will change the scale. It is therefore essential that the aeroplane flies at the
constant variation.

Use of an average photo scale is frequently desirable but must be accepted with caution as
an approximation. Scale of a photograph can be determined if a map is available of the
same area. This method doesn’t require the focal length and flying height to be known, it
is necessary only to measure on a photograph a dist b.t two well defined pts identifiable on
map. The photo scale is then calculated using the following relationship.

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PHOTO SCALE =

Scale at average elevation of the two points considered.

NOTE: The numerator and denominator must be expressed in the same units.

Distortion due to height (or Relief) on the vertical Photograph:

Consider the sight of a high building BC in the figure and it consequent image bc on the
negative. B is vertically above C and in plane the two coincides but on photograph the sight
of the building cb would by observed as well as the roof of this building would appear to
be leaning outwards from the centre of the photograph.

Relief distortion on a vertical photograph occurs along radial line form the principal point
an increases in magnitude with greater distance to the image. From similar triangles EBO
and obv

(1)

Similarly, from vco and VCD

(2)

Dividing eq 1 by 2

Thus distortion due to height Bc

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(A)

(b)

The expressions A and B hold good for a truly vertical photograph.

Levelling Tools & Equipment

The vertical measuring equipment in surveying are major summed into two but other
instruments still exist. The two major ones are:

 Measurement by surveying levels

 Barometric – pressure devices

These two major groups of instruments are exclusively used for determining vertical (as
well as horizontal) levels or elevations.

Surveying Levels:

There are four types of surveying levels:

1. The wye, or the dumpy level (see Fig. 10 & 11)

2. The tilting level,
3. the self – leveling level; and
4. Digital electronic level
Dumpy Level:

The first type consists of a telescopic sight. Like that of a transit but usually of slightly
higher magnification, to which a long spirit level (see fig. 11) is attached and adjusted so
that the bubble centres when the line of sight is horizontal. A dumpy level is also known
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as builder’s auto level, leveling instrument or automatic level. It is an optical instrument

used in surveying and building to transfer measure or set horizontal levels.

The level instrument is set up on a tripod and, depending on the type, either roughly or
accurately set on a leveled condition using foot screws (Leveling screws). The operator
looks through the eyepiece of the telescope while as assistant holds a tape measure or
graduated staff vertical at the point under measurement. The instrument and staff are used
to gather and / or transfer elevation (levels) during site surveys. Measurement generally
starts from the benchmark with known height determined by a pervious survey, or an
arbitrary point with an assumed height. A dumpy level (Fig 10) is an older-style
instrument that requires skilled use to set accurately. The instrument requires to be set
level in each quadrant to ensure it is accurate through a full 360o traverse.

A variation in the dumpy and one that was often used by surveyors, where greater
accuracy and error checking was required, is a tilting level. This instrument allows the
telescope to be effectively flipped through 180o, without rotating the head. The telescope
is hinged to one side of the instrument’s axis; flipping it involves lifting to the other side
of the central axis (thereby inverting the telescope). This action effectively cancels out
any errors introduced by poor setting procedure or errors in the instrument’s adjustment.
The tilting level is similar to dumpy but the telescope with main bubble attached can be
separately tilted up and down by means of a micrometer screw, given it greater accuracy.

Self Level:

The self – leveling level is similar to tilting level except that it has no micrometer screw.
Instead, self –leveling level contains an internal compensator mechanism (a swinging
prism or pendulum) that, when set close to level, automatically removes any remaining
variation from level. This automatically reduces the need for setting the instrument for
leveling as in the case of dumpy and tilting level. Self leveling instruments are highly
preferred instrument in surveying due to ease of use and minimal rapid set up time
consuming.

Digital Level:

A digital electronic level is another leveling instrument set up normally on a tripod and it
reads a bar – coded staff using electronic laser methods. The height of the staff where the
level beam crosses the staff is known on a digital display. This type of level removes
interpolation of graduation by a person, thus removing a source of error and increasing
accuracy.

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The level rod or level Staff:

A level staff, also called leveling rod, is a graduated wooden or aluminum rod, the use of
which permits the determination of differences in metric graduation as the left and
imperial on the right (see fig. 12) leveling rods can be one piece, but many are sectional
and can be shortened for storage and transport or lengthened for use. Aluminum rods may
adjust length by telescoping section inside each other, while wooden rod sections are
attached to each other with sliding connections or slip joints. There are many types of
rods, with names that identify the form of the graduations and other characteristics.
Marking can be in imperial or metric units. Some rods are graduated on only one side
while others are marked on both sides. If marked on both sides, the markings can be
identical or, in some cases, can have imperial units on one side and metric on the other
side.

Fig. 12. A 2-sided Modern Survey Levelling Rod

Aneroid Barometers:

Vertical measurements can be approximately determined by finding the different in

barometric pressure at the two elevations. Aneroid barometers and hypsometers measure
such differences. Aneroid barometers are devices in which changes in atmospheric
pressure cause a needle to move over a scale. Instruments of this type designed for
surveying are called altimeters. A type that records time along with pressures is usually
placed at the points where measurements of elevation are desired. When the second
instrument is read, the time is recorded, so that the simultaneous reading of the base
instrument can be selected (see fig. 14 (a) and 14 (b)). The difference of the two readings
must be corrected to the unit weight of the air, which is estimated from the barometric
pressure, temperature and humidity.

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Fig. 14 (a) An Old Aneroid Barometer Fig. 14 (b) A modern Aneroid Barometer

More accurate results independent of the unit weight of the air can be obtained by the two
– base method. Recording aneroid are placed at two bases, preferably one higher and
another lower than the elevations to be determined. Each field reading is adjusted in
proportion to the relative height above and below the two bases, so that the sum of the
two heights equals the known difference in the height between the bases. Within a radius
of ten miles (16 kilometers) this method gives elevations within about two feet 0.6
meters).

Hypsometers:

A hypsometer is an instrument for measuring height or altitude. Many different physical

principles may be used. A simple scale hypsometer allows the height of a building or tree
to be measured by sighting across a ruler to the base and top of the object being
measured, when the distance from the object to the observer is known. A pressure
hypsometer (as shown in Fig. 15) employs the principles that the boiling point of the
liquid is lowered by diminishing the barometric pressure, and that the barometric pressure
varies with the height of the point of observation. The instrument consists of a cylindrical
vessel in which the liquid , (usually water) is boiled and surmounted by a jacketed
column in the outer partitions of which the vapor circulates, while in the central one a
thermometer is placed. To deduce the height of the station from the observed boiling
point, it is necessary to know the relationship existing between the boiling point and
pressure, and also between postmasters use the combination of a laser range finder and a
clinometer to measure distances to the top and bottom of objects, and the angle between
the lines from the observer to each to calculate height.

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Fig. 15. Hypsometer

Plane table:

This shows a plane table with part of the surface of the table cut away to show the
mounting the tripod. The mount allows the table to be leveled on the table; the alidade
with telescope sight is seen in Fig 16. A plane table consists of a smooth table surface
mounted on a sturdy base. The connection between the table top permits one to level the
table precisely, using bubble levels, in a horizontal plane. The base, a tripod, is designed
to support the table over a specific point on land. By adjusting the length of the legs, one
can bring the table level regardless of the roughness of the terrain

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Usably, a plane table is set over a point and brought to precise horizontal level. A
drawing sheet is attached to the surface and an alidade is used to sight objects of interest.
The alidade, which is a modern example of an instrument, “a rule” with a telescopic sight
can then be used to construct a line on the drawing that is in the direction of object of
interest. By using the alidade as a surveying level, information on the topography of the
site can be directly recorded on the drawing as elevations. Distances to the objects can be
measured directly or by the use of stadia marks in the telescope of the alidade.

Fig. 13. A Plane Table

Distance Measuring Equipment

Distance is measured by mechanical devices (chain or steel tape) or by electronic means.

1. Chain tape:

The chain tape is also referred to as the Günter’s chain. Gunter’s chain, the 300 –year-
old measuring instrument by which all survey measurement in the English – speaking
countries and much of it elsewhere was done. It has been superseded by the steel tape and
electronic equipment. Gunter’s chain is 66 feet long; 80 chain equal to one mile, and 10
square chains equals an acre. The chain is subdivided into 100 links. A rod or perch was
25 links. Each link was a short section of wire connected to the next by a loop. At each
end of the chain was a brass handle. The 66 – foot unit is still called a chain and is still in
use in property descriptions and in the public land system. The Gunter chain is generally
used in taking short and detailed length and breadth of a school farmstead.

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2. The Steel Tape:

A graduated steel ribbon, or a flat wire, with handles at each. It is a basic modern means
of measuring distance. Its length is taken as a straight line distance between the two end
marks at 68°F (20°C) because the tape actual length varies with different types of
suppose different tensions, and different temperatures. In the port, the tension, the
temperature and the difference in height of the two end marks are recorded and the
measured length corrected accordingly.

In most routine surveys, the tape is held at hand at the end, kept high enough to clear
ground objects, made horizontal by estimation, and placed in the direction of
measurement. The desired tension is estimated, and the positions of graduations are
brought to the ground marks by plumb bobs. Sometimes the air temperatures are
recorded. For higher accuracy, tripods or other supports are employed, or the tape is fully
supported on smooth surfaces. The shops and temperature of the tape are determined.
Then, the tension is regulated with a spring balance.

Eliminating temperature problems in steel tapes

When especially accurate measurements are necessary, particularly for base lines in a
triangulation system, a steel tape must be used at night or when the sky is over cast,
otherwise radiant heat will make it impossible to determine tape temperature. Tapes made
of invar avoid this difficulty. Invar is a steel alloy with an extremely low coefficient of
thermal expansion (about Fahrenheit). With such a tape, a temperature difference of 10°F
(5.6°C) from the design temperature would result in an error of only about 1/20 of an
inch (1.3 millimeters) in 1,000 feet (305 meters). Unfortunately, Invar tapes are easily
damaged for general use. Before the introduction of invar, iron bars immersed in melting
ice were used for daytime measurements.

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3. Electronic Instruments:

Sir Robert Watson – Watt, a Scottish physicist working in England, introduced an

electronic pulse – type instrument in 1935 called hiran. It measures distances over water
between land survey stations obscured from each other by the earth’s curvature. An
airplane high enough to be visible from both stations crosses the line between them while
sending out a series of pulses. These are automatically relayed back to the plane from
each station. The minimum sum of distance represented by the timed returns is chosen,
and the nearby sums are corrected to its average. The result is corrected for the altitude of
the plane and the refraction of the atmosphere, and the final value is taken as a distance
between the two stations. The electronic distance equipment is developed in phase – shift
system.

The phase – shift type of system was first developed in 1948 and gives very accurate
results. The process is comparable to conventional radio transmission, in which the
carrier frequency is modulated by radio frequencies that the receiver makes audible. In
phase – shift devices, the carrier frequency is either.

 Light beam (generated by laser or an electronic light beam) or;

 Radio beam (an ultrahigh frequency radio beam)

The light beam requires a clear line of sight, while the radio can penetrate fog, haze,
heavy rain, dust, sand storms, and some foliage. However, both types have a transmitter –
receiver at one survey station. At the remote station, the light uses a set corner mirrors;
but the high – frequency type utilizes a transmitter (requiring an operator) identical to a
transmitter – receiver at the original station. A corner mirror has the shape of the inside as
a cube. It returns light towards the source from whatever angle it is received, within
reasonable limits. A retransmission must be aimed at the transmitter receiver. In both
types of instrument, the distance is determined basically by the length of time it takes the
radio or light beam to travel to the target and back.

Shift in phase of modulating signals:

The elapsed time is determined by the shift in phase of the modulating signal during its
travels. Electronic circuitry detects this phase shift and converts it very accurately into the
exact fraction of small unit distance. By using several frequencies for the modulator
signal, the total distance can be computed.

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4. Total Station as Modern Equipment of Distance Measurement:

A total station is an electronic / optical instrument used in modern surveying. It is also

used by archaeologists to record excavations as well as by police crime scene
investigators, private accident deconstructionists and insurance companies to take
measurement of scenes. The total stations is an electronic theodolite (Transit) integrated
with an instrument to a particular spatial entity. Some models of total station included.

 Internal Electronic Data Storage (IEDS), to record distance

 Horizontal angle model
 Vertical angle measured model

Data collector Model – which is hand- held computer equipped to write these
measurements to an external data collector.

Angles and distances are also measured from the total station to points under survey, and
the coordinate (X, Y, and Z or northing, easting and elevation) of surveyed points relative
to the total station position are calculated using trigonometry and triangulation. Data can
be down loaded from the total station to a computer and application software used to
compute results and generate a map of the surveyed area.

Some total stations also have a GNSS interface (Global Navigation Satellite System
Interface) which combines the advantages of these two technologies (GNSS line of sight
not required between measured points, Total station – high precision especially in the
vertical axis compared with GNSS) and reduce the consequences of each technology’s
disadvantages (GNSS – Poor accuracy in the vertical axis and lower accuracy without
long occupation period, Total station – requires line of sight observation and must be set
up over a known point or with line of sight to two or more points with known location).

Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or infrared carrier

signal generated by a small solid –state emitter within the instrument’s optical path, and

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reflected by a prism reflector or the object under survey. The modulation pattern in the
returning signal is read and interpreted by the on board computer in the total station. The
distance is determined by emitting and receiving multiple frequencies, and determining
the integer number of wave lengths to the target for each frequency. Most total station use
purpose built glass porro prism reflectors for the EDM signal, and can measure distances
to a few kilometers. A typical total station can measure distances to about 3 milimeters or
1/1000th of a foot. However reflector in a total station can measure distances to any object
that is reasonably light in colour, to a few hundred metres. But, robotic total stations
allow the operator to control the instrument from a distance via remote control. This
eliminates the need for as assistant staff member as the operator holds the reflector and
controls the total station from the observed point.

5. Micrometer:

A micrometer is an instrument for measuring the size and distance of distant objects.

Distant in this sense means a length that can not be readily measured by calibrated
instrument. The optical version of this instrument used two mirrors on a common extant.
By aligning the object on the mirrors using a precise vernier, the position of the mirrors
could be used to compute the range of the object. The distance and the angular size of the
object would then yield the actual size. The Micrometer Interferometer Surveyor is a
Commercial GPS-based system for performing geodetic measurements.

Horizontal and Vertical Curves in Surveying

Definition:

Curves are provided whenever a road changes its direction from right to S (vice versa) or
changes its alignment from up to down (vice versa). Curves are a critical! element in the
pavement design. They are provided with a maximum speed limit that should lie followed
very strictly. Following the speed limit becomes essential as the exceed in speed may
lead to the chances of the vehicle becoming out of control while negotiating a turn and
thus increase the odds of fatal accidents. Also, it is very necessary that appropriate safety
measures be adopted at all horizontal and vertical curves to make the infrastructure road
user friendly and decrease the risks of hazardous circumstances.

The low cost safety measures that can be adopted at curves included chevron signs,
delineators, pavement markings, flexible posts, fluorescent strips, road safety barriers,
rumble strips etc.

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Types of Curves

There are two types of curves provided primarily for the comfort and ease of the motorists
in the road namely:

1. Horizontal Curve
2. Vertical Curve
Horizontal Curves

Horizontal curves are provided to change the direction or alignment of a road. Horizontal
Curve are circular curves or circular arcs. The sharpness of a curve increases as the radius
is decrease which makes it risky and dangerous. The main design criterion of a horizontal
curve is the provision of an adequate safe stopping sight distance.

Types of Horizontal Curve:

Simple Curve:

A simple arc provided in the road to impose a curve between the two straight lines.

Compound Curve:

Combination of two simple curves combined together to curve in the same direction.

Reverse Curve:

Combination of two simple curves combined together to curve in the same direction.

Transition or Spiral Curve:

A curve that has a varying radius. Its provided with a simple curve and between the simple
curves in a compound curve.

While turning a vehicle is exposed to two forces. The first force which attracts the vehicle
towards the ground is gravity. The second is centripetal force, which is an external force
required to keep the vehicle on a curved path. At any velocity, the centripetal force would
be greater for a tighter turn (smaller radius) than a broader one (larger radius). Thus, the
vehicle would have to make a very wide circle in order to negotiate a turn.

This issue is encountered when providing horizontal curves by designing roads that are
tilted at a slight angle thus providing ease and comfort to the driver while turning. This
phenomenon is defined as super elevation, which is the amount of rise seen on a given
cross-section of a turning road, it is otherwise known as slope.

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Vertical Curves

Vertical curves are provided to change the slope in the road and may or may not. be
symmetrical. They are parabolic and not circular like horizontal curves. Identifying the
proper grade and the safe passing sight distance is the main design criterion of the vertical
curve, iln crest vertical curve the length should be enough to provide safe stopping sight
distance and in sag vertical curve the length is important as it influences the factors such
as headlight sight distance, rider comfort and drainage requirements.

Types of Vertical Curve:

Sag Curve

Sag Curves are those which change the alignment of the road from uphill to downhill,

Crest Curve/Summit Curve

Crest Curves are those which change the alignment of the road from downhill to uphill. In
designing crest vertical curves it is important that the grades be not] too high which makes
it difficult for the motorists to travel upon it.

Surveying Dictionary Words Starting from A

Absolute Accuracy

A measure which indicates how closely the coordinates of a point in Ordnance Survey
map data agree with the true National Grid coordinates of the same point on the ground.
As the true position can never be known exactly, the statistic is quoted relative to the best
known position determined by precise survey methods.

Absolute Coordinates

A coordinate pair or triplate measured directly from the origin of the coordinate system in
which it lies and not to any other point in the system.

Abstraction

The process of selection, generalisation and aggregation.

Acre

It is a Unit of area measuring equal to 43,560 square feet.

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Accuracy

The closeness of the results of observations, computations or estimates to the true values
or the values accepted as being true. Accuracy relates to the exactness of the operation by
which the result is obtained.

Accuracy Ratio or Error Ratio

Error ratio is a means of expressing the magnitude of the error of the survey in relation to
the distance traversed by the survey. Intuitively, a unit of error is of greater importance in
a short traverse than in a longer traverse. The error ratio is expressed as the quotient of
the absolute value of the error and the distance traversed.

Add Tape

An add tape has an additional major division at the head, beyond the zero mark of the
tape, which is subdivided into finer graduations, usually in tenths of a foot (or meter),
sometimes in hundredths. The use of this tape requires that the minor reading be added to
the major division reading.

Adjacent

Near to but not reaching or contacting.

Adjustments

Since all real measurements are imperfect, some amount of error will accumulate in the
course of a survey. That error can be logically distributed throughout the survey by
various adjustment procedures (i.e., manipulation of the data to produce a more logical
result). Adjustments can and should be done with any set of measurements for which
error can be assessed.

Aerial Photograph

A photograph taken by a camera mounted onto some form of flying object within the
Earth's Atmosphere. The resultant images are used in GIS as a background layer or used
by surveyors to digitize. It is called aerial photo or air photograph.

Aggregation

The grouping together of a "selected" set of like entities to form one entity. For example,
grouping sets of adjacent area units to form larger units, often as part of a spatial unit

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hierarchy such as wards grouped into districts. Any attribute data is also grouped or is
summarised to give statistics for the new spatial unit.

Aliasing

Visibly jagged steps along angled lines or object edges, due to sharp tonal contrasts
between pixels.

Altitude

The vertical angle between the plane of the horizon and the line to the object which is
observed. In photogrammetry, altitude applies to elevation above a datum of points in
space.

Angle Right

Clockwise horizontal angular measure.

Angle Left

Counterclockwise horizontal angular measure

Aneroid barometer

An instrument used to obtain heights above sea level by measuring atmospheric pressure.
Since atmospheric pressure varies with the height above or below sea level, the height
can be read directly from the height scale on the barometer

Arc

A locus of points that forms a curve that is defined by a mathematical function.

Area

A bounded contiguous two dimensional object which may or may not include its
boundary. Usually defined in terms of an external polygon or in terms of a set of grid
cells.

Artificial and modified surfaces

A General cover category consisting of roads and right-of-ways, buildings, parking lots,
farmsteads and ranch headquarters, urban and built-up areas, small built-up areas, rural

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transportation, and any other buildings that have a surface area greater than 1,000 square
feet.

Archaeological record

The archaeological record exists as a repository. Inside lie the decaying material remains
of ancient beings and civilisations. As archaeologists approach their work, they encounter
raw data from the archaeological record that serves as the source of their evidence to
interpret.

Assumed Datum

An assumed datum, which is established by giving a benchmark an assumed value (e.g.

100.000 m) to which all levels in the local area will be reduced. It is not good practice to
assume a level which is close to the actual MSL value, as it creates potential for
confusion.

Astronomic North

North by celestial observation of Sun or stars.

ATS

The Automated Title System is the computerised legal register of freehold land, State
tenure land and Reserve land in Queensland. The system also automates elements of the
document receiving, lodgement, tracking and registration processes.

Surveying Dictionary Words Starting from B

Backsight

A back-sight is a reading taken on a position of known coordinate(s). Since a survey

progresses from a point of known position to points of unknown position, a back sight is
a reading looking "backward" along the line of progress. The first reading of almost any
survey job should be a back-sight onto a fixed point of reference, usually a benchmark of
some sort.

Base Mapping

Usually associated with topographic mapping covering country or region at different

scales.

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Basic Land and Property Unit

The physical extent of a contiguous area of land under uniform property rights.

Basic Scale

The scale at which the survey is undertaken. For Ordnance Survey mapping, three scales
(1:1250 - urban, 1:2500 - urban and rural, 1:10 000 - mountain and moorland) are used.

Barren

A General cover category consisting of non-vegetated lands, including alkaline barrens,

un-reclaimed mined land, and other barren areas incapable of supporting vegetation.
Barren areas are non-vegetated either because the substrate will not support plant growth
or because the area is subject to frequent disturbance (e.g., scouring, flooding) that
prevents plant growth.

Barren land

A Land cover/use category used to classify lands with limited capacity to support life and
having less than 5 percent vegetative cover. Vegetation, if present, is widely spaced.
Typically, the surface of barren land is sand, rock, exposed subsoil, or salt-affected soils.
Subcategories include salt flats; sand dunes; mud flats; beaches; bare exposed rock;
quarries, strip mines, gravel pits, and borrow pits; river wash; oil wasteland; mixed barren
lands; and other barren land.

Baseline

A surveyed line usually several kilometres long. It is established with the utmost
precision available at the time. Surveys refer to the baseline for coordination and
correlation. The baseline accumulates distances throughout a triangulation network,
extending to other baselines, providing further integrated control

Beam compass

A drafting instrument used for drawing circles with a long radius. The point and scribe
are separate units, mounted to slide and clamp on a long beam.

Bearing

An angle measured clockwise from a north line of 0° to a given surveyed line.

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Bed

Land underlying a water body or roadway.

Benchmark

A bench mark (BM) is the term given to a definite, permanent accessible point of known
height above a datum to which the height of other points can be referred.

It is usually a stainless steel pin embedded in a substantial concrete block cast into the
ground. At hydrological stations rock bolts driven into bedrock or concrete structures can
be used, but structures should be used warily as they themselves are subject to settlement.
The locations of benchmarks shall be marked with BM marker posts and/or paint, and
recorded on the Station History Form.

BLM

Bureau of Land Management of U.S. Department of the Interior; formerly the General
Land Office (GLO).

Booking Values

Booking simply means "entering the field data in the field book". A format appropriate
for the type of survey should be followed to make interpretation and retrieval easy.

Boundary

The limit of a pre-defined and established area whose limit is determined by one or more
lines e.g. County area boundary, reservoir boundary. In other words, it is a border line or
exterior of a described parcel.

Bounded by

Informative term of location or limitation

Breakpoints

A breakpoint is a point where a change in some parameter of interest occurs. In

surveying, breakpoints are usually associated with changes in slope. A profile survey
which records only breakpoint stations can have equivalent (or even better) information
to a survey which records a regularly spaced set of stations, but with fewer entries (and
less time in the field).

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Browser

An application which gives the user the ability to view a graphic representation of
mapping data. The application would provide tools (e.g. pan, zoom) to aid this viewing. It
provides a visual representation of the mapping data, which may displayed at a variety of
resolutions dependent on the size of area being displayed.

Buffer

A zone of user-specified distance around a point, line or area. The generation of buffers
to establish the proximity of features is one of the most common forms of GIS analysis.
For example, it may be used to find all areas of industry less than 5km from a reservoir.

Building

A physical walled structure, connected to foundations, which has or will have a roof i.e.
this definition includes buildings surveyed at the foundation stage.

Surveying Dictionary Words Starting from C

Cadastre

A public register of land recording the extent and value of land parcels for
the purposes A dataset containing information related to land ownership
and rights. This usually takes the form of maps and descriptions of uniquely
identifiable land parcels. For each parcel, legal information such as
ownership, easements and mortgages are recorded more information can
be found on the HMLR web site.

Calibration

The act or process of comparing certain specific measurements in an

instrument with a standard.

Canal

Artificial open channel for waterway purposes.

Cardinal

North, South, East or West directions only.

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Cartesian Coordinates

Numbers expressing the location of a point in two or three dimensions as

the perpendicular distances from two or three orthogonal axes.

Cadastral

A Latin term from 'cadastre' referring to a registry of lands. Cadastral

surveying is the process of determining and defining land ownership and
boundaries.

Cadastral map

A map depicting land parcels and associated nomenclature.

Centerline, center of

Line or point of equal division or separation.

Chart

Special purpose navigation maps chiefly used for nautical, aeronautical and
mapping of the cosmos.

Choropleth Map

A class of thematic map portraying area properties using shaded symbols.

Common choropleth maps are population maps.

Chain

Unit of lineal measure equal to 66 feet.

Change Point

Change points are points of measurement which are used to carry the
measurements forward in a run. Each one will be read first as a foresight,
the instrument position is changed, and then it will be read as a backsight.

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CISP

The Computer Inventory of Survey Plans is a database that provides

current and historical survey plan information. It includes images of all
survey plans registered in Queensland.

Climatic factor (C factor - WEQ)

Characterizes climatic erosivity, specifically wind speed and surface soil

moisture. The factor for any given locality is expressed as a percentage of
the C factor for Garden City, Kansas, which has a value of 100.

Clinometer

An instrument used to determine the angle of elevation or depression. A De

Lisle's Pendent Clinometer was used by surveyors and engineers to set out
slopes and gradients in the construction of paths, tracks and roads.

Close

A close is the difference between the starting level of the initial point for the
outward run and that determined at the end of the return run. If the levels
have been reduced correctly this value should be the same as the difference
between the sum of the rises and falls and also the difference between the
sum of the backsights and foresights.

Compass

The magnetic compass has a pivoting magnetised needle that always

points to magnetic north (geological features may influence readings). The
compass circumference is divided into degrees from which a bearing of a
chosen direction from magnetic north can be determined. A compass
magnetic bearing must be converted to a grid bearing for plotting on a map.

Contour interval

The difference in elevation between adjacent contours as delineated on a

map.

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Contours

Lines joining points of equal height as shown on a topographic map.

Contour lines that are relatively close together depict an area of steep
terrain on the earth's surface.

Coincident Line Feature

A feature derived from the merging of vectors from the same or different
features, having coincident or near coincident alignments (as determined
by a set tolerance) and feature code. Coincident features carrying certain
feature codes constituting different thematic layers are not merged e.g.
boundaries and landform.

Conflation

The process whereby two maps of the same area, usually from different
time periods or different themes, can be matched and merged together.

Contiguous

Literally adjacent, touching. In the context of digital mapping, the word has
a special meaning and implies a connected entity.

Control

A system of points which are used as fixed references for positioning other
surveyed features.

Conventional Archive

Map information stored in non-digital form e.g. on paper. The conventional

archive exists in a very wide range of formats which reflect differences in
the methods used to gather the information, differences in the product
items which are produced from the archival information and also
differences in production techniques which have been adopted over the
years.

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Coordinate Geometry

Algorithms for handling basic two and three dimensional vector entities built
into all surveying, mapping and GIS software.

Coordinate Pair

An X and Y value measured with reference to Cartesian axes. In mapping,

a coordinate pair normally consists of an easting and a northing.

Coordinate Transformation

The computational process of converting an image or map from one co-

ordinate system to another. Is also known as a transformation.

Coordinates

Pairs of numbers expressing horizontal distances along orthogonal axes, or

triplets of numbers measuring horizontal and vertical distances.

Complementary Angle

Remnant angle of 90 degrees less smaller angle.

Corner

Juncture of intersecting lines; locative point.

Course

Line or boundary defined by bearing and distance.

Cropland

A Land cover/use category that includes areas used for the production of
adapted crops for harvest. Two subcategories of cropland are recognized:
cultivated and uncultivated. Cultivated cropland comprises land in row
crops or close-grown crops and also other cultivated cropland, for example,
hayland or pastureland that is in a rotation with row or close-grown crops.
Uncultivated cropland includes permanent hayland and horticultural
cropland.
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Control Points

Control Points are fixed points of known coordinates. Such information can
give only elevation or can include all coordinates. Control points are
determined by high-accuracy surveys. In a less rigorous sense, control
points for a construction project can be established conveniently around the
project area using high-accuracy procedures. Such points would then be
used throughout the project for referencing subsequent survey work, such
as locating foundations, pipes, etc.

Crest

Highest elevation, uppermost level or height of.

CSM

Certified Survey Map abbreviation

Cut Tape

A cut tape has the last major division at the head subdivided into finer
graduations, usually in tenths of a foot (or meter), sometimes in
hundredths. The use of this tape requires that the minor reading be
subtracted from the major division reading. Some tapes have minor
divisions at both the head and tail.

D - Glossary of Engineering Levelling &

Surveying
Data

A representation of facts, concepts or instructions in a formalized manner suitable for

communication, interpretation or processing.

Data Capture

The encoding of data. In the context of digital mapping, this includes digitizing, direct
recording by electronic survey instruments and the encoding of text and attributes by
whatever means.

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Data Format

A specification that defines the order in which data is stored or a description of the way
data is held in a file or record.

Data Point

A coordinate pair which defines the position of a point feature or one of a series of
coordinates pairs which define a line feature.

Data Quality

Attributes of a dataset which define its suitability for a particular purpose, e.g.
Completeness, positional accuracy, currency, logical structure etc.

Data Type

This defines the structure of a data item. This in turn determines the range of values it can
take and the range of operations that can be applied to it. Integer, real and character string
are examples of data type. Some modern programming languages allow user-defined
types.

Datum

A known position from which all height information is relatively measured. The heights
expressed for points mapped on the National Grid are expressed as a height difference in
metres from a known point on the harbour wall in Newlyn, Cornwall.

DCDB

The Digital Cadastral Database is the spatial representation of every parcel of land in
Queensland. This is along with its legal Lot on Plan description and relevant attributes. It
provides the map base for systems dealing with land related information.

Demographic Data

Statistical data on human populations.

Demography

The statistical study of human populations, particularly with reference to size,

constitution, density and distribution.

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Derived Map

A map which has been produced by reference to other source data, rather than directly
from a survey.

Deepwater habitat.

Any open water area in which the mean water depth exceeds 6.6 feet in nontidal areas or
at mean low water in freshwater tidal areas, or is covered by water during extreme low
water at spring tides in salt and brackish tidal areas, or covers the deepest emerging
vegetation.

Developed land.

A combination of land cover/use categories, large urban and built-up areas, Small built-
up areas, and rural transportation land.

Descriptive Group

The group to which the primary descriptive attributes of a feature belongs e.g. road/track,
building, inland water.

Differential Leveling

Differential levelling is the term applied to any method of measuring directly with a
graduated staff the difference in elevation between two or more points.

Digital Audio Tape

A storage medium that is increasingly used for data storage. A DAT cartridge is slightly
larger than a credit card and contains magnetic tape that can hold from 700MB to 2.3GB
of data.

Digital Elevation Model

A 3D representation of the height and shape topography of the Earth's surface. A DEM is
formed by a regular grid of height values and can be overlaid with other data to create
DTM.

Digital Map

A term used by Ordnance Survey to describe a particular tile of digital map data.

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Direction

Angular measure by reference to a defined line.

Distance

Lineal length between points on a straight line.

Due North

Normally infers True North; use of term is not recommended without a basis of
reference.

Surveying Dictionary Words Definitions Starting

from E, F, G
Easement

The right, privilege or liberty given to a person or group to use land belonging to another
for a specific and definite purpose e.g. the right given to an electricity company to bring
electricity transmission lines across a private property.

Easting

Coordinate value by longitudinal reference.

Earth Resources Technology Satellite

This was later renamed Landsat.

Electronic Distance Measurement, EDM

EDM is a relatively new technique that is still evolving and improving. It was first
introduced in 1948 by Swedish physicist Erik Bergstrand. His device used visible light
and could accurately measure distances up to 25 miles at night. First introduced in 1957,
microwave instruments can be used day or night.

Current devices are either electro-optical instruments, which use laser or infrared light, or
microwave instruments. The former requires a passive reflector at the opposite end of the
line, while the latter method requires two identical instruments. Refer to the texts for
more information on EDM.

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Electronic Distance Measuring Equipment

This instrument measures distances using light or sound waves.

Elevation

The height above mean sea level.

Encumbrance

Restrictive real property interest or right.

Ephemeris

A description of the path of a celestial body indexed by time (from the Latin word
ephemeris meaning diary). The navigation message from each GPS satellite includes a
predicted ephemeris for the orbit of that satellite valid for the current hour. The
ephemeris is repeated every 30 seconds and is in the form of a set of 16 Keplerian-type
parameters with corrections that account for the perturbations to the orbit caused by the
earth's gravitational field and other forces.

Equator

Standard parallel of 0 degrees latitude.

Exterior Angle

Exterior angle formed by intersecting lines of an polygon or land parcel boundaries.

Face

A surface bounded by a closed sequence of edges. Faces are contiguous and fill the
spatial extent of the dataset and do not overlap.

Farmsteads and ranch headquarters

A Land cover/use category that includes dwellings, outbuildings, barns, pens, corrals and
feedlots next to buildings, farmstead or feedlot windbreaks, and family gardens
associated with operating farms and ranches. (Commercial feedlots, greenhouses, poultry
facilities, overnight pastures for livestock, and field windbreaks are not considered part of
farmsteads.)

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Field

A specified part of a record containing a unit of data.

Field Books

Field books are standard forms for recording of survey data as it is collected. There are
different types of field books that are common for different types of surveys. The pages
of a field book are typically numbered in pairs, i.e., the left and right pages that face each
other are given one number and are considered as a unit containing related information.
The left side of the 'page' is usually ruled into six columns (some books have eight
columns). The right 'page' usually looks like a sort of graph paper. This is where most of
the differences occur. Various types are: transit, engineer's, cruisers, leveling, etc. (Look
at a catalog like Forestry Supply or Ben Meadows for details.)

Field Notes

Field notes are a permanent record of field procedures and the data collected in those
procedures. Field notes should be made carefully. It is a common tendency to crowd
information onto the pages. Data can now be found.

Forest land

A Land cover/use category that is at least 10 percent stocked by single-stemmed woody

species of any size that will be at least 4 meters (13 feet) tall at maturity. Also included is
land bearing evidence of natural regeneration of tree cover (cut over forest or abandoned
farmland) and not currently developed for nonforest use. Ten percent stocked, when
viewed from a vertical direction, equates to an aerial canopy cover of leaves and branches
of 25 percent or greater.

Foresight

A foresight is a reading taken on a position of unknown coordinate(s). Since a survey

progresses from a point of known position to points of unknown position, a foresight is a
reading looking "forward" along the line of progress. Foresights may be taken on the
"main circuit" of the survey or on additional points of interest. Readings on additional
points of interest are sometimes called sideshots or intermediate foresights to distinguish
them from the readings that form the main circuit of the survey.

Footprint

The ground area occupied by an object e.g. a building.

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General cover

Nine general cover categories are defined, based upon vegetative structure (e.g., canopy
cover percentage) or substrate characteristics (e.g., barren land/artificial surfaces). They
are: Crop; Herbaceous; Open canopy short woody plants; Short woody plants; Open
canopy tall woody plants; Tall woody plants; Barren; Artificial and modified surfaces;
Water. See also Habitat composition and Habitat configuration.

Geocentric datum

A datum which has its origin at the Earth's centre of mass. This datum can therefore be
used anywhere on the planet and be compatible with the same datum anywhere else on
the planet.

Geodesy

The science and mathematical calculations of the shape and size of the Earth.

Geographical coordinates

A point on a map given as latitude and longitude readings. The values are given as
degrees, minutes and seconds.

Geographic Information Systems

GIS is the spatial capture of themed data layers and the storing, analysing and displaying
of the geographically referenced information. A GIS also includes the procedures,
software, hardware, operating personnel and spatial data associated with the system.

Geocode

The element in a database used to identify the location of a particular record e.g. a
postcode. The process of geocoding is similar to that of address matching in that a data
file is compared against a file of geocode and their associated coordinates.

Geodata

Information that identifies the geographical location and characteristics of natural or

man-made features and boundaries of the earth. Geodata represent abstractions of real
world entities such as roads, buildings, vehicles, lakes, forests and countries.

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Geodemographic Data

Statistical population data, or demographic data, with a spatial reference. For example,
census information based upon enumeration districts. This is a type of map data.

Geodetic Datum

A set of parameters defining coordinate systems for all or parts of the earth. These data
have been refined and revised over time e.g. NAD 27 is the North American datum for
1927, ED50 is the European datum for 1950 and WGS is the World Geodetic System for
1984.

Geographic Information

Information about objects or phenomena that is associated with a location relative to the
surface of the earth. A special case of spatial information.

Geographical Information System

A system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, analysing and displaying data that
is spatially referenced to the earth. This is normally considered to involve a spatially
referenced computer database and appropriate applications software.

Geoid

An imaginary shape for the earth defined by mean sea level and its imagined continuation
under the continents at the same level of gravitational potential.

Geoidal Height

The height of a point on the geoid above on ellipsoidal reference surface.

Geometric Data

Data about position within an absolute or relative coordinate system.

Geospatial Data

Another term used to describe Map Data but commonly isn't directly associated with a
map e.g. an address has a spatial reference associated with it but not in map coordinates.

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Global Positioning System

GPS is a satellite based navigation system originally developed by the United State's
Department of Defence. A GPS receiver calculates a position by measuring distances to
four or more satellites of a possible 24. These orbit the Earth at all times.

Graphical User Interface

A method of interaction with a computer which uses pictorial buttons (icons) and
command lists controlled by a mouse. It is generally regarded as simpler and easier to
learn than command line interfaces, where commands have to be typed. Examples
include MS WINDOWS for PCs, Open Look or MOTIF for workstations and System 7
for Macintosh.

Grid

A group of parallel lines that run perpendicular to another group of parallel lines to form
a map coverage of squares.

Grid coordinates

A point on a map given as an easting and northing reading. The values are given in
metres.

Grid north

The direction of the vertical grid lines shown on a topographic map. The difference
between grid north and true north is referred to as grid convergence.

Ground Height

The height where the building wall intersects the ground.

Ground Station

A facility capable of receiving signals from earth observation satellites such as

LANDSAT, SPOT, ERS, JERS AND MOS.

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Growing season

The period and/or number of days between the last freeze in the spring and the first frost
in the fall for the freeze threshold temperature of the crop or other designated temperature
threshold.

Gunter's chain

A distance measuring device composed of 100 metal links fastened together with rings.
The length of the chain is 66 feet. It was invented in about 1620 by English astronomer,
Edmund Gunter.

Surveying Dictionary Words Definitions Starting

from H, I, J, K, L
Habitat composition

The makeup or relative proportion of the General cover categories occurring about a
point (see Primary sample unit).

Habitat configuration

The arrangement of the nine General cover categories occurring about a point (see
Primary sample unit).

Hayland

A subcategory of Cropland managed for the production of forage crops that are machine
harvested. The crop may be grasses, legumes, or a combination of both. Hayland also
includes land in set-aside or other short-term agricultural programs.

Hand Level

A hand level is a small scope fitted with a spirit level that is visible while looking through
the scope. It is used to make rough estimates of relative elevations.

Height of Collimation

Height of Collimation is the elevation of the optical axis of the telescope at the time of
the setup. The line of collimation is the imaginary line at the elevation.

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Horticultural cropland

A subcategory of Cropland used for growing fruit, nut, berry, vineyard, and other bush
fruit and similar crops. Nurseries and other ornamental plantings are included.

Hydrographic Surveying

The measurement and description of the physical features offshore and adjoining coastal
areas with special reference to their use for the purpose of navigation.

Independent Polygon

One of the options for OS MasterMap product feature geometry/topology in which the
data is simplified into area, point and line features with no relationship between them and
with their own explicit geometry. For example, in the Independent Polygon product, the
bounding line between two areas will be represented three times, each with its own
description of the geometry: once as a line feature, once as part of the bounding line of
the first area feature and once as the bounding line of the second area feature.

Isoline

A line joining points of equal value. Examples of these include height contours on a map
or isobars showing atmospheric pressure on a weather map.

Land cover/use

A term that includes categories of land cover and categories of land use. Land cover is the
vegetation or other kind of material that covers the land surface. Land use is the purpose
of human activity on the land; it is usually, but not always, related to land cover. The NRI
uses the term land cover/use to identify categories that account for all the surface area of
the United States.

Land capability classification (class and subclass)

Land capability classification is a system of grouping soils primarily on the basis of their
capability to produce common cultivated crops and pasture plants without deteriorating
over a long period. Land capability classification is subdivided into capability class and
capability subclass nationally.

Latitude

The angular distance along a meridian measured from the Equator, either north or south.

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Level Surface

A level surface is a surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the direction of the force
of gravity. An example is the surface of a completely still lake. For ordinary levelling, level
surfaces at different elevations can be considered to be parallel.

Level Datum

A level datum is an arbitrary level surface to which elevations are referred. The most
common surveying datum is mean sea-level (MSL), but as hydrological work is usually
just concerned with levels in a local area, we often use:

Lockspit

Trenches dug beside a peg or post along the survey lines from the corner of a subject
parcel. An example clause taken from the 1916 'Rules and Regulations for the Guidance
of Surveyors' states:

On each side of the split pegs, and distant about one foot, lockspits, three feet in length
and six inches in depth, are ... to be dug in the direction of the surveyed line. On very
stony lands, rows of stones placed in the direction of the surveyed line may be substituted
for dug-out lockspits.

Longitude

The angular distance measured from a reference meridian, Greenwich, either east or west.

Surveying Dictionary Words Definitions Starting

from M, N, O, P
Magnetic Declination

Magnetic declination is the horizontal angle between true north (i.e., the geographic
meridian) and magnetic north (i.e., the magnetic meridian). There are two conventions for
specifying the angle. One is to indicate the magnitude (e.g., 6o) and direction as E or W
of north. The other considers positive values to be toward the east and negative values to
be toward the west. Magnetic declination is dynamic. It changes over time as the earth's
magnetic field changes. There is a more or less orderly tendency to shift about the same
amount per year (as much as 5-10 minutes!). There are also cyclical fluctuations on
yearly (about 1') and daily (about 8') periods. The direction and rate of drift vary over
time, so you should use information on magnetic declination and drift from as close to the

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time of a survey as possible. Long term records from London show a variation of 16
degrees over four centuries.

Magnetic declination is usually indicated on maps in the area of the legend.

Map

A representation of the earth's surface where constituencies and related nomenclature are
portrayed to a specific format.

Map projection

A means of systematically representing the meridians and parallels of the earth onto a
plane surface.

Map scale

The relationship between a distance on a map and the corresponding distance on the
earth's surface.

Map Data

Digital data that has a spatial component. Typically these are digital maps but can also
include data that has some form of spatial attribute that can be linked to a real world
location - i.e an address.

Mark

An object, for example an imprinted metal disc, used to designate a survey point. It is
usually associated with terms such as reference mark, azimuth mark or bench mark.

Measuring scales

Measuring scales allow the user to represent a subject or drawing to a recognisable

reduction or constant ratio of the actual or proposed size. Many early scales were made of
silver, ivory, bone or boxwood.

Meridian

A straight line connecting the North and South Poles and traversing points of equal
longitude.

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Meridian

A north-south reference line. It may be taken through the position of the instrument, or, in
special cases, through a reference point (such as the Royal Observatory in Greenwich,
England, which designates the Prime Meridian - 0o longitude).

Minor land cover/uses.

See Other rural land. A miscellaneous group of land cover/uses that is sometimes used in
NRI tables and reports but not in data collection.

Object Orientation

A data model that treats components of a program or database as individual entities.

These 'objects' encapsulate knowledge about how the entity responds and reacts to the
system and inherits functionality from generic classes of objects.

Object-Based Data

Data in which one entity (i.e. one feature) represents one real world object (e.g. a
building or land parcel).

Occupied Point

The physical point over which the instrument (level, transit, total station, etc.) is set up. It
is the point from which any measurements taken while at that point are reckoned. Often
abbreviated in notes as OC.

Order of Leveling

Orders of levelling refer to the quality of the levelling, usually being defined by the
expected maximum closing error. These are given in Table

Order Purpose Maximum close

Precision Deformation surveys 0.001 x km
order
First order Major levelling control 0.003 x km
Second order Minor levelling control 0.007 x km

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Third order Levelling for 0.012 x km

construction
Orientation

Orientation of a point or a text feature measured in degrees anticlockwise from grid east.

Origin

The zero point in a system of rectangular Cartesian coordinates.

Orthogonal

At right angles to each other.

Orthophoto

Photographic image, rectified to remove the distortions caused by variations in terrain

height, resulting in an image in which all pixels are to the same scale.

Other aquatic habitats

Includes wetlands and deepwater habitats occurring in the Riverine, Lacustrine, or

Marine Systems, and deepwater habitats occurring in the Estuarine System as defined by
Cowardin et al. 1979 (see Wetlands).

Other rural land

A Land cover/use category that includes farmsteads and other farm structures, field
windbreaks, barren land, and marshland.

Ownership

The separation of federal and nonfederal lands and the distinction between administrative
units of land. Water areas are not classified according to ownership.

Orders of Surveys

The order of a survey is a way of expressing the accuracy of the work. The order of the
survey can have two levels of designators, namely, Order and Class.

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Overhaul

The process of refashioning the old County Series 1:2500 scale maps to adequate
National Grid standards. It included the adjustment of the detail on the old maps to the
control points of the 1936 retriangulation, the recompilation of the maps on the national
Transverse Mercator Projection and with sheet lines corresponding to the National Grid.,
the elimination of errors (particularly those caused by distortion of materials and
inadequacy of old revision methods), the revision of detail and finally, the fair drawing of
all maps to a new specification.

Pacing

Pacing is a "quick and dirty" method for estimating distances. One simply walks from
one point to another, counting steps. Knowing the length of one's step allows a quick
estimation of the distance. With practice, pacing estimates will typically be accurate to
within 2%. Pacing is most reliable on even terrain without obstructions.

Paradigm

A set of assumptions, concepts, values and practices that constitutes a way of viwing
reality for the community that shares them, especially in an intellectual discipline.

Parallel

A line of latitude.

Parameter

A quantity that is fixed for the case in question, but may vary in other cases.

Perennial stream

A stream or reach of a stream that normally flows continuously .

Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)

A hand-held, computer-assisted survey collection tool used to record NRI data.

Photogrammetry

The science, art and technology of obtaining reliable measurements and maps from aerial
photographs.

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Photographic interpretation

The act of examining photography images for the purpose of identifying objects and
judging their significance.

Pixel

A picture element of a raster image as displayed on a screen or raster plot. Platform

Independent A term usually applied to a piece of software that can operate on many
different hardware platforms e.g. PC, Unix, Mac, VAX etc.

Plane Surveying

Plane surveying is a subset of the general field of surveying in which it is assumed that a
Cartesian coordinate system is applicable or appropriate. The methods of plane surveying
are appropriate for most construction and planning tasks that are relatively small in scale.
Plane surveying is used to approximate the conditions on small portions of the surface of
the earth (which is, of course, spherical).

Plumb Bob

A plumb bob is carefully machined, pointed weight that is suspended with a string. It is
used to indicate a (local) vertical line through the point of suspension. Plumb bobs are
commonly used for locating an instrument precisely over a fixed point or to project a
vertical line between a tape and a point on the ground.

Plot

The provision of an extract of the data as a single plot or print on paper or similar
medium.

Point

A zero-dimensional spatial abstraction of an object represented by a coordinate pair.

Point and Line Data Structure.

A form of vector data structure designed for map production in which all map features
are designated as points or lines or text. Point and line data does not carry the topological
relationships between features.

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Point Feature

A zero-dimensional spatial abstraction of an object with its position defined by a

coordinate pair. Points may also be represented by symbols which may have attributes
such as orientation and size.

Polygon

Polygons are representations of areas. A polygon is defined as a closed line or perimter

which completely encloses a contiguous space and is made up of one or more links. At
least one node occurs on the perimeter of a polygon where the bounding link completes
the enclosure of the area. There may be many nodes connecting the bounding links of a
polygon. Links may be shared between polygons. Polygons ma wholly contain other
polygons; or be contained within other polygons.

Polygon Boundary

The link or links which enclose a polygon, projected into the horizontal plane.

Polyline

A line made up of a sequence of line segments.

Positional Accuracy

The degree to which the coordinates define a point's true position in the world, directly
related to the spheroid and/or projection on which the coordinates system is based.

Positional Quality Gives an indication of the positional accuracy of the location

coordinates in ADDRESS-POINT.

Precise Leveling

Precise levelling is a particularly accurate method of differential leveling which uses highly
accurate levels and with a more rigorous observing procedure than general engineering
leveling. It aims to achieve high orders of accuracy such as 1 mm per 1 km traverse.

Primary sample unit (PSU)

An area of land, typically square to rectangular in shape, that is approximately 40, 100,
160, or 640 acres in size. Within the PSU, sample points are assigned. Certain data
elements are collected for the entire PSU, while others are collected at the PSU points.

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Prime farmland

Land that has the best combination of physical and chemical characteristics for producing
food, feed, forage, fiber, and oilseed crops and is also available for these uses.

Surveying Dictionary Words Definitions Starting

from Q, R, S
Query

The process of selecting features in a database. Can be achieved through a query

language directly on the data or, in a GIS, by interactively selecting features.

Rasterisation

The process that converts vector data, which is a series of points, lines and polygons into
raster data which is a series of cells with a discrete value.

Railroads

A category of rural transportation areas that includes all operational rail systems and their
rights-of-way. Abandoned railroad beds are not included as railroad areas.

Rangeland

A Land cover/use category on which the climax or potential plant cover is composed
principally of native grasses, grasslike plants, forbs or shrubs suitable for grazing and
browsing, and introduced forage species that are managed like rangeland.

Rectification

The mathematical and calculated correction made to an aerial photograph to show its true
ground position at a consistent scale.

Reduced Level

A reduced level is the vertical distance between a survey point and the adopted level
datum.

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Relative Accuracy

Relative accuracy compares the distance between features measured on the ground to the
corresponding information contained in the map data. When measuring between data
points represented on the map it is worth noting that some distortion may occur due to the
materials and process used to produce the map.

Relative Coordinates

A coordinate pair or triplet measured relative to another point in the coordinate system in
which it lies, rather than from the origin. (see also absolute coordinates).

Remote Holdings

The situation where the supplier holds and manages the customer's data.

Remote sensing

The science and art of obtaining information about an object, area, or phenomenon
through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not in contact with the object,
area, or phenomenon under investigation.

Representative Point

A point within a polygon that can be used to carry the attributes of the whole polygon e.g.
owner or land use type. Also called area seed, peg point, point label, polygon point,
polygon seed. Representative points are not included in OS MasterMap data.

Resurvey

The complete survey of detail based directly on National Grid control (OSGB36). It may
be completed wholly on the ground or by a combination of aerial and ground survey
methods.

Rhumb line

A straight line connecting two points on the earth's surface which cuts all meridians at the
same angle. The line maintains a constant bearing.

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RIME

The Resource Information Management Environment provides for the storage,

management and dissemination of extensible digital topographic data held within the
Department of Environment and Resource Management. It is a seamless, multi-scale
environment covering Queensland.

RINEX

See Receiver Independent Exchange.

Riverine System

All wetland and deepwater habitats contained within a channel, with two exceptions:

1. Wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergent, emergent mosses, or lichens;

and
2. Habitats with water containing ocean derived salts.
Riverwash

A subcategory of Barren land. Barren alluvial areas, usually coarse-textured, exposed

along streams at low water and subject to shifting during normal high water.

Row crops

A subset of the Land cover/use category Cropland (subcategory, Cultivated) comprising

land in row crops, such as corn, soybeans, peanuts, potatoes, sorghum, sugar beets,
sunflowers, tobacco, vegetables, and cotton.

Road Centreline

An implied and imaginary line depicting the centre of a road carriageway (represented by
FC0098 in Land-Line in NTF or G8010098 in Land-Line in DXF). They are not
specifically surveyed or precisely positioned within the data. They are digitised to fall
between curb lines, but will nit necessarily fall equidistantly between them.

Rod

A rod is essentially a stick with precise markings on it. A variety of rods are available,
which have specialized markings for various tasks. Refer to a surveying text for more
detail. The most commonly used rod is the Philadelphia rod, which is marked in feet,
tenths, and hundredths. With care, and a vernier attachment, readings can be obtained to

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the thousandth of a foot. Feet are typically marked with large, red numerals, with tenths
marked with smaller, black numerals. Each bar is 0.01 ft wide. The longer sides of the
pointed bars mark multiples of 0.05 ft.

Rotation

Movement of a vector through an angle. Router In a message switching system, the

portion of a node or exchange that examines incoming messages, interprets the address
information and determines which of the outgoing links can be used. Usually a computer
program that chooses messages from incoming buffers and places them into outgoing
message queues.

Run

A run is the levelling between two or more points measured in one direction only. The
outward run is from known to unknown points and the return run is the check levelling in
the opposite direction.

Sand dunes

A Land cover/use subcategory under Barren land. A sand area with less than 5 percent
vegetative cover. An accumulation of loose sand heaped by the wind, commonly found
along low-lying seashores above high-tide level, more rarely on the border of large lakes
or river valleys, as well as in various desert regions, where there is abundant dry surface
sand during some part of the year.

SCDB

The Survey Control Database is a computerised record of the State's geodetic survey
control data. Surveyors place and connect to these survey control points. The geodetic
network provides a spatial reference framework for all surveys.

Selection

Runs were subdivided into selections for farming, agriculture and grazing homesteads.
After a period of yearly rental payments, the selector could often obtain freehold
ownership.

Set Up

A set-up refers the position of a level or other instrument at the time in which a number of
observations are made without mooring the instrument. The first observation is made to

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the known point and is termed a backsight; the last observation is to the final point or the
next to be measured on the run, and all other points are intermediates.

Slope

The inclination of the soil surface from the horizontal. Slope percent is the vertical
distance divided by the horizontal distance, then multiplied by 100.

Slope length

The distance from the point of origin of overland flow to the point where either the slope
gradient decreases enough that deposition begins, or the runoff water enters a well-
defined channel that may be part of a drainage network or a constructed channel. For the
NRI, length of slope is taken through the sample point.

SMIS

SmartMap Information Services is an electronic application that accesses, integrates and

delivers (through the SmartMap interface) data available from many land-related
datasets. These include ATS, DCDB, CISP, PLI, SCDB, Place Names and Aerial
Photography Databases.

Soil survey.

The systematic examination, description, classification, and mapping of soils in an area.

The USDA- NRCS Soil Survey Program produces Soil Survey Reports, which generally
consist of four principal parts:

1. Maps,
2. A map legend,
3. A description of the soils in the survey area, and
4. A use and management report. The survey area commonly is a single county but may
comprise parts of counties, physiographic regions, or other management areas.
Spatial information

Data that has a geographical reference to a location on the earth's surface. This includes
latitude and longitude co-ordinates, street address and lot number on plan.

Staking

The placement of markers on a site to identify certain locations (such as the corners of a
building, the right-of-way of a road, the extent of the slope faces of a dam, etc.) with
corresponding information (such as cut or fill for earthmoving) is the process of staking
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out a project. It is the transferal of information from the plan to the actual site --- in a
manner that the work crews will understand and use. It is therefore very important that
the information be as simple and as clear as possible.

Stream.

A flow of water in a channel or bed, as a brook, rivulet, or small river.

Stations

The term station refers to a point on a baseline that is at a known distance from a
starting/reference point. The starting point is usually referenced as 0 + 00, but there are
occasions where another value might be assigned. It is generally desirable to have all
stations noted by positive numbers, since negative stations often lead to confusion of
interpretation. Full stations are at integer multiples of some base distance - usually 100
feet or 100 meters. The numeral to the left of the "+" indicates the multiples of the base
distance and the numeral on the right indicates numbers less than the base distance.

For example, if the starting point was designated 0+00, a point 375.62 feet away
(following the baseline) would be noted as 3+75.62. The term "station" is also used more
loosely to indicate any point used in a survey, such as benchmarks and turning points. As
in so many aspects of language, context is important.

Survey post

Posts used on corners of large rural size blocks of land or town section corners. They
were sharpened to a point, buried in the ground and exposed approximately 3'6" out of
the ground.

Surveying Dictionary Words Definitions Starting

from T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
Tapes/Taping

A tape is a flexible device used for measuring linear distances. There are tapes made of
many materials, such as cloth, kevlar, steel, and invar. The most common tape used by
surveyors is the steel tape. Standard lengths are 100 feet (for English unit surveys) or 30
meters (for SI unit surveys). Tapes are usually marked at every foot or meter. At the ends
of the tape, there will be finer divisions (tenths/hundredths of a foot, or
decimeters/centimeters). Tapes are called "add" tapes if the finer divisions are in a major
unit beyond the ends of the regular length, e.g., beyond the zero and 100-ft marks of an
English tape. If, on the other hand, the divisions are marked inside the last major units,
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the tape is called a "cut" tape. E.g., the decimeter/centimeter divisions are marked
between the zero and one-meter marks and between the ninety-nine and one hundred
meter marks.

For high precision surveys, invar tapes are useful. Invar is a nickel-steel alloy that has a
coefficient of thermal expansion of 2.0x10-7 to 5.5 x 10-7 per ° Fahrenheit. Regular steel
tapes have a coefficient of thermal expansion of 64.5x10-7 per °Fahrenheit, or 116x10-
7
per °Celsius.

Thematic

Depicting one or more specific topics or subjects e.g. Land use, rainfall, population
density.

Thiessen Polygons

A method used to divide an area into polygons so that all locations closest to a particular
sample point are enclosed within a single polygon. The boundary lines are defined at
positions equidistant between two adjacent points. Also known as Dirichlet tesselations
and Voronoi polygons.

Topographic map

A detailed representation of cultural, hydrographic relief and vegetation features. These

are depicted on a map on a designated projection and at a designated scale.

Topography

The study of the physical features of the earth.

Topology

Properties of geometric forms that remain invariant when the forms are deformed or
transformed by bending, stretching or shrinking. Among the topological properties of
concern in GIS are connectivity, order and neighborhood.

Traverse

A traverse is a series of consecutive line segments whose lengths and directions are
determined by field measurements. A closed traverse either closes back upon its starting
point, or begins and ends on stations of known positions. An open traverse does not close
on either itself or a station of known position. As such, an open traverse does not provide
any means for checking for errors and mistakes. Open traverses should generally be
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avoided. If an open traverse must be used, the procedure should be repeated to provide a
check of accuracy.

Triangulation Station

A permanently marked and fully documented control station whose position on the
earth's surface has been established to a high accuracy both absolutely and in relative
terms to other adjacent stations by means of angular or electronic distance measurement.
Triangulation stations form the framework on which all survey and mapping techniques
are based.

Trigonometrical survey

A concise method of surveying in which the stations are points on the ground located at
vertices of a chain or network of triangles. The angles of the triangles are measured
instrumentally and the sides are derived by computation from selected sides termed as
baselines.

True north

The direction to the Earth's geographic North Pole.

Tuple

A set of n coordinates representing a point in n-dimensional space, as defined by a spatial

reference system. The British National Grid reference system is 2D only, so coordinate
tuples consist of an easting and a northing coordinate

Uplands

All land not classified as wetland or deep water habitat (see Wetlands, Cowardin et al.
1979).

Urban and built-up areas

A Land cover/use category consisting of residential, industrial, commercial, and

institutional land; construction sites; public administrative sites; railroad yards;
cemeteries; airports; golf courses; sanitary landfills; sewage treatment plants; water
control structures and spillways; other land used for such purposes; small parks (less than
10 acres) within urban and built-up areas; and highways, railroads, and other
transportation facilities if they are surrounded by urban areas. Also included are tracts of
less than 10 acres that do not meet the above definition but are completely surrounded by

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Urban and built-up land. Two size categories are recognized in the NRI: areas of 0.25
acre to 10 acres, and areas of at least 10 acres.

Vector

A straight line joining two data points.

Vector Data

Positional data in the form of coordinates of the ends of line segments, points, text
positions and so on.

Waterway

Lake, pond, river, stream, creek, canal, etc.

Wetlands

Lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic systems where the water table is usually
at or near the surface or the land is covered by shallow water. For purposes of this
classification wetlands must have one or more of the following three attributes: (1) at
least periodically, the land supports predominantly hydrophytes; (2) the substrate is
predominantly undrained hydric soil; and (3) the substrate is non-soil and is saturated
with water or covered by shallow water at some time during the growing season of each
year.

Yard

Lineal measurement equal to 3 feet.

Chain Survey Steps - Method for Performing

Chain Surveying

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Definition

Chain survey is the simplest method of surveying. In this survey only measurements are
taken in the field, and the rest work, such as plotting calculation etc. are done in the
office. This is most suitable adapted to small plane areas with very few details. If
carefully done, it gives quite accurate results. The necessary requirements for field work
are chain, tape, ranging rod, arrows and sometime cross staff.

 It is a system of surveying in which sides of various triangles are measured directly in the
field and NO angular measurements are taken.
 It is the simplest kind of Surveying
 It is adopted when Level of accuracy required is not high
Chain survey steps:
1. Reconnaissance

The preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed is called reconnaissance. The

surveyor inspects the area to be surveyed, survey or prepares index sketch or key plan.
Walk the whole area and thoroughly examine the ground, note the position of boundaries,

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road, and river etc., various difficulties to chain lines, select stations, and prepare neat
sketches called index sketches or key plan.

2. Marking stations

Stations are marked with ranging rod, or wooden peg, driving a nail or spikes if hard
surface, or embedding stone with a cross mark.

3. Reference sketches

After marking the station should be referenced i.e. located by measurement called ties
taken from 3 permanent points which are easily identified such as corner of building.

4. Running survey line

After the preliminary work, chaining is started from base line and carried throughout all
the line of the framework continuously. So chain is laid and kept lying, offset are taken to
locate the nearby details. Make ranging wherever necessary. Measure the change and
offset and enter in the field book.

Chain Survey is Suitable when

1. Ground is fairly level and simple
2. Plans are required on large scale e.g. fields
3. When area is small in extent
Chain Surveying is Not Suitable
1. For Large Areas
2. When too many details are required
3. Wooded countries
4. Undulating areas
 Since the triangle is a simple plane geometrical figure, it can be plotted from the
measured length of its sides alone; therefore, the principle of chain survey is
Triangulation.
 In chain surveying, a NETWORK of TRIANGLES is preferred.
 Preferably all the sides of a triangle should be nearly equal having each angle nearly 60 to
ensure minimum distortion due to errors in measurement of sides and plotting.
 Generally such an ideal condition is not practical always. Usually attempt should be
made to have WELL CONDITIONED TRIANGLES in which no angle is smaller than
30 and no angle is greater than 120.

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Procedure for Measurement of an Area by Chain Triangulation

PROCEDURE:
 Let ABCDE be the given
field whose area is to be
measured, fix the pegs at A,
B, C, D & E.
 Divide area into three
triangles ADE, ABD and
BCD by joining AD and BD.
 Measure the lengths AB, BC
, CD, DE, EA, AD and BD.
 Calculate the area of the
triangles.
 The sum of the areas of the
three triangles is the area of
the given field.

RESULT:

The area of the given field = _______

Survey Station:

Survey stations are of two kinds:

1. Main Stations
2. Subsidiary or tie
Main Stations:

Main stations are the end of the lines, which command the boundaries of the survey, and
the lines joining the main stations re called the main survey line or the chain lines.

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Subsidiary or the tie stations:

Subsidiary or the tie stations are the point selected on the main survey lines, where it is
necessary to locate the interior detail such as fences, hedges, building etc.

Tie or subsidiary lines:

A tie line joints two fixed points on the main survey lines. It helps to checking the
accuracy of surveying and to locate the interior details. The position of each tie line
should be close to some features, such as paths, building etc.

Base Lines:

It is main and longest line, which passes approximately through the center of the field.
All the other measurements to show the details of the work are taken with respect of this
line.

Check Line:

A check line also termed as a proof line is a line joining the apex of a triangle to some
fixed points on any two sides of a triangle. A check line is measured to check the
accuracy of the framework. The length of a check line, as measured on the ground should
agree with its length on the plan.

Offsets:

These are the lateral measurements from the base line to fix the positions of the different
objects of the work with respect to base line. These are generally set at right angle offsets.
It can also be drawn with the help of a tape. There are two kinds of offsets:

1. Perpendicular offsets
2. Oblique offsets

The measurements are taken at right angle to the survey line called perpendicular or right
angled offsets. The measurements which are not made at right angles to the survey line
are called oblique offsets or tie line offsets.

Types of Chains and Tapes in Civil Survey

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Types of Surveying Chains

Following are the various types of chain in common use:

1. Metric chains
2. Steel band or Band chain
3. Gunter's chain or surveyors chain
4. Engineers chain
5. Revenue chain
1. Metric Chain:
 Metric chains are made in lengths 20m and 30m. Tallies are fixed at every five-meter length
and brass rings are provided at every meter length except where tallies are attached.
2. Gunter’s Chain
 Length = 66’ (22 yards), No of links = 100, Each link = .66’
 Used for measuring distances in miles or furlongs (220 yards), acres (Area).
3. Engineer’s Chain
 Length = 100’, No of links = 100, Each link = 1’
 Used in all Engineering Surveys.
4. Revenue Chain
 Length = 33’, No of links = 16
 Commonly used for measuring fields in cadastral Survey.
Types of Measuring Tapes in Surveying

Tapes are made of different materials:

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1. Cloth or linen tape

 Used for subsidiary measurements
 Very light, easy to handle
 May effect by moisture
2. Metric steel tape
 Made of steel
 Outer end is provided with a ring for holding
3. Invar tape
 Used for high precision work
 Made of alloy steel
4. Synthetic tape
 Made of glass fiber with PVC coating
 These are used for short measurements

Classification and Types of Civil Engineering

Survey

Primary Division of Survey

1. Geodetic Surveying
2. Plane surveying
Geodetic or Trigonometrical Surveying:
 When the radius of curvature of earth is taken in to account.
 Large area and large distances are covered.
 Object of geodetic survey is to determine precise positions on the surface of earth.
 Refined Instruments and Methods are used.
 Conducted by Government agencies.

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Plane Surveying:
 When radius of curvature of the earth is not taken into account.
 Small area and small distances are covered
 Degree of accuracy is comparatively low.
 American survey put 250 km2 for treating survey as Plane, but controlling factor should
be degree of precision rather than extent of area.
Classification of Survey
Based upon Nature of field
1. Land Survey
2. Marine Survey
3. Astronomical Survey
Based upon Object of Survey
1. Geological Survey(Object is to survey different strata in the earth crust)
2. Mine Survey (Mineral wealth such as coal, gold)
3. Military Survey(Points of strategic importance)

Based upon Method Employed

1. Triangulation
2. Traversing
Based upon Instrument Used
1. Surveying by Total Station
2. Chain Survey
3. Theodolite Survey
4. Compass Survey
5. Plane Tabling
6. Photographic and Aerial Surveys

Land Survey can be further divided into:

1. Topographical Survey

Determine natural features of a country such as hills, valleys, lakes woods etc. and also
arterial features such as roads, buildings, canals, towns etc.

2. Cadastral Survey

Details such boundaries of houses, town, fields and other properties pathways are
determined.

1. City Survey

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2. Engineering Survey
Engineering Survey

Engineering Survey can be further divided into:

1. Reconnaissance (To determine the feasibility and rough cost of the scheme)
2. Preliminary Survey (For collecting more precise data)
3. Location Survey(For setting out the work on the ground)
Terrestrial Photogrammetry
The principal is exactly similar to plan table surveying, it may be stated as “The position of the
object with ref to the base line is given by the intersection of the rays drawn to it form each end of
the base line” In plane tabling most of the work is executed in the field while in this method it is
done in the office.

Maintenance of Surveying Equipment - Routine

Care and Transportation

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Surveying equipment is being used under most stressful conditions. The equipment is
exposed to extreme weather conditions, used in dusty construction areas and is subject to
bumpy transportation. Proper care in the method by which equipment is used, stored,
transported, and adjusted is a major factor in the successful completion of the survey. Lack
of good maintenance practices not only causes unjustified replacement costs, but also can
serious the efficiency and accuracy of the entire survey.

General Care and Maintenance of Surveying Equipment and Tools

Surveying instruments, which include theodolites, levels, total stations, electronic

measuring devices, and GPS receivers, are designed and constructed to provide years of
reliable use. The shafts, spindles, pendulums, and electronics of precision instruments,
although constructed for rugged field conditions, can be damaged by one careless act, or
continued negation prescribed procedures for use, care, and adjustment of the instrument.

Each new instrument is furnished with an operator’s manual. The manual contains a
description of the instrument, specifications of its various components and capabilities,
and applications. The manual also contains basic instructions for use of the instrument
and describes recommended servicing and adjusting methods. The operator’s manual
should be kept with the instrument at all times. Each operator should thoroughly study
the manual prior to use of he instrument, particularly whenever prescribed field
adjustments are to be made. If the manual is lost, stolen, or damaged beyond use, a
replacement copy should be obtained as soon as practicable.

The following general principles of care and servicing should be applied as a routine
matter for all survey equipment and supplies.

 All equipment and tools should be kept as clean and dry as practicable, particularly
if they are to be transported or stored for any length of time.
 Wooden surfaces should be wiped clean of caked mud or moisture prior to returning
the equipment to the vehicle. The original painted or varnished surfaces should be
repaired as often as needed to keep moisture from entering the wood.
 Metal surfaces should be cleaned and wiped as dry as practicable. A coat of light oil
should be applied to tapes and the metal parts of tools to prevent rusting during
storage. Excess oil should be wiped off.

Routine Care of Surveying Instruments.

 Before making the first set up of the day, visually inspect the instrument for cracks,
bumps, and dents. Check the machined surfaces and the polished faces of the lenses
and mirrors. Try the clamps and motions for smooth operation (absence of binding
or gritty sound).
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 Frequently clean the instrument externally. Any accumulation of dirt and dust can
scratch the machined or polished surface and cause friction or sticking in the
motions.
 Dirt and dust should be removed only with a clean soft cloth or with a camel hair
brush.
 Non-optical parts may be cleaned with a soft cloth or clean chamois.
 Clean the external surfaces of lenses with a fine lens brush and , if necessary, use a
dry lens tissue. Do not use silicon treated tissues, as they can damage the coated
optics. It is permissible to breath on the lens before wiping it, but liquids, such as
oil, benzene, water, etc., should never be used for cleaning purposes. DO
NOT loosens or attempt to clean the internal surface of any lens.
 Cover an instrument whenever it is uncased and not being used for any length of
time, particularly if there is dust or moisture in the air. After an instrument has been
used in damp or extremely cold situation, special precautions must be taken to
prevent condensation of moisture inside of the instrument. When working with the
instrument in cold weather, it should be left in the carrying case in the vehicle
overnight. If stored in a heated room overnight, the instrument must be removed
from the carrying case. If the instrument is wet or frost covered it should be remove
it from its case, and leave it at room temperature to dry out.

3. Care in Transporting Surveying Equipment.

Vehicular Transport

 The major damage to equipment and tools occurs when they are being placed into
or taken out of the survey vehicle. Other damage occurs during transport, when
equipments is jostled against other tools or equipment. Compartments (lined with
carpeting, when possible) should be provided to keep equipment and supplies
separated. This not only keeps the equipment from being damaged, it facilitates
finding such items more rapidly. Heavier items should be carried in the lower parts
of vehicles and they should never be in direct contact with other tools or equipment
below them.

 The care, organization, and general housekeeping of a vehicle are good indications
of the attitude of the entire survey crew. Keep passenger compartments free of
unnecessary clutter and equipment. Any equipment or material carried in the
passenger compartment should be firmly secured.
 Transport and store instrument in positions that are consistent with the carrying case
design. Many instrument cases indicate the position in which they should be
transported. Treat optical targets, prisms, and staffs with the same consideration.
 Transport the instruments in their carrying cases placed in a compartment cushioned
with firm poly foam or similar material to protect them from jolting or excessive
vibrations.
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 Remember, loose equipment, out of place tools, and general clutter not only
contributes to damage of the items, they also waste crew time in locating them and
are a safety hazard.

Casing and Uncasing

Before removing an instrument, study the way it is placed and secured in the case. The
instrument must be replaced in the same position when returned to the case. In removing
the instrument from the case, carefully grip it with both hands, but do not grip the vertical
circle standard or where pressure will be exerted on tubular or circular level vials.

Field Transport of Surveying Instrument

Do not “shoulder” or carry a tripod mounted theodolite or electronic distance measuring

equipment (EDM). These instruments should always be removed from the tripod and
secured in their carrying cases when moved.

These precautions are necessary because the center spindle (center spigot or standing
axis) of a theodolite is hollow and relatively short. When carried horizontally while on
the tripod, the alidade’s weight is an excessive load for the hollow centerpiece to bear.
Instrument damage can result if the above precautions are ignored. Also, the instrument
fastener can break, causing the theodolite to fall.

4. Care During Instrument Setups

 Whenever possible, select instrument stations where operation is not dangerous to the
instrument operator, the crew, or the instrument. Select stable ground for the tripod feet.
Do not set an instrument closely in front of, or behind, a vehicle or equipment which is
likely to move. Take a safe route to all setups.
 At the site, firmly plant the tripod with its legs widespread. Push along the legs, not
vertically, downward. On smooth surfaces, use some type of tripod leg restrainer to keep
the legs from sliding outward.
 Always have the tripod firmly set over the point before removing the instrument from its
carrying case. Immediately secure the instrument to the tripod with the instrument fastener.
 Never leave an instrument or its tribrach on the tripod without securing either to the tripod.
Moderate pressure on the fastener screw is sufficient. Excessive tightening causes undue
pressure on the foot screws and on the tribrach spring plate. Make sure the tribrach clamp
is in the lock position.
5. Adjustments of Surveying Instruments.
Field Adjustments

The crew leader should develop a set of test procedure to be used frequently for
elimination of gross errors. Such tests should include a check of items such as the level,

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optical plummet, and tripod. In the field, adjustments should only be made when the
instrument results are poor or require excessive manipulation.

Normally, each instrument should be periodically checked at a facility where the best
conditions for testing are possible. Only the adjustments described in the manual for the
instrument should be made in the field or shop. Do not “field strip” (dismantle)
instruments.

Major Adjustments

When an instrument has been damaged or otherwise requires major adjustments, it will
need to be sent to an authorized repair shop. The instrument should be accompanied by a
written statement indicating the types of repairs needed. In the case of electronic devices,
the request should describe conditions under which the instrument does not function
properly, i.e. coldness, dampness, etc. if a “loaner” is needed, this should also be
indicated.

6. Care of Tools
 Improperly maintained tools can be a source of annoyance, as well as being a safety hazard.
Each employee is responsible for keeping his or her tools and equipment in good condition.
To prevent loss of small equipment and tools, avoid laying them on the ground, on vehicles,
or on equipment which might be moved. When not in use, carry them in scabbards and
pouches.
 Repair or replace any driving tool that is burred or fractured on any part of the striking or
driving face. Many surveyors have been injured by the “shrapnel” effect from gads and
sledges which had ragged edges. The same is true for “bull points” or other tool which are
driven.
 Crooked or warped handles can cause injury as well as mistitling and damage to the tool.
Promptly replace such handles and those that are cracked or broken. Handles should be
firmly secured in all cutting and driving tools.
7. Care of Theodolites and Total Stations

 Although the instruments are ruggedly built, careless or rough use and unnecessary
exposure to the elements can seriously damage them. If handled reasonably, they
will provide consistently good result with a minimum of downtime for repair or
adjustment. Some general guidelines for the care of instruments are:
 Lifting – instruments should be removed from the case with both hands, gripping
the micrometer knob standard and base on the older instruments. Newer instruments
are equipped with a carrying handle; the other hand should support the base. One
hand should continually support the instrument until the tribrach lock is engaged
and the tripod fixing screw secured.

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 Carrying Tripod - In most cases, the instrument should be removed and re-cased
for transportation to a new point. If the point is nearby, the instrument should be
carried in the vertical position (tripod legs pointing straight down). An instrument
should never be “shouldered” or carried horizontally.
 Adjusting collimation – The collimation error of theodolites and total stations is
determined by following the procedure outlined in the users’ manual. If the
collimation error is found to be consistently in excess of ten seconds on the
horizontal and twenty seconds on the vertical, the instrument should be adjusted.
The collimation adjustment should be made in the field only by a specially trained
individual. Otherwise, the instrument should be returned to an authorized repair
shop.

8. Care of EDM Devices

 EDMs are designed, contracted and tested to withstand normal field conditions.
They are however, precision instruments and should be handled with the same
degree of care required for other types of precision survey equipment.
 Secure EDM in vehicles in padded compartments with substantial the downs so
movement and jarring are minimized. Cushion with firm polyfoam or similar
material. Do not use soft foam rubber. The instruments should be stored and
transported in the position indicated on the case.
 Required maintenance of most EDMs is minimal. However, protection from the
elements and routine external cleaning is necessary.
 NEVER point an EDM directly at the sun. The focused rays of the sun can damage
sensitive internal parts.
 Protect EDMs from excessive heat. Heat can cause erratic readings and deterioration
of components. Do not leave instruments in closed vehicles that are parked in the
sun. Avoid rapid changing temperature, particularly from extreme cold to warm,
which can cause condensation in the internal parts of the instruments. Condensation
can normally be avoided by leaving the instrument in its carrying case for at least
10 minutes and then opening the case to allow any trapped moisture to evaporate.
An instrument taken from a warm office or vehicle to an extremely cold operating
environment may require some time to adjust itself. The same type of precautions
should be taken to let the instrument cool off slowly.
 Although EDM instruments are water resistant and well shielded, keep them as dry
as practicable. The case should be opened and the instrument allowed to dry in a
warm dry room when not in sue.
 Frequent partial discharge and charge of batteries could cause the battery to lose its
ability to hold power. Periodically, batteries should be discharged completely and
then recharged overnight, or for the specified charge time. Effective usage of
batteries will also decrease at low temperatures. An EDM in the tracking mode
position will discharge the battery will also decrease at low temperatures. An EDM
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in the tracking mode position will discharge the battery quite rapidly, so it is
important to be able to charge batteries to their maximum capacity. In general, one
should follow the user’s manual instructions on how to maintain the batteries for
top performance. If the batteries still fail to hold power, they should be re-celled or
replaced.

9. Care of Tapes

Routine care extends tape life. The following are basic guidelines for the care of tapes:

 Do not place a tape where it can be stepped on or run over, unless the tape is flat,
taut, and fully supported on a smooth surface. Keep the tape straight when is used.
When pulling a slack tape, a loop can develop into a kink and easily break the tape.
Avoid pulling a tape around poles or other object, as a hard pull can stretch or break
the tape.
 Do not wind tapes overly tight on their reels, as it can cause unwanted stresses and
lead to stretching of the tape.
 After the day’s work, clean tapes that are soiled. In wet weather, dry before storing.
Clean rusty tapes with fine steel wool and cleaning solvent or kerosene. Use soap
and water when tape is dirty or muddy. To prevent rust after cleaning, oil lightly
and then dry the tape.
 Avoid storing in damp places.

10. Care of Tribrachs

Tribrachs are an integral part of the precision equipment and should be handled
according. They should be transported in separate compartments or other containers to
prevent damage to the base surface, bulls eye level, and optical plummet eye piece. Over
tightening of the tripod fastener screw can put undue pressure on the leveling plate.

11. Care of Tripods

A stable tripod is required for precision in measuring angles. A tripod should not have
any loose joints or parts which might cause instability. Some suggestions for proper
tripod care are:

1. Maintain firm snugness in all metal fittings, but never tighten them to the point where they
will unduly compress or injure the wood, strip threads or twist off bolts or screws.
2. Tighten leg hinges only enough for each leg to just sustain its own weight when legs are
spread out in their normal working position.
3. Keep metal tripod shoes tight and free of dirt.

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4. Keep wooden parts of tripods well painted or varnished to reduce moisture absorption and
swelling or drying out and shrinking.
5. Replace top caps on tripods when not in use.
12. Care of Levels

Review the previously stated guidelines for the care of instruments. These guidelines are
also generally true for the proper care of pendulum levels. Additional guidelines are:

1. Do not spin or bounce pendulum levels, as such movement can damage the compensator.
2. Protect the level from dust. Dust or foreign matter inside the scope can cause the
compensator’s damping device to hang-up.
3. Frequently check the adjustment of the bull’s eye bubble. Adjust the bull’s eye to the
center, not almost to the center. Make certain it is adjusted along the line of sight and
transversely as well. Proper adjustment reduces the possibility of compensator hang up.
4. To check for compensator hang up, slightly tap the telescope with a pencil or operate the
fine movement screw jerkily to and fro. If the instrument has a push button release, use it,
if the compensator is malfunctioning, send the instrument to an approved repair service for
servicing. Do not attempt compensator repair in the field.
13. Care of Leveling Rods.

Leveling rods should be maintained and checked as any other precision equipment.
Accurate leveling is as dependent on the condition of the rods as on the condition of the
levels. Reserve an old rod for rough work, such as measuring sewer inverts, mud levels,
etc. The care requirements common to all types of rods are:

1. Protect from moisture, dirt dust and abrasion

2. Clean graduated faces with a damp cloth and wipe dry. Touch graduated faces only when
necessary and avoid laying the rod where the graduated face will come into contact with
other tools, objects, matter, or materials where damage might result.
3. Do not abuse a rod by placing it where it might fall, throwing, and dropping, dragging, or
using it as a vaulting pole.
4. Keep the metal shoe clean and avoid using it to scrape foreign matter off a bench or other
survey points.
5. If possible, leave a wet rod uncovered, unclosed, and extended until it is thoroughly dry.
6. Store rods, either vertically (not leaning) or horizontally with at least three point support,
in a dry place and in their protective cases.
7. Periodically check all screws and hardware for snugness and operation
8. Periodically check accuracy by extending the rod to its full length and checking its scale
with an accurate tape. This should be done at the beginning of control level surveys. If the
rod indicates a tendency to be “off”, it should be checked each time it is extended.

What is the Definition of Territorial Survey?

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Definition

It is the type of survey in which the study of Physical features, topographical features,
atmosphere, contours, soil types and water resources of the area is done.

River Survey
Photogrammetric Survey
Geodetic Survey
Tunnel Survey

Physical Features of the Earth

Major physical features of the earth

Definition of Physical features

 Physical features map include the existence of:
1. Mountains
2. Rivers
3. Slope or plain area

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 Atmospheric study consists of:

1. The average temperature of the site
2. Average rainfall
3. Climate of the area
4. Wind and floods
 Contours:
1. Contours are lines on map joining areas of equal elevation.
2. These provide a bird's eye view of the topography of the area.
 Soil types:
 Study of soil types of an area includes:
 Agricultural practices
 Fertility of soil
 Desertification
 Forestry

Method of Surveying a River & Sounding

The survey of the shore line of a river is made by running a theodolite and tape traverse
on a shore at a convenient distance form the edge of the water. If the river is narrow, a
single theodolite and tape traverse is on one bank and both banks. Located by staid or
plane table methods.

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If the river is wide, it is necessary to run traverses on both banks and locate each shore
line by staid or plane tabling form its traverse. For checking purposes, the two traverses
should be tide to each other at intervals by cross-bearing or angles.

1. Station B and C are connected to B and C

2. Measure < B/BC and < C/BC
3. Measure < BCB/ and < BCC/
4. Form these angles and measured length of BC, B/C/ may be competed
5. In this is in close agreement with measured length of B/C/ the fig is completely
cheeked. If the river is too much crooked, it is not necessary to follow it closely by
the traverse may be run in most favorable location and subsidiary traverse is run
around the bank to locate the necessary detail

When the shore lines of rivers and lakes are obstructed by woods, it is not economical to
locate it by traversing. It is required to use a sys of triangulation. As a check upon the
survey a base line is measured at the end of the survey and also additional check bases are
measured at intervals of 10-15miles.

AB = Base line C, D, E, F, --------- are trigonometric stations

Sounding in Surveying
1. Definition

The measurements of depths below the water surface are called Sounding.

2. Objective of sounding:

The object of making soundings is to determine the configuration of the bottom of the body
of water. This is done by measuring form the boat, the depth of water at various points.

3. Uses and Applications of Soundings

1. The preparation of charts for navigation.
2. The determination of the quantity of the material dredged and of area. Where the material
is to be dredged or the dredged material may be dumped.
3. The design of works such as brick water, sea walls etc
4. Guages:

The guages may be divided in to two classes.

a. Non Self Registering

b. Self Registering

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An observer is req to read oneself registering gage while the self registering gauge is
automatic and is generally used when accurate and continuous record of fluctuations the
water surface is required.

4.1.1 Types of Non-Self Registering gages

 Staff gage
 Float gage
 Chain or weight gauge

The gauge should be established at a convenient place where it is unaffected by the action
of waves and is protected for storms.

5. Equipment for making Sounding:

5.1 Sounding Boat

It should be sufficiently roomy and stable. Flat bottomed boat is suitable in quite water is
round bottomed boat is convenient in rough water. A power boat (steam or motor aunch)
is most suitable when wind is blowing and the water currents are strong.

5.2 Sounding Rods or Poles

Sounding rods or poles are convenient in shallow and smooth water up to depths of about
4 to 6 m (15-20ft). they are made of well-seasoned timber and are auricular in section of
abut 5cm(2//) diameter and 3 to 7.5m long (12-25) graduated in meter or centimeter (ft or
inches) with a metal shoe at the bottom.

5.2.1 Purposes:

Direct depth measurements are taken by lowering it vertically into the H2O until it hits
the bottom and reading the graduation at the surface.

5.3 Lead Lines:

The lead lines also called sounding lines are used for depth over 6m (20/). It consist of a
suitable length of stretch-resistant cord or other material to which a heavy lead weight (5
to 10) is attached. The cord is make with feet or meter graduations and these should be
checked frequently against an steel tape fro their accuracy.

Use: In use the weigh is lowered into the water being careful to keep the cord vertical.
The graduation at the surface is read when the weight hits the bottom.

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5.4 Sounding Chain:

For regular sounding a brass such-chin is most satisfactory since its length is practically
const i.e, the links are welded. The brass tags are attached at 0.2m (1') interval but leather
or cloth tags are preferred as the brass tags can injure the hands of the surveyor. The chain
should be tested periodically.

5.5 Sounding Lead:

The attached to a lead line is conical in shape and very strong, (2.5-12.5) kg (5-25lbs)
depending upon the depth of water current


o For shallow still water the wt is 2.5kg (5lbs)
o Moderate depth up to 10m (40') wt is 5kg (10bs) fairly quiet water.
o Greater depth where corrects are strong wt = 10kg

The wt is circular in cross-section and length equal to 3 to 4 times the diameter and slightly
tapers towards the top end.

5.6 Fathometer:

For ocean sounding an insert. Known as fathometer is used. It is electric device and
measure the time required for the sound (impulses) travel to the bottom of water and back.
The travel time is converted into depth displayed in either digital or graphic for fathometer
is also called echo sourer.

5.7 Sounding Machine:

It is very use full much sounding is to be done. The type commonly used is hand driven
and consists

1. A point wire carrying a 7kg (14lbs) load wound around a drum.

2. Two dials the outer one indicating the depth in meter or feet and the inner one in cm or
inches, connection to a drum by means of gears. It is mounted in a sounding boat and can
be used up to a maximum depth of 30m (100')
5.8 Sextant:

The theodolite and other instrument used in land surveys are not used in a boat where the
support is unstable. The sextant is well suited to hydro graphic work and has the added
advantage of measuring angles in any plane. It is the most precise hand instrument yet
device for measuring angles. There are two versions of the instruments

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 Nautical sextant (or sounding sextant)

 Box sextant.
5.9 Signals:

Shore signals are required to mark the ranges i.e, lines along which sounding are to taken
and the reference points to which angular observations are to be taken from the boat. They
should be clearly visible for considerable distances. If the water is shallow, ordinary pole
signal may be used but if water deep buoys are used as signals.

5.10 Ranges:

The lines on which sounding are taken are called ranges or range lines. They are laid on
the shore parallel to each other and at right angles to the shore line or radiating form a prom
nay natural object when the shore line is very irregular.

Each range line should be marked by means of signals erected at 2 points it, at considerable
distance apart. The spacing of range lines vary form 6m 30m (20 to 100ft) depending upon
the object of survey and the nature of the bottom.

6. Making the Soundings:

 Up to depths of 20m (75/), the sounding are made while the boat is in motion.
 If the sounding is made by the sound rods, the leads man stands in the bow plunges it in
forward direction fro enough that when it reaches the bottom, it will in vertical position.
He then reads the quickly and calls out the observed reading of each sounding to the
recorder who it and records it as well as the no time of the sounding.
 The nature of bottom is observed and at intervals in the note book.
 When the sounding line is used, the leading plunges the lead forward at such a that the line
will become vertical at point where the sounding is to be taken when leads reaches the
bottom.
 If the water is very deep and still, sounding, are taken by stopping the boat for each
sounding.
 For ordinary engineering purposes sounding are taken at 8-15m intervals (25-50/) but for
special purposes they may be taken at as close as 2 to 3m (10/) intervals.
7. Methods of Locating Soundings:

Soundings may be located by the following methods which are commonly used

 By transit and staid

 By range and time intervals
 By range and one angle form shore
 By range and one angel form boat
 By two angle storm shore
 By two angles form boat

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 By intersecting ranges
 By cross rope
 By distances along a wire or rope stretched a crossed a stream b/w stations.
7.1 Location by Range & One Angle from Shore:

In this method the positions of sounding are located by measuring two angles
simultaneously with a sextant, from the boat (P) to three shore signals or any points (A, B,
and C) whose positions have been previously known.

The points sighted should be well defined such as chimneys, light houses etc. In order to
minimize the error in measuring the angles and plotting them, the nearer object should be
proffered to distant one. This method is commonly used where to range are employed.

7.2 Location by distance along a wire or rope, stretched acrossed stream

between stations:

In this method a wire or rope is stretched b/w fixed points on opposite banks and is marked
by means of cloth or metal tag, at equal intervals along the rope or wire. The boat is rowed
to these points and sounding are taken. This is most accurate but most expensive method.
It is used when sounding are to be taken along the cross-section of a canal or narrow river.
It is also used when it is required to determine the quality of material removed by dredging.
The soundings are taken b/t and after dredging work is done.

7.2.1 Disadvantages:
1. It is unsuitable for situations where the operations are subjected to sudden interruption by
shipping
2. The action of winds and current on the float increases the lateral sag.

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How to do Photogrammetry - Types and

Applications of Photogrammetry

Photographic surveying is a method of surveying in which plans or maps are prepared from
photographs taken at suitable camera stations or Photogrammetry is the science of making
measurement from photographs.

Types of Photogrammetry:

Photogrammetry may be divided into two classes.

 Terrestrial or ground photogrammetery.

 Aerial photogrammetry.
AIR PHOTOGRAPHS:

There are two ways of taking aerial photographs.

 Vertical
 Oblique

Verticals are taken with the axis of the camera pointing vertically downward. These
photographs can produce more accurate maps as the variation n scale over the area is
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smaller and no area remains hidden. However the details in photograph can not be easily
identified as the view offered is unfamiliar to eyes. Oblique are produced by giving a
camera a tilt up to 30 to the forward dir. Oblique photographs are further classified as

 High oblique
 Low oblique
HIGH OBLIQUE:

When the image of the horizon is inclined on the picture.

LOW OBLIQUE:

When the horizon is not seen and the camera tilted in axis of 30. They provided
information of the enemy territory without crossing the border. Features can be easily
recognized as these provide views familiar to the eyes. However some such as buildings,
hills etc. the scale variation is large and therefore preparation of maps become more
laborious and expensive. With multiple lens camera one vertical and up to six oblique can
be taken at one expose. Vertical photographs are the principal mode of photogrammetry
work oblique are seldom use for mapping or measure application but are advantageous in
interpretive work and for reconnaissance.

Terminology:

The terminology used in air photograph geometry is explained with reference to the given
figure.

1: PERSPECTIVE CENTRE:

Rays form ptc on the ground pass through ‘o’ called as perspective centre.

2: PLUMB POINTS:

The vertical through the optical centre of the camera lens intersects at ground and picture
plane at V and v respectively termed as the gourd and photograph plumb point.

3: PRINCIPAL POINTS:

The perpendicular to the picture plane through the optical centre of the lens meets the
ground and picture plan at p and p resp, termed as the ground and photograph principal
points.

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The principal point ‘p’ in the photograph is located by the intersection of lines joining the
fiducially marks.

4: ISO-CENTRE:

The bisector of the angle b/t the line joining the plumb point and the principal points
interned the ground and picture plane at point ‘I” and ‘I’ rasp called as iso-centre. Point Ii
an V and v are called homologous points.

5: PRINCIPAL PLANE:

The principal line through v and p when produce meets the ground plane at M. the
vertical plane through these pts intersects the ground along the ground principal line
through v and p. the iso-centres I and l also line on this vertical plane (or)

The vertical plane containing O, V, P and p is termed principal plane, its intersection with
the negative plane giving principal line pv.

Ground Control:

In order to produce an accurate map from aerial photograph it is absolutely necessary to

established ground control. It consists in locating the positions of a no of points all over
the area to be surveyed with their levels. These control points should be such that they can
easily be identified on the photographs.

Horizontal control is established by tiring or traversing. Vertical control is

established through the use of ‘aneroid barometers’ or ‘Altimeters’
APPLICATIONS OF AIR PHOTOGRAPHY:

The practical uses of air photography are unlimited. Some of the application are listed
below.

1. Town and country planning and developed estate man agent and economic planning are
used both maps based on air survey and individual photography.
2. Suitability of roads and rail alignments can be studied both for traffic flow an economy of
construction.
3. Forestry and geology both use air maps and photography for the study of nature of areas
and changes that take place.
4. Flood control planning can be based on air survey made at suitable intervals of time.
5. Air survey provides means of mapping large undeveloped areas of the world.
6. For large scale engineering and redevelopment projects, reconnaissance can be undertake
in to a large extend form air photograph.

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7. Survey for accessing damage due to earth quake, crop diseases can be quickly estimated
from air photograph.
8. Pollution effects from industrial wastes on land and water can also be studied.

How to do Trigonometric Surveying

Definition:

Geodetic or trigonometrically surveying takes into account the curvature of earth Since
very extensive areas and very large distances are involved. In geodetic surveying highly
refined instruments and methods are used. Geodetic work is undertaken by the state agency
e.g. survey of Pakistan undertaken by the state agency.

1. Triangulation
2. Precise leveling
Object:

The object of geodetic surveying is to accurately determine the relative position of a sys of
widely separated pts (stations) on the surface of earth and also their absolute positions.

Relative positions are determined in terms of azimuths and length f lines joining them.
Absolute positions are determined in terms of latitude and longitudes and elevations above
mean sea laves. The methods employed in geodetic surveying are:

1. Triangulation (most accurate but expensive)

2. Precise traverse (inferior and used when triangulation is physically impossible or very
expensive) e.g. Densely wooded country.
Triangulation:

It is based on the trigonometry proposition that of one side and three angles be computed
by the application of since rule. In this method suitable points called triangulation stations
are selected and established throughout the area to be surveyed.

The stations may be connected by a series of triangles or a chain of quadrilaterals as shown.

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Baseline:

Whose length is measured these stations form the vertices of a series mutually connected,
triangles the complete figure being called ‘Triangulation system’. In this system of
triangles one line say ‘AB’ and all the angles are measured with greatest care and lengths
of all the remaining line in the system are then computed. For checking both the fieldwork
and computation another line say GH is very accurately measured at the end of the system.
The line whose length is actually measured is known as baseline or base and that measured
for checking purpose is known as the check base.

Triangulation Figures:

The geometric figures used in triangulation system are (i) Triangles (ii) Quadrilaterals (ii)
Quadrilaterals, Pentagon, hexagons with centre angle. This arrangement although simple
and economical but less accurate since the number of conditions involve in its adjustment
is small.

1. Station adjustment ==> sum of angle is 180

2. Figure adjustment ==> sum of angles is 400 grad or 360
3. Quadrilateral; adjust ==> (all the angles are horizontal)

Quadrilaterals pentagons or hexagonal with central stations. For very accurate work a chain
of quadrilaterals may be used. There is no station at the intersection of diagonals. This
system is most accurate since the number of conditions in its adjustments is much greater.
To minimize the effect of small errors in measurement of angles the triangles hold be well
shaped or well proportioned i.e. they should not have angle less than 30 or greater than
120.The best shape triangle is equilaterals triangle and best shape quadrilateral is square.

Factors Affecting Construction of Tunnels

Why Tunnels are Constructed:
1. To meet the requirements of rapid transportation in big cities
2. To connect by shortest route, two termination separated by mountain
3. To reduce very steep grades
4. To avoid the excessive cost of maintenance of an open cut subjected to land slides or snow
drifts

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5. To avoid the expensive acquisition of valuable built up land, tearing up pavements and
holding up traffic for long periods in large cities
6. When the depth of ordinary cutting exceeds 20m and the ground rises rapidly for a
considerable distance after wards
Factors affecting location of a tunnel:
1. If should follow the best line adopted to the proposed traffic.
2. If should be most economical in construction an operation.
3. Convenience Ingress (enter) and Egress (leave)
Surveying Steps in Tunnels:
1. Surface Survey
2. Transferring the alignment under ground
3. Transferring levels under ground
1. Surface Survey:

This includes:

1. A preliminary survey by transit and staid for 2-3miles (3-4km) on either side of the
proposed alignment.
2. A plan (map) with a scale of say 1 in with contours drawn at 5m (20) intervals.
3. Final alignment is selected form this plan.
4. A detail survey of the geological information of strata as the cost of tunneling depends
upon the nature of materials to be encountered.

The proposed route having been decided upon, the following points require
consideration.

1. Alignment of the centre line of the tunnel.

2. Gradient to be adopted.
3. Determination of the exact length of tunnel.
4. Establishment of permanent stations marking the line.

Control surveys for tunnel layouts are performed on the surface joining the terminal
points of the tunnel is shown in figure (1).

3. Transferring the alignment underground

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This is the most difficult and

important operation in setting out a tunnel.

 Fix two timber beams C and D as shown in figure two across the top of the shaft near its
edges perpendicular to the direction of tunnel and as far apart as possible.
 A threadlike is set up at a ground at a pre-determined station on a centre. Line mark one
ground surface and another stations is again on the centre line itself.
 The centre line is very carefully set up on the beams preferably on the plates fixed on a
beam and drilled with hole for suspending wires by repetition observing and averaging the
result.
 From these pts two long penal wire with heavy plumb hobs 10 to 15 kg attacked to their
lower edges or suspended down the shaft.
 At the bottom these plumb bobs are immured in bucket of water, oil etc to eliminate
oscillation.
 Great care must be taken that wires and plumb bobs are hanging free. As a check the dist
b/w the wires at the top and at the bottom of the shaft is to be measured and this should be
the same.
 The line joining the two wires gives the dir of alignment under ground.
 The theologize is transfer to the bottom of shaft and through the no of trails suspended
wires.
 Now the alignment is marked on marks driven into the whole i.e, E drilled on the roof.

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3. Transferring levels underground:

Leveling on the surface is done in the usual way and the levels are transfer underground at
the ends of the tunnel from the nearest bench mark. In case of transfer of levels
underground at the shaft. The steps involve are

 A fine steel wire loaded with weight of 5 to 15 kg is passed over a pulley (w) at the top of
the shaft and is lowered into the shaft as shown in fig.3
 Tow fine wire AA and BB horizontally stretched at the top and bottom of the shaft rasp.
 The steel wired lowered into the shaft is so adjusted that it is in contact with both the wires
AA and BB.
 The pts of contact are marked on a still wire by a piece of chalk or by some other marker.
 The wire is withdrawn form the shaft and is stretched on the ground.
 The dist b/t the two marks on he wire is measured using the measuring tape and this gives
the level of the bottom of the shaft.
Latitude & Longitude

O = Centre of earth
N = North Pole
S = South Pole
Nos = Polar axis or polar diameter about which earth rotates.
A = Any point on surface of earth

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The position of a place on the earth surface is specified by latitude and longitude. The semi
circle ‘NAS’ passing through A and terminates by the Poles N and S is called Meridian of
the place.

Latitude:

Latitude of a place is the angular distance measured from the equator towards the nearer
Pole along the meridian of the place or latitude of any pt ‘A’ is angle or arc AA’’. Latitude
can also be defined as the angular distance that the place is north or south of equator.

The earth sphere being divided into two hemispheres by the equator, the upper one
containing the North Pole is called the northern hemisphere. While the lower one having
the South Pole is called southern hemisphere. The place is said to have a north latitude if it
is in the northern hemisphere and south latitude if it is in the southern hemisphere. The
latitude angle is measured (90) at the earth center. North or south from the equatorial plane.
Latitude north of equator is considered positive and that south of equator negative.

Longitude:

Longitude of a place is the angular distance b/t the meridian of a place and the standard
prime meridian Or Longitude of any place ‘A’ is angle ‘LA’ measured in the equatorial
plane b/t the standard meridian and the meridian through A. Or The meridian NGS passing
through Greenwich England has been adopted internationally as the standard meridian.
This meridian divides the sphere into two hemispheres. The longitude is measured from
“O” to 180 either towards east or west. The west longitude is considered as positive and
the east as negative. Longitude angles are measured at the earth centre east or west from
the plane of ‘O’ longitude which has been arbitrary placed through green witch England.

Hence the position of place ‘A’ is completely specified by the latitude and longitude. These
two terms give unique location of any pt on the earth. This system of geographic co-
ordinates is used in navigation and Geodesy.

Types of Survey and Classification of Surveying

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Surveying has a broader scope of application. Its importance is felt in the following areas
and/ or services:

 Agricultural surveying services

 Building control regulations
 Building defects
 Building maintenance and repairs
 Building refurbishment
 Building surveying
 Commercial property agency
 Commercial property management
 Commercial property valuation
 Commercial property dispute resolution
 Commercial rent review (and lease renewals)
 Dilapidations
 General practice
 Home buyers’ survey and valuation
 Insolvency advice
 Industrial property agency
 Industrial property valuation
 Hotel and licensed property
 Property investment advice
 Rating advice and appeals
 Residential property valuation
 Rural practice
 Annual developmental study

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 Economic growth review

 Production and consumption statistics
 Transportation
 Communication
 Mapping
 Definition of legal boundaries for land ownership
Classification Of Surveying

Surveying is indispensable to a number of human endeavor, which use surveying

principles and practice to their required areas of application. The types of surveying and
application are identified and explained below:

1. ALTA / ACSM survey

2. Archaeological survey
3. Agricultural development survey
4. As-built survey
5. Bathymetric survey
6. Construction survey
7. Deformation survey
8. Engineering survey
9. Erosion and Sediment control plan
10. Foundation survey
11. Geological survey
12. Hydrographic survey
13. Mortgage survey or physical survey
14. Plot plan or site plan
15. Soil survey
16. Sub division plan
17. Tape survey
18. Topographic survey
19. Wet lands Delineation and Location survey.
1. ALTA, ACSM Survey:

This a surveying standard jointly proposed by the American Land Title Association and
the American Congress on surveying and mapping that incorporates elements of the
boundary survey, mortgage survey, and topographic survey. ALTA/ACSM Surveys,
frequently shortened to ALTA surveys, are often required for real estate transactions.

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2. Archaeological survey:

Used to accurately assess the relationship of archaeological sites in a landscape or to

accurately record findings on an archaeological site.

3. Agricultural Development Survey:

It is a survey carried out to assess the production, yield studies, growth, and the
development of agricultural sector taken over a specified period of time saying 2001-
2008.

4. As–build survey:

Is a survey conducted several times during a construction project to verify, for local state
and federal boards, that the work authorized was completed to be specifications set on the
plot plan or site plan. This usually entails a complete survey of the site to confirm that the
structures, utilities, and roadways proposed were built in the proper locations authorized
in the plot plan or site plan. As – built survey is usually done 2-3 times during the
building of a house, once the foundation has been poured, one after the walls are put up,
and at the completion of construction.

5. Bathymetric survey:

This is a survey carried out to map the seabed profile.

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6. Boundary survey:

A boundary survey to establish the boundary of a parcel using its legal description which
typically involves the corners or restoration of monuments or markers at the corners or
along the lines of the parcel, often in the ground, or nails set in concrete or asphalt in the
past, wooden posts, blazes in trees, piled stone corners or other types of monuments have
also been used. A map or plat is then drafted from the field data to provide a
representation of the parcel surveyed.

7. Construction Survey:

This is otherwise described as “Lay-out” or “setting out”. It is the process of establishing

or marking the position and detailed layout of new structures such as roads, or buildings
for subsequent construction. Surveying is regarded as a sub-discipline of civil
engineering all over the world. All degree and diploma level engineering institutes world
wide have detailed items of surveying in the curriculum for undergraduate courses in the
discipline of civil engineering.

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8. Deformation Survey:

This is a survey carried out to determine if a structure or object is changing shape or

moving. The three dimensional positions of specific points on an object are determined.
A period of time is allowed to pass and these positions are then re- measured and
calculated, and a comparison between the two sets of positions is made.

9. Erosion and sediment control plan:

This is a plan that is drawn in conjunction with a sub division plan that denotes how up
coming construction activities will affect the movement of storm water and sediments
across the construction site and into abutting properties and how developers will adjust
grading activities to limit the depositing of more storm water and sediment into abutting
properties than was done prior to construction.

10. Foundation survey:

A survey done to collect the positional data on the foundation that has been poured and is
curved. This is done to ensure that the foundation was constructed in the location
authorized in the plot plan, site plan, or sub division plan. When the location of the
finished foundation is checked and approved, the building of the remainder of the
structure can commence. This should not be confused with an As-built survey which is
not to be done until a particular lend of work is completed on the required stage.

11. Geological Survey:

It is a generic term for a survey conducted for the purpose of recording the geologically
significant features of the area under investigation. In the past in the remote areas, there
was often no base topographic map available, so, the geologist also needed to be a
competent survey or to produce a map to the terrain, on which the geological information
could then be draped. More recently, satellite imagery or aerial photograph is used as a
base, where no published map exists. Such a survey may also be highly specialist for
instance focusing primarily on hydro-geological, geochemical or geomagnetic themes.

12. Hydrographic Survey:

Hydrographic survey is a survey conducted with the purpose of mapping the coast line
and seabed for navigation, engineering, or resource management purposes. Products of
such surveys are nautical charts.

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13. Mortgage survey or physical survey:

It is a simple survey that generally determines land boundaries and building locations.
Mortgage surveys are required by title companies and lending institutions when they
provide financing to show that there are no structure encroaching on the property and that
the position of structures is generally within zoning and building code requirements.
Some jurisdictions allow mortgage surveys to be done to a lesser standard, however most
modern Nigerian minimum standards require the same standard of care for mortgage
surveys as any other survey. The resulting high price of mortgage surveys has led some
lending institutions to accept mortgage inspections not signed or sealed by the surveyor.

14. Plot plan or site plan:

It is a proposal plan for a construction site that include all existing and proposed
conditions on a given site. The existing and propose conditions always, include
hydrology, drainage flows, endangered species habitat, among others.

15. Soil survey:

This is also called soil mapping. It is the process of determining the soil types or other
properties of the soil covered over a landscape, and mapping them for others to
understand and use.

16. Subdivision Plan:

It is a plot or map based on a survey of a parcel of land. Boundaries lines are drawn
inside the larger parcel to indicate the creation of new boundary lines and roads. The
number and location of plats, or the newly created parcels, are usually discussed back and
forth between the developer and the surveyor until they are agreed upon. At this point,
monuments, usually in the form of square concrete blocks or iron rods or pins are driven
in to the ground to mark the lot corners and curve ends, and the plat is recorded in the
cadastre or land registry. In some jurisdictions, the recording or filling of a subdivision
plat becomes, in effect a contract between the developer and the city or country,
determining what can be built on the property and under what conditions. Always upon
finally completion of a subdivision, an As-built plan is required by the local government.
This is done so that the roadway constructed therein will pass ownership from the
developer to say local government by way of a contract called a covenant. When this
stage is completed, the roadways will now be maintained, repaved, swept, and plowed (if
necessary) by the local government.

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17. Tape survey:

This type of survey is the most basic and inexpensive type of land survey. Popular in
middle part of the 20th century, tape surveys while being accurate for distance, lack
substantially in their accuracy of measuring angle and bearing. Considering that a survey
is the documentation of half (1/2) distance and half (1/2) bearing, this type of survey is no
longer accepted among local, state or federal regulatory committees for any substantial
construction work.

18. Topographic survey:

This is surveys that measures the elevation of point on a particular piece of land, and
present them as contour lines on a paper.

19. Wetland Delineation and location survey:

This is a survey that is completed when construction is to be done on or near a site

containing defined wetlands. Depending on the local state, and federal regulations,
wetlands are usually classified as areas that are completely inundated with water more
than two weeks during growing season. The boundary of the wetlands is determined by

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observing the soil color, vegetation, erosion patterns, scour marks, hydrology and
morphology. Typically blue or pink coloured flags are then placed in key locations to
denote the boundary of the wetland. A survey is done to collect data on location of the
placed flags and a plan is drawn to reference the boundary of the surrounding plots or
parcels of land and the construction work proposed within.

BUILDING SURVEYING

Building surveying emerged in the 1970s as a profession in the United Kingdom by a

group of technically minded general practice surveyors. Building surveying is a
recognized profession within Britain and Australia. In Nigeria in particular, due to risk
mitigation/ limitation factors, the employment of surveyors undertaken in Nigeria are
broad but include:

 Construction design and building works

 Project management and monitoring
 Property Legislation Adviser
 Insurance assessment and claims assistance
 Defect investigation and maintenance adviser
 Building surveys and measured surveys
 Handling planning applications
 Building inspection to ensure compliance with building regulations.
 Undertaking pre-requisition surveys
 Negotiating dilapidations claims
 Design
 Maintenance
 Repair
 Refurbishment
 Restoration of constructed works.

Methods of Locating New Stations in Surveying -

Ranging and Chaining

In surveying relative position of points are located by measurement from at least two
points of reference, whose positions must be known already.

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1. Ranging Out Survey Line

Ranging is process of establishing Intermediate points on straight line between the

terminal points or stations. Two methods can be employed depending on the
intervisibility

a. Direct Ranging
b. Indirect Ranging
a. Direct Ranging

It Is used while ranging on a plane ground, when two points are intervisible.

Stepwise procedure of Direct Ranging

 Fix the ranging rods at the two given stations.
 The follower stand behind station A and directs the leader, with ranging rod to
come in line with AB by signals of ranging
 When the ranging rod comes in the line of AB the follower directs the leader to fix
the ranging rod in position.
 Let the intermediate point be C which should be less than 100 feet .
 Now the leader taken another ranging rod and stands between A and B about 2/3
distance from A
 The follower directs the leader to come in line of AB by using signals of ranging.
 As and when the point is located in the line of AB the follower instructs to fix the
ranging rod in position.
 Let the other intermediate position be D which is less than 100 feet from B
 Now A, B, C and D are in one line.
 Now the leader and follower measure the distance by measuring along A, C, D, B.

RESULT: The distance between AB = __________ feet

b. Indirect Ranging

This type of ranging is carried out when two sides are not intervisible.

2. Chaining of a Line

Two men are required

i. Leader
ii. Follower
i. Duties of Leader:
 To drag the chain
 To insert arrows at the end of survey chain length
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 To obey instructions of the follower

ii. Duties of Follower:
 To place leader in line with ranging rod
 Always carry the rear handle in his hand
 To pick up the arrows inserted by the leaders.

Stereoscopy - Stereoscope and Types of

Stereoscope
Monocular Vision:

Monocular visions is seeing with one eye.

Binocular Vision:

Binocular vision is seeing the same object with both eyes is at one time.

Steroscopic Viewing:

It is defined as observing the object in SD, a process requiring a person to have normal
binocular vision. A person with vision in only one eye can not see stereoscopically. If figure
two eyes are separated y a distance ‘b’ called eye base or intraocular distance (65mm or
2.6//).

Combined image of a and as seen left and eyes appear to fuse at ‘M’ while images of b and
b1at n. The distance MN is the stereoscopically depth and is the measure of the height of
A over B. Φ1 and Φ2 are the paralytic angles. Stereoscopic depth depends upon the diff
between Φ1 and Φ2 i.e, on the sum of angles and made at the left and right eyes respectively.

If two photographs of the same obj are taken form two diff perspective or camera stations,
the left print (photo) seen with the left eye and the right print seen with the right eyes
simultaneously, a mental impression of the three dimensional model results.

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Steroscope:

Any device which facilitates stereoscopic observation is a stereoscope. There are two main
types of stereoscope:

 Lens or prism stereoscope

 Mirror stereoscope
Lens or Prism Stereoscope:

In it two lenses or narrow angled prisms are used. In mirror stereoscope mirrors are used.
It allows greater area of the photograph to be covered.

FLIGHT PLANNING:

In order to obtain stereo pair every part of the ground to be surveyed must be photographed
at least twice. To achieve this aero plane flies in strips and takes photographs with a 60%
fore and aft overlap. To secure the 50%min needed for coverage overlaps the abjection
strip by 30% to make sure that no part of the gourd is left unrecorded often called side
overlap. This fore and aft overlap insures stereoscopic coverage along the strip with some
coverage along the strip with some margin for error; two adjacent photographs taken in
this way are called the striper. The flying height depends on the following factors.

i. The scale of the map or plan.

ii. The type of country flat or mountainous.
iii. The contour interval in the map
iv. The characteristics of the camera i.e focal light.
v. The type of aero plane available

Information commonly calculated in flight planning includes:

i. Flying height above mean sea level

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ii. Dist b/t exposure

iii. No of photograph per flight line
iv. Dist b/t flight lines
v. No of flight lines
vi. Tot no of photographs.

A flight plane is prepared based on these items:

Photographs Required:

The tot no of photograph req to cover the area to be surveyed may be determined as
follows:

Let,

Lp = length of photograph in an or inches in the dir of flight.

Wp = width of photograph in cm or inches # at right angles to dir of flight.

Ol = percentage of longitudinal over lap

Ow = side

Lg = net ground dist corresponding lp in ‘m’ or ‘miles’

Wg = -------------------------------------------------------

Wp = in ‘m’ or ‘cm’or ‘miles’

S = scale of photograph (1cm = 5cm)

N = no of photograph required

Ap = Net are of each photograph in sq’m’or sq two

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Ag = Area of ground to be served -------------------

Lg = S.Lp ( 1-O2)

Wg = S.Wp (1-Ow)

Net ground area covered by each photograph = Ap = Lg x Wg

No of photograph required = N =

Theoretical no of strips =

Actual no of strips = K + 1 “ one stripe cover is added to cover the sides”

Theoretical no of photograph / strip = =M

Actual no of photograph / strip = M + 1

Actual no of photograph for compel coverage of area = ( K + 1) ( M + 1)

Site Setting Out Survey | Field Setting Out |

Surveying Layout

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The method of setting out is the reverse of surveying process. The process involves the
positions and levels of building lines and road alignments shown on the construction plans
to be established on the ground by various techniques and instruments.

Methods of Setting Out Survey

1. Setting out buildings by coordinates
2. Setting out with theodolite and level
3. Checking verticality
4. Setting out and alignment in steel framed buildings
5. Alignment and verticality in form work
6. Control and calculation for route surveying

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1. Setting Out Building by Coordinates

A building can be set out by

taking referencing from an
already established baseline. An
irregular building or a building
having a complex geometry can
be also be located using the
same method. For each corner
of the building, a grid line can
be established from the baseline.

3. Checking Verticality:

To check verticality of points in a building, the following surveying instruments can be

used:

1. Plumb Bob (For buildings less than 20m in height)

2. Optical Plummet (A transparent plastic sheet is used as a target for checking verticality of
tall buildings)
3. Theodolite
Setting out Survey works also include

Computations and setting out Methods for:

1. Simple Circular Curves

2. Compound Curves
3. Reverse curves
4. Transition curves
5. Vertical curves
Compound Curves in
Engineering Survey
Definition:

Combination of two or more simple circular curves of different radius having their
curvature in the same direction. Essentially, a compound curve consists of two curves that
are joined at a point of tangency and are located on the same side of a common tangent.
Though their radii are in the same direction, they are of different values.

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tr= perception/reaction time (seconds)

f = AASHTO stopping friction coefficient (dimensionless)
G = roadway grade (dimensionless)
e = super-elevation,
fs = the coefficient of side friction,
g = the acceleration due to gravity (=9.81 m/s2) and
v = the vehicle speed.
m = distance from center line to sight obstruction
L = length of curve
S = sight distance (ds)
R = Radius of center line
Rv =Radius to driver’s eye (middle of lane)
T = Tangent Length
C= Length of Chord (Long Chord from PC to PT)
E= External Distance
M = Middle Ordinate
Delta = Deflection Angle

Reverse or Ogee Curve - Definition and Making

Definition:

Combination of two or more simple circular curves of different radius having their
curvature in the same direction. Essentially, a compound curve consists of two curves that
are joined at a point of tangency and are located on the same side of a common tangent.
Though their radii are in the same direction, they are of different values.

REVERSE OR OGEE CURVE

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This is the process of establishing the centre-line of the curve on the ground by means of
pegs at 10-m to 30-m intervals. In order to do this the tangent and intersection points must
first be fixed in the ground, in their correct positions.

Consider Figure 8.3. The straights 0I1, I1I2, I2I3, etc., will have been designed on the plan
in the first instance. Using railway curves, appropriate curves will now be designed to
connect the straights.

The tangent points of these curves will then be fixed, making sure that the tangent lengths
are equal, i.e. T1I1 = T2I1 and T3I2 = T4I2. The coordinates of the origin, point 0, and all
the intersection points only will now be carefully scaled from the plan. Using these
coordinates, the bearings of the straights are computed and, using the tangent lengths on
these bearings, the coordinates of the tangent points are also computed. The difference of
the bearings of the straights provides the deflection angles (delta) of the curves which,
combined with the tangent length, enables computation of the curve radius, through
chainage and all setting-out data.

Now the tangent and intersection points are set out from existing control survey stations
and the curves ranged between them using the methods detailed below.

Principal Method of Terrestrial Photogrammetry

The principal is exactly similar to plan table surveying, it may be stated as “The position
of the object with ref to the base line is given by the intersection of the rays drawn to it
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form each end of the base line” In plane tabling most of the work is executed in the field
while in this method it is done in the office. The principal is explained as follows

C and D = Camera stations.

CD = Base line of length ‘B’

CE and DE = Position of vertical plane of collimation. and

B = Observed vertical angles which the vertical plane of collimation make with base line
at C and D.

M = pt to be located, which is shown as ‘m’ in both the photographs.

X1 and Y1 = Coordinates of ‘M’ on pt’C’

X2 and Y2 = ----------------------------‘D’

F = focal length of camera lens

(Photograph from ‘C’) (Photograph from ‘D’)

Method of location PT ‘M’:

Pt ‘M’ may be plotted graphically or analytically.

Graphical Method :
 First plot the base line to the given scale
o Draw CE making an angles of ‘ ’ wide CD with the help of a protector.
o Similarly draw DE making an angle of B with BE.
 On CE mark the pt ’e’ at a distance equal to fine font of ‘C’. Similarly setoff a distance
‘De’ equal to ‘f’ along DE in front of D as shown.

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 To these pts and ‘e’ draw lines right angles ot CE and DE respectively measure ‘em’
equal to X1and To X2 along these perpendicular lines on the same side as on the
photographs. (Her they are measured on ht left of CD and DE)
 Join ‘CM’ and ‘DM’ and produce them so as to meet at ‘M’ which gives required
position of ‘M’ on Plane
To determine the level of PT ‘M’
 Measure ‘y’ which gives the height of ‘m’ above the horizontal hair. Rise of the ray from

‘m’ to the center of the object glass is equal to ‘y’ in a horizontal dist
 Measure the distance ‘CM’ to the scale on the plane.
 The height ‘H’ of ‘M’ above the horizontal Plane of collimation at ‘C’ is given by Knowing
the reduced level (RL) of horizontal plane of collimation, the RL of M may be obtained as
R.L of M= R.L of horizontal plane of collimation at 'C' is given by:

Field Work:

The field work of terrestrial photographic surveying consists of

 Reconnaissance
 Triangulation
 Camera work

Plane Tabling Survey (Method of Radiation)

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Intersection Method of Plane Tabling

Instruments Required:
 Tripod
 Plane Table
 Plumbing Fork
 Level
 Magnetic needle compass
 Alidade
 Measuring Tape
 Ranging Rods (For demonstration purpose)
 Other accessories
o 28in x 22in drawing sheet
o Scotch Tape
o Chisel pointed Pencil
o Eraser
Procedure:
1. Select a suitable point P on the ground such that all the details are visible from it

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2. Center and level the plane table over P

3. Mark the direction of the North on the sheet by using compass
4. Locate instrument station p on the sheet by using plumbing fork, such that p on sheet is
exactly over P on ground
5. Centering the alidade on point p sight various details step by step and draw a ray from each
detail along the fiducial edge of the alidade
6. Let the details be named as A, B, C, D, E etc.
7. Now measure the distances of each point from P i.e. PA, PB, PC, PD, PE and plot them to
scale on the sheet as pa, pb, pc, pd, pe respectively
8. Joint a, b, c, d, and e to give the outline of the details

NOTE: These details may be building corners, electric towers, tree, manhole etc. But for
demonstration purpose we will put ranging rods.

Significance and Applications

This is the easiest method in plane tabling. It is used when:

 All the details are visible and accessible from one instrument station
 The ground is level and smooth
 Distances are so small that can be measured with single tape

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Intersection Method of Plane Table Surveying

Radiation Method of Plane Tabling

Instruments Required for Plane Table Survey:
1. Tripod
2. Plane Table
3. Plumbing Fork
4. Level
5. Magnetic needle compass
6. Alidade
7. Measuring Tape
8. Ranging Rods (For demonstration purpose)
9. Other accessories
a. 28in x 22in drawing sheet
b. Scotch Tape
c. Chisel pointed Pencil
d. Eraser
Procedure:
1. Select two instrument stations P and Q, such that all the points or details to be located are
visible from both the stations.

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2. Now set the table on P and make it centered and level.

3. Using the plumbing form locate the ground station on the sheet i.e. p, such that the point p
on the sheet is exactly over the point P on the ground.
4. Measure the distance between P and Q.
5. Now using the alidade pivoted at P orient the table so that other instrument station Q is
sighted and clamp the table and draw a line along the fidicual edge of the alidade according
to a suitable scale. This line pq is a base line and hence must be measured and drawn
accurately
6. With the alidade pivoted on p sight other details and draw rays as a’, b’ c’, d’ etc as shown
in Figure 0-1
7. Now shift the table to station Q and make it centered and leveled such that point q on sheet
is exactly above the Q on the ground
8. With the alidade placed along line pq orient the table and back sight the station P and clamp
the table.
9. With the alidade pivoted on q sight other details and draw rays as a’’, b’’ c’’, d’’ etc as
shown in Figure 0-2
10. The intersection of a’, b’ c’, d’, e’ with a’’, b’’ c’’, d’’, e’’ are named as a, b, c, d, e
respectively. Join a, b, c, d, e as shown in Figure 0-3

NOTE: These details may be building corners, electric towers, tree, manhole etc. But for
demonstration purpose we will put ranging rods.

Significance and Applications

In this method a base line is drawn between two instrument stations. The significance of
this method is that only the base line is measured and plotted to scale very accurately.
Other points or details depends on the scale and accuracy of the base line. It is used
when:

 The ground is not level and smooth

 Distances are so large that cannot be measured with single tape

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Ground Control
In order to produce an accurate map from aerial photograph it is absolutely necessary to
established ground control. It consists in locating the positions of a no of pts. All over the
area to be surveyed det their levels. These control pts short be such that can be easily
identified on the photographs. Horizontal control is established by tiring or traversing.
Vertical control is established through the use of ‘aneroid barometers’ or ‘Altimeters’

Applications of Air Photograph:

The practical uses of air photography are unlimited. Some of the application are listed
below:

 Town and country planning and developed estate man agent and economic planning are
used both maps based on air survey and individual photography’s.
 suitability of roads and rail alignments can be studied both for traffic flow an economy of
construction.
 Forestry and geology both use air maps and photography for the study of nature of areas
and changes that take place.
 Flood control planning can be based on air survey made at suitable intervals of time
 Air survey provides means of mapping large undeveloped areas of the world.
 For large scale engineering and redevelopment projects, reconnaissance can be undertake
in to a large extend form air photograph.
 Survey for accessing damage due to earth quake, crop dieses can be quickly estimated
from air photograph.
 Pollution effects form industrial wastes on land and water can be studied.
Tunnels:

Tunnels are constructed in order

 To meet the req of rapid transportation in big cities.

 To connect by shortest route, two termination separated by mountain.
 To reduce very steep grades.
 To avoid the excessive cost of mantaineice of an open cut subjected to land slides or
snow drifts.
 To avoid the expensive acquisition of valuable built up land, tearing up pavements and
holding up traffic for long periods in large cities
 When the depth of ordinary cutting exceeds 20m and the ground rises rapidly for a
considerable distance after wards.
Chief considerations in location of a tunnel are
 If should follow the best line adopted to the proposed traffic.
 If should be most economical in construction an operation.
 Convenience Ingress (enter) and Egress (leave)
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Tunneling involves the following operatios:

 Surface Survey
 Transferring the alignment under ground
 Transferring levels under ground
SURFACE SURVERY:

This includes

 A preliminary survey by transit and staid for 2-3miles (3-4km) on either side of the
proposed alignment.
 A plan (map) with a scale of say 1 in with contours drawn at 5m (20) intervals.
 Final alignment is selected form this plan.
 A detail survey of the geological information of strata as the cost of tunneling depends
upon the nature of materials to be encountered.

The proposed route having been decided upon, the following pts require consideration.

1. Alignment of the centre line of the tunnel.

2. Gradient to be adopted.
3. Determination of the exact length of tunnel.
4. Establishment of permanent stations marking the line.

Control surveys for tunnel layouts are performed on ht surface joining the terminal pts of
the tunnel is shown in figure (1).

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Transferring the alignment under ground:

This is the most difficult and important operation in setting out a tunnel.

 Fix two timber beams C and D as shown in figure two across the top of the shaft near its
edges perpendicular to the direction of tunnel and as far apart as possible.
 A threadlike is set up at a ground at a pre-determined station on a centre. Line mark one
ground surface and another stations is again on the centre line itself.
 The centre line is very carefully set up on the beams preferably on the plates fixed on a
beam and drilled with hole for suspending wires by repetition observing and averaging
the result.
 From these pts two long penal wire with heavy plumb hobs 10 to 15 kg attacked to their
lower edges or suspended down the shaft.
 At the bottom these plumb bobs are immured in bucket of water, oil etc to eliminate
oscillation.
 Great care must be taken that wires and plumb bobs are hanging free. As a check the dist
b/w the wires at the top and at the bottom of the shaft is to be measured and this should
be the same.
 The line joining the two wires gives the dir of alignment under ground.
 The theodolite is transfer to the bottom of shaft and through the no of trails suspended
wires.
 Now the alignment is marked on marks driven into the whole i.e, E drilled on the roof.
Transferring levels under ground:

Leveling on the surface is done in the usual way and the levels are transfer underground
at the ends of the tunnel from the nearest bench mark.

In case of transfer of levels underground at the shaft. The steps involve are

 A fine steel wire loaded with weight of 5 to 15 kg is passed over a pulley (w) at the top of
the shaft and is lowered into the shaft as shown in fig.3
 Tow fine wire AA and BB horizontally stretched at the top and bottom of the shaft rasp.
 The steel wired lowered into the shaft is so adjusted that it is in contact with both the
wires AA and BB.
 The pts of contact are marked on a still wire by a piece of chalk or by some other marker.
 The wire is withdrawn form the shaft and is stretched on the ground.
 The dist b/t the two marks on he wire is measured using the measuring tape and this gives
the level of the bottom of the shaft.

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LATTIUDE AND LONGITUDE:

O = Centre of earth

N = North Pole

S = South Pole

Nos = Polar axis or polar diameter about which earth rotates.

A = Any point on surface of earth

The position of a place on the earth surface is specified by latitude and longitude. The
semi circle ‘NAS’ passing through A and terminates by the Poles N and S is called
Meridian of the place.

LATITUDE:

Latitude of a place is the angular distance measured from the equator towards the nearer
Pole along the meridian of the place or latitude of any pt ‘A’ is angle or arc AA’’.
Latitude can also be defined as the angular distance that the place is north or south of
equator.

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The earth sphere being divided into two hemispheres by the equator, the upper one
containing the North Pole is called the northern hemisphere. While the lower one having
the South Pole is called southern hemisphere. The place is said to have a north latitude if
it is in the northern hemisphere and south latitude if it is in the southern hemisphere.

The latitude angle is meared (90) at the earth center. North or south from the equatorial
plane. Latitude north of equator is considered positive and that south of equator negative.

LONGITUDE:

Longitude of a place is the angular distance b/t the meridian of a place and the standard
prime meridian

Or

Longitude of any place ‘A’ is angle ‘LA’ measured in the equatorial plane b/t the
standard meridian and the meridian through A.

Or

The meridian NGS passing through Greenwich England has been adopted internationally
as the standard meridian. This meridian divides the sphere into two hemispheres. The
longitude is measured from “O” to 180 either towards east or west. The west longitude is
considered as positive and the east as negative. Longitude angles are measured at the
earth centre east or west from the plane of ‘O’ longitude which has been arbitrary placed
through green witch England.

Hence the position of place ‘A’ is completely specified by the latitude and longitude.
These two terms give unique location of any pt on the earth. This system of geographic
co-ordinates is used in navigation and Geodesy.

Measurements in Surveying
Two kinds of measurements used in plane surveying.

Linear Measurements
 Horizontal distance
 Vertical Distance
Angular Measurements
 Horizontal angle
 Vertical angle

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In Surveying all measurements are horizontal, can be inclined; reduce to horizontal and
vertical components in plotting. Distance between 2 points on a plan or map is always
horizontal distance irrespective of their elevation,(distance between their projection on
horizontal plane).

How are these Measured and which instrument should I use?

Distances (Horizontal)

Chaining, Taping (steel tape), tachometry (theodolite), electronic (EDM, GPS)

Angles

Tachometry (theodolite, total station),

Heights

Leveling Equipment (level, theodolite, total station)

Methods For Measuring Distances

Direct Method

By chain or Tape or other Instruments directly

For direct measurement several methods/ Instruments are available e.g.

1. Pacing
2. Passometer
3. Pedometer
4. Odometer
5. Speedometer
6. Perambulator
7. Judging distance
8. Time Measurement
Chaining and Taping
 Most Common method is the method of measuring distance with a Chain or
Tape, Called Chaining.
 For Ordinary work (less Precision) Chain is used.
 For Great Accuracy Steel Tape is used.
 To measure distances with Chain is called Chaining while to measure distances
with Tape is called Taping
 Chain is composed of 100-150 pieces of galvanized mild steel called LINKS.
 Links are connected to each other through oval ring for flexibility.
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 End Provided with Brass handle to drag chain, Outside of handle is ZERO.
 Length Measured from outside of one handle to outside of other handle.
 Metallic tags are attached to specified distances.

What are Survey Stations and How to Select a

Survey Station
Definition

Survey Stations is a point of importance at the beginning and end of chain line. There are
two types of survey stations:

Main Station
 These are the end of survey line i.e. which connects boundaries.
 Line joining Main Stations is called Main Survey Line or Chain Line.
 They are represented by Circle, Capital letters A B... Or number 1 2... Or (A)
Subsidiary or Tie Station
 These are the points selected on main line, where it is necessary to run auxiliary lines to
locate interior details such as corner, tree, building etc.
 Lines joining tie station are called Tie Lines or Subsidiary Lines
 They are represented by Small letters a, b,

Selection of Survey Station

The following points should be kept in mind while selecting a station:

 The stations should be mutually intervisible

 Main principle of chain survey should strictly be observed
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 If possible, line through the whole length of area should be drawn

 All triangles should be well defined
 A check line should be provided in each triangle
 Survey lines should be as few as possible
 A number of tie lines should be drawn
 Position of survey lines should be such that to avoid obstacles to chaining and ranging
 It should be on level ground
 The sides of triangle should pass as close to the boundary as possible.

Important Lines

1. Base line
2. Check line
3. Tie line
Base Line
 The longest of the chain lines used in making a survey is generally regarded as Base line.
 It is the most important line because it fixes up the direction of all other lines, since on
base line, is built framework of a survey.
 It should be laid on level ground, as possible through the center and length of the area.
 It should be correctly measured and should be measured twice or thrice.
Check Line
 A check line also called proof line is a line joining the apex of a triangle to some fixed
point on the opposite side.
 A check line is measured to check the accuracy of the framework.
 Thus there is a complete check on the field measurement as well as on the accuracy of the
plotting work.
Tie Line
 A tie line is a line joining fixed points termed as Tie station on the main survey lines.
 A tie line usually fulfill a dual purpose i.e. it checks the accuracy of the framework and
enables the surveyor to locate the interior details which are far away from the main chain
line.

Direction Measuring Equipment in Surveying

There are two major techniques for measuring direction. These are:

1. By means of compasses
2. By celestial observation
Compasses:

Two needle- types are used:

 Box compasses and

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 Circular compasses

Box compasses must be used with angle – measuring instruments, as the compasses operate
only when the line of sight points towards magnetic north. The bearing desired must then
be measured from his direction. Circular compasses can be mounted on theodolites and are
often permanently mounted on transits. When provided with open sights, they can be used
alone, either mounted on light tripod or held in the hand.

Magnetic declination, called variation by mariners, is the angle from the direction of true
north to the direction of the needle. This angle varies from place to place and at any place,
it changes slowly through large, little understood swings. This is called secular change.
The diurnal change is more or less regular swing as follows:
Quiescent at its means position from 9pm – 3am, then easterly to 2-5 minutes at 8 or 9 am,
and then westerly to 2-5 minutes at 1 or 2 pm and to the mean at 9pm . There is also an
annual swing in the order of one minute, varying according to locality.

A simple dry magnetic pocket compass

Celestial Observation:

Surveying north or astronomic north, the direction of celestial North Pole is determined by
observation of the sun and stars with transits or theodolites. The most accurate method of
determining direction is to observe the North Star (Polaris) in latitudes where it is visible
and not too high to give accurate results. In southern latitudes, there are six bright stars
about 30o from the pole, well distributed so that one is usually above the horizon. These
are observed in the same way as Polaris.

As the first step, the horizontal direction of star is measured for a mark on the ground. The
precise time is recorded at the moment the instrument is pointed at the star. With relation
to the earth station can be computed. If any of these data is unavailable, further observations
are required.

The second method is sometimes used. The altitude, direction and the time of observation
are noted for a star in the east and one in the west at about the same elevation. By referring

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to astronomical tables, the resulting bearings of the mark are obtained. These are averages
and thus observational errors in the vertical angles are reduced.

Types of Circular Curves in Surveying

In the geometric design of motorways, railways, pipelines, etc., the design and setting out
of curves is an important aspect of the engineer’s work. The initial design is usually based
on a series of straight sections whose positions are defined largely by the topography of
the area. The intersections of pairs of straights are then connected by horizontal curves. In
the vertical design, intersecting gradients are connected by curves in the vertical plane.

Circular curves are used to join intersecting straight lines (or tangents). Circular curves are
assumed to be concave.

Horizontal circular curves are used to transition the change in alignment at angle points in
the tangent (straight) portions of alignments. An angle point is called a point of intersection
or PI station; and, the change in alignment is defined by a deflection angle, Δ.

Types of Circular Curves

Types of Circular Curves are:

1. Simple Curve
2. Compound Curve
3. Broken Back Curves
4. Reverse Curves
A. Radius of a circular curve

The Radius is the distance from the center of the curve to any point on the circular curve.

B. Direction of a circular curve

The Direction of a Circular Curve is defined as the direction the curve tends, as stationing
along the curve increases. Can be expressed as: Left, Right, North, East, South, West, free
text.

C. Central angle of a circular curve

The Central Angle of a Circular Curve is the angle at the center of radius of a circular arc
included between the radii, passing through the beginning and ending of the arc.

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D. Long Chord Length

The Long Chord Length is the straight line distance connecting the beginning of the curve
and the end of the curve.

E. Degree of Curvature

The Degree of Curve is defined as the angle subtended by an arc whose length is 100 ft. A
Radian is the angle subtended by an arc whose length equals the length of the Radius, or
57° 17’ 44.8”, or 57.295779513°. Degree of Curvature by Arc Defi i. Curvature can be
expressed in two ways:

 Stating the length of the chord of the curve

 Stating the radius of curvature
F. Laying out Circular Curves

Select tangents, and general curves making sure you meet minimum radius criteria Select
specific curve radii/spiral and calculate important points using formula or table (those
needed for design, plans, and lab requirements) Station alignment (as curves are
encountered) Determine super and runoff for curves and put in table.

G. Sight Distance of a circular curve

Sight line is a chord of the circular curve. Sight Distance is curve length measured along
center line of inside lane. Sight distance can be the controlling aspect of horizontal curve
design where obstructions are present near the inside of the curve. To determine the actual
sight distance that you have provided, you need to consider that the driver can only see the
portion of the roadway ahead that is not hidden by the obstruction. In addition, at the instant
the driver is in a position to see a hazard in the roadway ahead, there should be a length of
roadway between the vehicle and the hazard that is greater than or equal to the stopping
sight distance Curves should be designed with their radius greater than R min. If Rmin cannot
provided enough lateral clearance to an obstruction.

Baseline Measurement and Equipments Used

In triangulation the base line is of prime importance because it is the only horizontal
distance to be measured. It should be measured very accurately since the accuracy of the
computed sides of triangulation system depends on it. Length of base line varies form a
fraction of (0.5-10) km and a fraction of a mile to 10 miles.

According to the grades of Triangulation

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Baseline Site:

In selecting site for a base line, the following requirement should be considered.

1. The site should be fairly leveled or uniformly sloping or gently undulating.

2. Should be free form obstructions throughout the entire length.
3. Ground should be firmed and smooth.
4. The site should can be such that the whole length can be laid out the extremities of the
line being inter-revesible at ground level.
5. The site should be such that well shaped triangle can be obtained in connecting the end
stations of the base line to the main triangulation stations.
Base Net:

A series of triangles connecting a base line to the main triangulation is called a base net.
The base should be gradually expended by triangulation as shown figure (i) and (ii)

Equipment for Baseline Measurements

1. Tape
2. Straining Device
3. Spring balance or weight and pulley
4. Thermometers and a finely divided scale
5. Marking tripod or station rakes
6. Supporting tripods or stakes.
Field Work & Procedure:

It consists of

1. Setting out party and measuring party.

2. The former places and tripod or stakes in advance of measurement at correct intervals,
while actual measurement of the line (base line) is done by the measuring party.

Base line is divided into section of 0.8km to 1.2km [1/2 to ¾ mile in length]
Marking Stakes = 10cm x 10cm (4 in x 4 in)
Supporting Stakes = 2.5 cm x 5cm (1in x 2in)

Another method of measuring the base is to measure the distance b/t the fine marks on
two successive tripods.

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Reduction to Mean Sea Level:

In geodetic work all the horizontal distances are reduced to their equivalent distance as
mean sea level called geodetic distances. If the length of the base is reduced to its
equivalent at mean sea level, the computed lengths of all other lines of triangulation sys
will corresponds to this level. The mean elev of the base must therefore be determined.

Purpose:

This correction is required for comparison of various bases.

Given by formula

Where Cmsl = correction to length L

L = Measured length of base
H = Average height of base above M.S.L
R = mean radius of earth

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Proof: Let ‘l’ be the length of the base reduced to M.S.L

L = L - Lh/R hence Cmsl = LH/R

The angles measured at the triangulation stations are the horizontal angles and are not
effected by the diff of elev of these stations.

Extension of Baseline:

The length of a base line is usually not greater then (10-20) km i.e, (8-10) miles. As it is
not possible to obtain a possible side for a long base, the usually practice is to measure a
short base and extend it by means of well conditioned triangles.

First Method:

Suppose it is required to prolong a base line AB. Let CB, the extremities of the base, is
fixed accurately in line AB prolonged by a theologize centered over station A or B such
that E and F are dearly visible from it and well shaped triangles are formed.

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Second Method:

Another and more common method of extension of a base line is shown in the figure. In
this method the base a gradually enlarged through the medium of well proportioned
triangles. The base AB is extended to CD be selection suitable stations C and D on the
opposite side of AB.

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Corrections for Baseline Measurement

It is necessary to apply the following corrections to the field measurements of base line
order its true length:

1. Correction for absolute length

2. Correction for temperature
3. Correction of tension or pull
4. Correction for Sag
5. Correction for slope of vertical alignment

It may be noted that each section of a base line is separately corrected.

1. Baseline Correction for Absolute Length:

It is given by the formula

Where CA = Correction for absolute length

L = measured length of base
l = Nominal length of measuring unit
C = Correction to measuring unit

Sign of CA is the same as that of C

Nominal length: The designated length i.e 50 tape, 100 tape (30 m tape)

Absolute length: The actual length under specified conditions

2. Correction for Temperature:

It is given by the formula

Where
Ct = Correction for temp
= co-efficient of thermal
Tm = Mean Temperature during
To = Temp at which the measuring is standardized

Steel = 0.0000099-0.000012/c

Steel = 0.0000055 – 0.0000070/ F

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The sign of ‘Ct’ is plus or minus according to as ‘Tm’ is greater or less then ‘to’

3. Correction for Pull or Tension

Where
CP = Correction for pull
Pm = Pull applied during measurement
Po = Pull at which the measurement unit (tape) is standardized
L = length measured
A = Cross-Sectional area of measuring unit
E = Modulus of elasticity of measuring unit

E steel = 21 x 105 kg / cm2

E steel = 30 x 106 /bs/in2

The sing of this correction is always plus (T) as the effect of pull is to increase the length
of the tape and consequently to decrease the measured length of the base.

4. Correction for Sag:

Correction for sag is the deference in length between the are and its chord i.e b/t the curved
length of the laps and the distance between the supports. It’s us required only when the
tape is suspended during measurement. Since the effect of sag is to make the measured
length too large, it is always subtractive.

It is given by the formula:

Where Cs = Correction for Sag

L1 = Distance b/t supports.
W = wt of tape per unit length
Pm = applied pull

W = wt of tape b/t supports.

If there are ‘n’ equal space per tape length,
L = nL1

Sag correction per tape length is

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Total sag correction to measures length

Cs = N x Cs/ + Cs/

Where N = no of whole tape length

Cs/ = Sag correction per tape length.
Cs/ = Sag correction for any tape length

Normal tension:

The normal tension of a tape is a tension which will cause the effects of pull and sag to
neutralize each other. It may be obtained by equating the corrections for pull and sag

Where Pn = normal tension

W = wt of tape b/w supports

Pn is determine by trial

5. Correction for Slope or Vertical Alignment:

This correction is required when the points of supports are not exactly at the same level
L1, L2------------ = Successive length of uniform garages
B1, b2------------ = Difference of elevation b/t the extremities of each of these grades.
Cg = corr for slope
Cg = B1C1 = AC1 – AB1 = l –D

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This correction is always negative for measured length.

 If grades are given in terms in terms of vertical angle

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How to do Triangulation Survey

Triangulation work is carried out in following step.

1. Reconnaissance
2. Erection of Signals & Towers
3. Measurement of Horizontal Angles
4. Astronomical Observations Necessary to Determine the True Meridian and the Absolute
Positions of the Stations
5. Measurement of Baseline
6. Adjustment of observed Angles
7. Computations of Lengths of each side of each
8. Computations of the Latitude and Longitude of ST
1. Reconnaissance:

In geodetic Surveying, reconnaissance consists of:

Examination of the country to be surveyed.

1. Selection of most favorable sides for base lines

2. Selection of suitable positions of station
3. Determination of indivisibility of station
2. Selection of Station:

The selection of station is based upon the following consideration.

1. The stations should be clearly visible from each other. For this purpose highest
commanding positions such as top of hills or mountains is selected.
2. They should form well shaped triangles
3. They should be easily accessible
4. They should be useful for detail survey
5. Thy should be so fixed that the length of sight is not too short or too long
3. Inter-visibility and Heights of Stations:

For indivisibility of two stations they should be fixed on highest available ground. Such as
mountain peaks rides or top of hills when the distance b/t the two stations is great and the
difference in elevation b/t them is small then it is necessary to raise both the instrument
and signal to overcome the curvature of the earth and to clear all the intervening
obstruction.
The height of both the instrument and signal above the ground depends upon.

1. Distance between the stations.

2. Relative elevations of stations.
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3. The profile of intervening ground.

3. 1. Distance between stations:

If the intervening ground is free any obstruction, the distance of a visible horizon form a
station of known elves above datum as well as the elves of the signal while may be just

visible at a given distance can be determine from the formula.

Where

H = ht. of station above a datum

D = Dist from the station to point of tangent
R = mean radius of earth
M = co-efficient of refraction (0.07 for sight over land and 0.08 for sights over water)

D1 and R being expressed in same units. Alternatively, if ‘h’ is in meter and D1 is in

kilometer then

H (m) = 0.0673 D12 (km) ==> (A)

Or

H (ft) = 0.574 D1 (miles) ==> (B)

D1 and D2 can be determined and dist b/t two stations will be (D1+ D2)

3. 2. Relative elevations of stations:

A and B are the two stations

D = dist b/t A and B in km

Ha = known elev of ‘A’ above a datum
H = required elev of ‘B’ above a datum
D1 = distance (km) of ‘A’ from pt of tangency (p)
D2 = distance (km) of ‘B’

Dist D1 can be calculated. Hence the required elev, h = 0.0673 D2

Ha = 0.0673 D12 or h = 0.0574 D22 (miles)

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Or

Now D2 = D - D1

Height or signal / Tower/ scaffold a B = Elev of datum + h - R.L of st B elev of line sight

NOTE:

The line of sight should not be near the surface of ground at pt of tangency on account of
strata of disturbed air and should be kept at least 2m (61) above the ground preferably 3m
(1D) and this allowance (clearance) should be made in deterring the heights of stations.

3. 3. Profile of intervening ground:

If the peaks in the intervening ground are likely to obstruct, the line of sight, their elevations
and locations must be determined.

Procedure:

The elevation of line of sights at the respective points can be computed and the results
compared with the ground elevation at those points to determine weather the line of sight
clears all the intervening obstruction.

Applications of Triangulation
Triangulation is a way of determining something's location using the locations of other
things.

Applications of Triangulation
1. The establishment of accurately located control points for surveys of large.
2. The accurate location of indirection work such as:
o Centre lines, terminal pts shafts for long tunnels
o Centers lines and abutment for bridges of longs spans.
o Complex highway interchanges.
3. The establishment of accurately located control points in connection with aerial surveying.
4. Measurement of deformation of structure such as dams.
5. Used by geologists to find the location of earthquakes
6. Triangulation is preferred for hills and undulating areas as it is easy to establish stations
with inter-visibility
7. Establishing accurately located control points for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas.
8. Establishing accurately located control points in connection with aerial surveying
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9. Accurate location of engineering projects such as Centre lines, terminal points and shafts
for long tunnels, and Centre lines and abutments for long span bridges.

Classification of Triangulation System

Classification of Triangulation System

Triangulation system may be classified according to

1. Degree of accuracy required

2. Magnitude of work
Primary or 1st order Triangulation:

In primary triangulation very large areas (such as the whole country) are covered and the
highest possible precision is secured. Well proportioned triangles, most refined instrument
and methods of observations and computation are used.

Average triangle closure = 1 second

Max triangle closure = 3 second

Length of baseline = 5 to 20 km or more (3-10 miles)

Length of sides of triangle = 30 to 100 km or more (20-100 miles)

Degree of Accuracy = 1 in 500,000

Check on the base = 1 in 25000.

Secondary or 2nd Order Triangulation

Within the primary triangles other points are fixed at closure intervals so as to form a
secondary series of triangles. Which are comparatively small are used, the instars and
methods are not of the same at most refined.

Average triangle closure = 3sec

Max = 8 sec
= 2 to 5km [ 1-3 miles]
= 8 to 70 km [ 5-40 miles]

Degree of Accuracy = 1 in 50,000

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Check on the base = 1 in 10,000

Tertiary or 3rd order Triangulation

Within the secondary &delta points are established at short intervals to furnish
horizontal control fro detail survey.

Average closure = 6 sec = 12 sec = 1 to 30 km [½ to ½] = 1.5 to 10 km [less then a

mile to 60 miles] Degree of accuracy = 71 in 500 C Check on base = 1 in 500

What is Phototheodolite and Applications of a

Photo theodolite

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A photo theodolite is a form of ground camera. It is a combination of camera and theodolite

and is used for taking photographs and measuring the angles which the rival plane of
collimation makes with base line. Both the theodolite and the camera rotate about a
common vertical axis. The instrument is used for terrestrial photogrammetry.

It should be noted that the pointing of the theodolite is completely independent of that of
the camera, but the horizontal circle, which is located on the top of the camera housing, is
fixed in such a way that when the circle reading is zero, the optical axes of the theodolite
and camera lie in the same vertical plane. This means that all horizontal directions observed
with the theodolite can be easily related to the principal point of the photograph.

Applications of Phototheodolite

Not only is the terrestrial camera useful for mapping construction sites at scales as large as
5 ft. to 1 in., but the photographs can be utilised in a suitable instrument for taking off
quantities for earthworks or stock-piles and for directly plotting tunnel profiles and other
varied uses. At the other extreme the photo-theodolite can be employed for mapping at
small scales and even for extending control.

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What is Trilateration Surveying

Trilateration:

Because of the development of highly accurate electronic measuring devices, a

triangulation system can be completely observed, computed and adjusted by measuring the
lengths o the sides in the network. This procedure is known as trilateration. No horizontal
angle need to be measured because the lengths of the sides are sufficient to permit both the
horizontal angles and the positions of the stations to be computed.

The surveying solution technique of measuring only the side of triangle is

called triplication.

Types & Uses of Photographic Surveying

Photographic surveying also called photograph icing is a method of surveying in which
plans or maps are prepared from photographic taken at suitable camera stations or
photographic is the science of making measurement from photographs.

Types of Photographic Survey:

Photogrametry may be divided into two classes.

 Terrestrial or ground photogrammetery.

 Aerial photogrametry.
1. Terrestial or Ground Photogrammetry:

In terrestrial photo-grammetry maps are prepared from terrestrial (or ground)

photographs or terrestrial photogrammetry employees photograph taken form points on
earth surface for measurement purposes.

The terrestrial photographic surveying considered as the further development of plane

table surveying.

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2. Aerial Photogrammetry:

In aerial photo grammetry maps are produced from air photograph’s (photographs taken
form the air). Photo-grammetry in compassed two major areas of specialization.

 Metrical
 Interpretive

The first area is of principal interest to surveyor’s since it is applied to determined dittanies
elevations areas volumes cress-section’s an to compile topographic maps form
measurement made on photographs. Interpretive photogrammetry involves objects from
there photographic images and judging their significance. Critical factors considered in
identifying objects of shape, sizes, patterns, shadow.

Uses of Photogrammetry:

Photography dates to 1839.

 Photogrammetry is used in preparing topographic maps, advantages include.

 Speed of coverage of an area
 Relatively low cost
 Ease of obtaining topographic details
 Reduce likely wood of omitting date due to tremendous amount of detail shown in
photographs.
 It is used in land surveying to compute co-ordinates of section corner, body corner or pts
of

Evidence that help locate these corners.

 Photogram try is used to make shore line in hydrographic surveying.

 It is used to preside ground co-ordinates of points in control surveying.
 Used to develop maps and cross-section route (road or railways) and survey.
 Photogram try is also used successfully in many non-engineering fields’ e.g, geology,
archeology, forestry, agriculture, conservation, military intelligence, traffic management
accident investigation.
 It is particularly suitable for inaccessible regions, forbidden properties (restricted arrears)
etc.

Hydrographic Surveying - Objectives and Uses

of Hydrographic Surveying

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Definition:

It is the branch of surveying which deals with any body of still or running water such as a
lake, harbor, stream or river. Hydrographic surveys are used to define shore line and under
water features.

Objectives of Hydrographic Surveying:

Hydro-graphic surveying are carried out for one or more of the following activities.

1. Measurement of tides for sea coast work E.g. construction of sea defense works, harbors
etc, for the establishment of leveling datam and for reducing sounding.
2. Determination of bed depth, by soundings
o For navigation
o Location of rocks, sand bars, navigation light.
o Fro location of under water works volumes of under water excavation etc.
o In connection with irrigation and land drainage schemes.
3. Determination of direction of current in connection with
o The location of sewer any pipe or channel that carry waste water out falls.
o Determination of area subject to silt and scour the eating of the place.
o Fornication purposes.
o Measurement of quantity of water and flow of water in connection of water
schemes, Power scheme and flood controls.
Why we need Hydrographic Surveys - Uses & Applications of Hydrographic
Survey
1. Offshore engineering and the shipping industry have continued to expand.
2. Drilling rigs (extracting oil, gas etc from deep sea) locating up to 125miles offshore, search
for resources particularly oil and gas.
3. Offshore islands are constructed of dredged material (to bring material form some where
and dump there) to support marine structure.
4. Harbor depth up to 80 is required to accommodate larger ships and tankers.
5. Containerization has become an efficient and preferred method of cargo handling.
6. The demand for recreational transportation ranges form large pleasure cruise ships to small
sail bonds.
7. Cruise ships to small sail bonds. Hydro graphic surveys are made to a quire and present
data on oceans, lakes and harbors. It comprises all surveys made for
o The determination of shore lines, soundings (measurement of depth below the water
level) characteristics of bottoms, areas subjected to Scouring and silting, depth
available for navigation and velocity as well as characteristics of flow of water.
o The location of lights rocks sand balls, buoys ( anything that floats on the surface
of water)

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How to Establish controls in Hydrographic

Surveying

The first step in making a hydro graphic survey is to control both horizontal and vertical.

Horizontal Controls:

In an extensive survey, the primary horizontal control is established primary horizontal

control secondary once by running theodolite and tape traverse b/r the triangulation station,
the traverse lines being run to following the shore lines approx. in survey of less extent the
primer horizontal, control only is required and is established by running a theodolite and
tape traverse sufficiently close to shore line. For rough work, the control may be established
by running a theodolite and staid traverse or plane table trader.

Stadia Surveying:

The distances are determined by angles there are staid hairs from which angles and all
calculate are determined without change.

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Vertical Controls:

These are based upon a series of bench marks established near the shore line by spirit
leveling and these serve for setting and checking tide gauges etc to which the sounding
are referred.

Shore Line Surveying:

Purpose:
1. To determine the shore lines.
2. To locate the shore details, promise topographical feature, light house, pt of reference etc.
3. To determine the high and lower water lines for average spring. Both in please and
elevations in the case of tidal waters.

All irregularities in the shore line as well as the shore details are located by means of offsets
measured with a tape form the traverse lines, by staid or plane table.

The points of reference should be dearly risible form the water and should be near enough
such wing mills, flag poles etc. buoys anchored off the shore and light houses are used
reference points. The position of the high water line may be judged roughly form deposits
an marks on rocks however to locate it accurately the elev of mean high water is determined
and point are located on the shore at that elevation. The line connecting these points
represent high water level.

Errors and Corrections of Errors in Levelling

1. Instrumental Errors
2. Collimation Error
3. Error due to Curvature & Refraction
4. Other Errors
1. Instrumental error and Correction
1. Collimation error
o Correction: Check before use and equalise sights.
2. Under sensitive bubble.
3. Errors in staff graduation
o Correction: Check
4. Loose tripod head.
5. Telescope not parallel to bubble tube
o Correction: Permanent adjustment.
6. Telescope not at right angles to the vertical axis
o Correction: Permanent adjustment

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2. Error of Collimation:

Collimation error occurs when the collimation axis is not truly horizontal when the
instrument is level. The effect is illustrated in the sketch below, where the collimation axis
is tilted with respect to the horizontal by an angle a:

3. Curvature & Refraction

Other sources of errors in levelling and their correction:
Type of Error
1. Incorrect setting-up of instrument.
2. Movement of staff from position when
changing level station.
3. Staff not held vertically.
4. Parallax: Instrument knocked or moved
during backsight-foresight reading
5. Ground heating causes chaotic refraction
of light
6. Tripod or rod settles between
measurements e.g Bubble off center
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Correction
 Training the staff men
 Experienced/Skilled Staff men
 Hold rod firmly; Use head/body to
support it.
 Adjust parallax error if any
 Shorten the length of shots Shorten the
length of shots
 Keep measurement 2 Keep
measurement 2- -3 ft above ground 3
ft above ground
 Avoid leveling during noon hours
 Quick measurements between rods
Quick measurements between rods
 Avoid muddy or thawing ground
Avoid muddy or thawing ground
 Avoid hot asphalt Avoid hot asphalt
 Don’t exert pressure on turning point
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7. Staff not properly extended and locked.

Equipment and Advantages of Aerial

Photography
Arial photogram try induces the use of photographs taken in a systematic manner from the
air they are then controlled by lend survey and measured by photogrametric techniques.
Since the First World War the terrestrial photographic surveying has been replaced by
aerial photographic surveying or aerial surveying for most of survey work due to
development of aero plane.

Advantages:
 The survey work can be carried out with great speed.
 It can be used with great success for other purposes such as classification of land an soil,
geological and archeological investigations etc.

Aerial surveying is a highly technical and specialized work and most be carried out by
skilled, specially trained and experienced personal. It is mainly made by government
organization i.e survey of Pakistan depth.

Aerial survey consists of 4 parts.

 Flying
 Photography
 Ground ControlL
 Compilation of Map
Equipments of aerial survey are:
 An aeroplane
 An aerial camera
 Aaccessories required for interpretation and plotting
Air survey camera:
 Principal components of an aerial survey camera are.
 Lens (most important part)
 Shutter

To control the interval of time that the light passes through the lens. The shutter of a modern
air camera is capable of speeds ranging from 1/50 sec to 1/2000 sec

The range is commonly b/w 1/100 sec to 1/1000 sec

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 Diaphragm: The diaphragm control the physical opening of the lens and therefore the
amount of light passing to the lens.
 Filter: To reduce the effect of haze and distribute light uniformly over the format and also
protects the lens form flying particles in the atmosphere.
 Camera Cone: To support the lens-shutterciaphram assembly with respect to the focal
plane and prevent stray light form striking the film.
 Focal plane: surface on which the film lies when exposed.
 Fiducially marks: (not shown in the figure) 4 to 8 in no define the photographic principal
point.
 Camera body: To house the drive mechanism, flattens the film and advances to b/w
expose.
 Magazine: It hold the supply of exposed and unexposed fill

A levees vial (level Tube) attached to camera helps keep the optical axis of the
camera nearly vertical inspire of any slight tilt of an air craft.

The value of the focal length determined accurately through the calibration for
each camera. The most common focal length for aerial cameras is 6//(152mm)

Format size 9 Inc x 9 inch

(Negative) (230 mm x 230 mm)

Aerial cameras may be

1. Single lens camera

2. Multiple lens camera

Types of and Uses of Photographic Surveying

There are two ways of taking aerial photographs:

1. Vertical
2. Oblique

Verticals are taken with the axis of the camera pointing vertically downward. These
photographs can produce more accurate maps as the variation n scale over the area is
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smaller and no area remains hidden. However the details in photograph can not be easily
identified as the view offered is unfamiliar to eyes.

Oblique are produced by giving a camera a tilt up to 30 to the forward direction. Oblique
photographs are further classified as

 High oblique
 Low oblique
High oblique:

When the image of the horizon is inclined on the picture

Low oblique

When the horizon is not seen and the camera tilted in axis of 30.

They provided information of the enemy territory without crossing the border. Features can
be easily recognized as these provide views familiar to the eyes. However some such as
buildings, hills etc. the scale variation is large and therefore preparation of maps become
more laborious and expensive.

With multiple lens camera one vertical and up to six oblique can be taken at one expose.
Vertical photographs are the principal mode of photogrammetry work oblique are seldom
use for mapping or measure application but are advantageous in interpretive work and for
reconnaissance.

Terminology:

The terminology used in air photograph geometry is explained with reference to the given
figure.

1: Perspective Center:

Rays form ptc on the ground pass through ‘o’ called as perspective centre.

2: Plumb Points:

The vertical through the optical centre of the camera lens intersects at ground and picture
plane at V and v respectively termed as the gourd and photograph plumb point.

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3: Principal Points:

The perpendicular to the picture plane through the optical centre of the lens meets the
ground and picture plan at p and p resp, termed as the ground and photograph principal
points.

The principal point ‘p’ in the photograph is located by the intersection of lines joining the
fiduciary marks.

4: ISO Center:

The bisector of the angle b/t the line joining the plumb point and the principal points
interned the ground and picture plane at point ‘I” and ‘I’ rasp called as iso-centre. Point Ii
an V and v are called homologous points.

5: Principal Plane:

The principal line through v and p when produce meets the ground plane at M. the vertical
plane through these pts intersects the ground along the ground principal line through v and
p. the iso-centres I and l also line on this vertical plane (or)

The vertical plane containing O, V, P and p is termed principal plane, its intersection with
the negative plane giving principal line pv.

Angle Measuring Equipment in Surveying

The theodolite is the basic instrument for measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It
consists essentially of a sighting tube in form of a telescope, an horizontal and vertical
scales, which are so set that horizontal and vertical angles of the object sighted in the
telescope can be read from the scale (see fig. 5 and 6)

Theodolite and Transits:

There are two general types of theodolites

 Direction theodolites (also called simple theodolites and;

 Repeating theodolite (also called American transits)

In the direction theodolite, the graduated horizontal circle remains fixed while the
telescope is pointed at several objects in turn and the direction to each is read on the
horizontal scale (See Fig. 8). The former theodolite is an instrument for measuring both
vertical and horizontal angles, as used in triangulation networks. It is a key tool in
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surveying and engineering work, particularly on inaccessible ground, but has been
adapted to other specialized purposes in fields like meteorology and rocket launch
technology.

In repeating theodolite or transit, the same angles are measured a number of times on the
horizontal scale, which is rotated as much as there are of each measurement. “A transit”
(in fig. 9) refers to as specialized type of theodolite that was developed in the early 19th
century. It featured a telescope (See fig 23) that could “flop over” (“transit the scope) to
allow easy back – sighting and doubling of angles for error reduction. Some transit
instruments were capable of reading angles directly to thirty seconds. In the middle of the
20th century, “transit” came to refer to a simple form of theodolite with less precision,
lacking features such as scale magnification and mechanical meters. The importance of
transits still finds use as a light weight tool on construction sites. Some transits don’t
measure vertical angles. Thus, in repeating theodolites, the successive value of each
measurement is accumulated on the horizontal circle, the final reading representing the
total area of all the measurements taken. The desired value is then obtained by dividing
the final reading by the number of repetitions.

Inclinometer:

Historically, early inclinometers include well’s inclinometer in Fig 7, the essential parts
of which are the flat side, or base, on which it stands, and a hollow disk just half – filled
with some heavy liquid. The earliest electronic inclinometers used a weight, an extension,
and potentiometer. Early the 1900’s (Circa 1917) precision curved glass tubes filled with
a damping liquid and steel ball were introduced to provide accurate visual angle
indication. Common sensor technologies for electronic tilt sensors and inclinometers are:

1. accelerometer
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2. Liquid capacitive
3. Electrolytic
4. Gas bubble in liquid and,
5. Pendulum

Fig.7 (a) Well Inclinometer Fig.7. (b) Indirect Fire Inclinometer

MEMS (MICRO – ELECTRO – Mechanical System) technology is becoming the new

standard inclino-meter due to their tiny size and low cost.

An inclinometer or clinometers- is an instrument for measuring angles of slope (or tilt),

elevation or inclination of an object with respect to gravity. It is also known as tilt meter,
tilt indicator, slope alert, slope gauge, gradient meter, gradio meter, level gauge, level
meter, declinometer, and pitch & roll indicator. Clinometers measure both clines (positive
slope as seen by an observer looking upward) and declines (negative slopes, as seen by an
observer looking downward)

Vertical circle attachments:

Except in astronomical observations, vertical angles seldom need to be measured with the
accuracy required for horizontal angles. In all instruments, the vertical circle is attached
the telescope. In American transits, it is read with a vernier attached to a standard and
thus depends on the accuracy of the leveling of the instrument. In modern Nigerian
instruments, the vertical circle is read with an optical device governed by a pendulum and
therefore is independent of any inaccuracies in the hand leveling of the instrument. The
accuracy of the setting of the reading device in both instruments can be tested by reading
the same vertical angle with the telescope both direct and reversed.

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Plane – table alidades:

Modern Plane – table alidades consist of a telescopic sight of about 13-16 power
equipped with stadia hairs and mounted on a metal graduated straight edge called a blade,
with which survey data can be plotted on the supporting drawing board. The telescope on
horizontal bearing does not reverse, and it measures angles of elevation and depression
up to as much as 200-300, as indicated on a vertical circle. A prismatic eye piece makes it
possible to observe when looking down into the telescope to avoid the interference of the
plane table. Also mounted on the blade are a circular spirit level for leveling the plane
table and a trough compass that operates when the alidade is aimed along the magnetic
meridian.

Plane – table surveying has been eclipsed by photogrammetry. It is still used, however,
for mapping small areas, for filling in where the lack of detail prevents the proper
orientation of aerial photography, or where detail is concealed on the photograph. It is
sometime used for finding the position and elevation of photo – control points.

Fig 8: A Simple alidade used with Ceiling Projector

Surveying Principles and Methods in Civil Engineering

Surveying is the process of determining relative positions of different objects on the surface of
the earth by measuring horizontal distances between them and preparing a map to any suitable
scale.
Measurements are taken in horizontal plane only. Surveying is the art of determining the
relative positions of points on, above or beneath the surface of the earth by means of direct or
indirect measurements of distance, direction and elevation.
Leveling is a branch of surveying the object of which is to find the elevations of points with
respect to a given or assumed datum and to establish points at a given elevation or at different
elevations with respect to a given or assumed datum.
Survey is performed to prepare a map of relative positions on surface of the earth. It shows the
natural feature of a country such as towns, villages, roads, railways, etc. They may also include
details of different engineering works such as bridge, canal, dam etc.

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Before commencement of any major engineering project, survey is carried out to determine the
location of site and its surrounding. To understand the topography of the site and natural
resource availability. Survey is carried out to prepare the cadastral map showing property
boundaries.
Principles of Surveying
The fundamental principle upon which the various methods of plane surveying are based can
be stated under the following two aspects.
Location of a point by measurement from two points of reference
According to this principle, the relative position of a point to be surveyed should be located by
measurement from at least two points of reference, the positions of which have already been
fixed.

If P and Q are the two reference points on the ground, any other point, such as R, can be
located by any of the direct methods shown in the above figures. But, although a single method
is sufficient to locate the relative position of ‘R’ with respect to reference points P and Q, it is
necessary to adopt at least any two methods to fix the position of point ‘R’.
While the measurements made in the either of the first method or second method will be
helpful in locating the point ‘R’, the measurements made in the other method will act as a
check.
Working from whole to part

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According to this principle, it is always desirable to carryout survey work from whole to part.
This means, when an area is to be surveyed, first a system of control points is to be established
covering the whole area with very high precision. Then minor details are located by less precise
methods.
The idea of working this way is to prevent the accumulation of errors and to control and localize
minor errors which, otherwise, would expand to greater magnitudes if the reverse process is
followed, thus making the work uncontrolled at the end.
Method of Surveying in Civil Engineering
Primary types of Surveying are:
1. Plane surveying
2. Geodetic surveying
1. Plane surveying
Plane surveying is conducted by state agencies as well as private agencies. As we know earth is
spherical in shape but its diameter is big enough to consider plane in small dimensions. It is that
type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is considered as a plane and the
spheroidal shape is neglected. All triangles formed by survey lines are considered as plane
triangles. The level line is considered as straight and plumb lines are considered parallel. Plane
surveying is done of the area of survey is less than 250 km2.
2. Geodetic surveying
Geodetic survey is conducted by survey department of the country. It is that type of surveying
in which the curved shape of the earth is taken in to account. The object of geodetic survey is to
determine the precise position on the surface of the earth, of a system of widely distant points
which form control stations in which surveys of less precision may be referred. . Line joining
two points is considered as curved line and angles are assumed as spherical angles. It is carried
out if the area exceeds over 250 km2.
Secondary classification of Surveying

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Surveys may be classified based on the nature of the field of survey, object of survey and
instruments used.
1) Surveying based on Nature of Survey
a) Topographical Surveys
They are carried out determine the position of natural features of a region such as rivers,
streams, hills etc. and artificial features such as roads and canals. The purpose of such surveys is
to prepare maps and such maps of are called topo-sheets.
b) Hydrographic Survey
Hydro-graphic survey is carried out to determine M.S.L. (Mean Sea Level), water spread area,
depth of water bodies, velocity of flow in streams, cross-section area of flow etc.
c) Astronomical Survey
The Astronomical Survey is carried out to determine the absolute location of any point on the
surface of earth. The survey consists of making observations to heavenly bodies such as stars.
d) Engineering Survey
This type of survey is undertaken whenever sufficient data is to be collected for the purpose of
planning and designing engineering works such as roads, bridges and reservoirs.
e) Archeological Survey
This type of survey is carried out to gather information about sites that are important from
archeological considerations and for unearthing relics of antiquity.
f) Photographic Survey
In this type of survey, information is collected by taking photographs from selected points using
a camera.
g) Aerial Survey
In this type of survey data about large tracks of land is collected by taking photographs from an
aero-plane.
h) Reconnaissance Survey
In this type of survey, data is collected by marking physical observation and some
measurements using simple survey instruments.
2) Surveying based on Type of Instruments
a) Chain Surveying
Chain surveying is the basic and oldest type of surveying. The principle involved in chain survey
is of triangulation. The area to be surveyed is divided into a number of small triangles. Angles of
triangles must not be less than 30 degree and greater than 120 degree. Equilateral triangles are
considered to be ideal triangles. No angular measurements are taken, tie line and check lines
control accuracy of the work.
This method is suitable on level ground with little undulations and area to be survey is small.

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b) Compass Surveying
Compass survey uses the principle of traversing. This method does not requires the need to
create triangles. It uses a prismatic compass for measuring magnetic bearing of line and the
distance is measured by chain. A series of connecting lines is prepared using compass and
measuring distances using chain. Interior details are located using offset from main survey lines.
They suitable for large area surveying crowded with many details. It can be used to survey a
river course.

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c) Plane Table Surveying

The principle of plane table survey is parallelism. They are plotted directly on paper with their
relative position. The rays are drawn from station to object on ground. The table is placed at
each of the successive station parallel to the position of the last station.
They are basically suitable for filling interior detailing and is recommended when great accuracy
is not required.

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d) Theodolite Surveying
The theodolite is an instrument used mainly for accurate measurement of the horizontal and
vertical angles. They are accurate to measure up to 10″ or 20″ angles.
Theodolite can be used to measure:
 Horizontal angles
 Vertical angles
 Deflection angle
 Magnetic bearing
 Horizontal distance between two points
 Vertical height between two points
 Difference in elevation
Nowadays theodolite is shadowed and replaced by the use of Total Station which can perform
the same task with greater ease and accurate results

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e) Tacheometric Surveying
Tacheometry is a branch of surveying in which horizontal and vertical distances are determined
by taking angular observations with an instrument known as a tacheometer. Tacheometer is
nothing but a transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm and an anallatic lens. There is no
need for chaining in such survey. The principle of Tacheometer is based on property of isosceles
triangle, where ratio of the distance of the base from the apex and the length of the base is
always constant.
Different form of stadia diaphragm commonly used:

f) Photographic Surveying
Photographic survey is based on technique of taking photographs from different angle to
prepare topographic details with relative high speed.

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There are two type of photographic surveying

i). Terrestrial or ground photogrammetry
In terrestrial photogrammetry maps are prepared from ground photographs from different
points on the earth surface for measurement purpose.
ii). Aerial photogrammetry
In aerial photogrammetry maps are produced from air from an airplane or helicopter.
Photogrammetry encompasses two major area of specialization.
 Metrical photogrammetry
 Interpretive photogrammetry
Metrical photogrammetry is of principal interest to surveyors since it is applied to determine
distances, elevations, areas, volume, etc. to compile topographic maps made from
measurements on photographs.
Intuitive photogrammetry involves objects from their photographic image and their
significance. Critical factors considered in identifying object of shape, sizes, patterns, shadow.

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