Chapter 0

The Subject of Transport

Phenomena
90.1 What are the transport phenomena?
50.2 Three levels at which transport phenomena can be studied
50.3 The conservation laws: an example
50.4 Concluding comments

The purpose of this introductory chapter is to describe the scope, aims, and methods of
the subject of transport phenomena. It is important to have some idea about the struc-
ture of the field before plunging into the details; without this perspective it is not possi-
ble to appreciate the unifying principles of the subject and the interrelation of the
various individual topics. A good grasp of transport phenomena is essential for under-
standing many processes in engineering, agriculture, meteorology, physiology, biology,
analytical chemistry, materials science, pharmacy, and other areas. Transport phenom-
ena is a well-developed and eminently useful branch of physics that pervades many
areas of applied science.

0 . WHAT ARE THE TRANSPORT PHENOMENA?

The subject of transport phenomena includes three closely related topics: fluid dynam-
ics, heat transfer, and mass transfer. Fluid dynamics involves the transport of momenfum,
heat transfer deals with the transport of energy, and mass transfer is concerned with the
transport of mass of various chemical species. These three transport phenomena should,
at the introductory level, be studied together for the following reasons:
They frequently occur simultaneously in industrial, biological, agricultural, and
meteorological problems; in fact, the occurrence of any one transport process by it-
self is the exception rather than the rule.
The basic equations that describe the three transport phenomena are closely re-
lated. The similarity of the equations under simple conditions is the basis for solv-
ing problems "by analogy."
The mathematical tools needed for describing these phenomena are very similar.
Although it is not the aim of this book to teach mathematics, the student will be re-
quired to review various mathematical topics as the development unfolds. Learn-
ing how to use mathematics may be a very valuable by-product of studying
transport phenomena.
The molecular mechanisms underlying the various transport phenomena are very
closely related. All materials are made up of molecules, and the same molecular
2 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena

motions and interactions are responsible for viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
diffusion.
The main aim of this book is to give a balanced overview of the field of transport phe-
nomena, present the fundamental equations of the subject, and illustrate how to use
them to solve problems.
There are many excellent treatises on fluid dynamics, heat transfer, and mass trans-
fer. In addition, there are many research and review journals devoted to these individual
subjects and even to specialized subfields. The reader who has mastered the contents of
this book should find it possible to consult the treatises and journals and go more deeply
into other aspects of the theory, experimental techniques, empirical correlations, design
methods, and applications. That is, this book should not be regarded as the complete
presentation of the subject, but rather as a stepping stone to a wealth of knowledge that
lies beyond.

50.2 THREE LEVELS AT WHICH TRANSPORT

PHENOMENA CAN BE STUDIED
In Fig. 0.2-1 we show a schematic diagram of a large system-for example, a large piece
of equipment through which a fluid mixture is flowing. We can describe the transport of
mass, momentum, energy, and angular momentum at three different levels.
At the macroscopic level (Fig. 0.2-la) we write down a set of equations called the
"macroscopic balances," which describe how the mass, momentum, energy, and angular
momentum in the system change because of the introduction and removal of these enti-
ties via the entering and leaving streams, and because of various other inputs to the sys-
tem from the surroundings. No attempt is made to understand all the details of the
system. In studying an engineering or biological system it is a good idea to start with
this macroscopic description in order to make a global assessment of the problem; in
some instances it is only this overall view that is needed.
At the microscopic level (Fig. 0.2-lb) we examine what is happening to the fluid mix-
ture in a small region within the equipment. We write down a set of equations called the
"equations of change," which describe how the mass, momentum, energy, and angular
momentum change within this small region. The aim here is to get information about ve-
locity, temperature, pressure, and concentration profiles within the system. This more
detailed information may be required for the understanding of some processes.
At the molecular level (Fig. 0.2-lc) we seek a fundamental understanding of the mech-
anisms of mass, momentum, energy, and angular momentum transport in terms of mol-

1Q
--
= heat added to syst

Fig. 0.2-1 (a) A macro-

scopic flow system contain-
W,,, = Work done on the system by ing N2 and 0,; (b) a
the surroundings by means
of moving parts microscopic region within
the macroscopic system
containing N, and 02,
which are in a state of flow;
(c) a collision between a
molecule of N, and a mole-
cule of 0,.
 50.2 Three Levels At Which Transport Phenomena Can Be Studied 3

ecular structure and intermolecular forces. Generally this is the realm of the theoretical
physicist or physical chemist, but occasionally engineers and applied scientists have to
get involved at this level. This is particularly true if the processes being studied involve
complex molecules, extreme ranges of temperature and pressure, or chemically reacting
systems.
It should be evident that these three levels of description involve different "length
scales": for example, in a typical industrial problem, at the macroscopic level the dimen-
sions of the flow systems may be of the order of centimeters or meters; the microscopic
level involves what is happening in the micron to the centimeter range; and molecular-
level problems involve ranges of about 1 to 1000 nanometers.
This book is divided into three parts dealing with
Flow of pure fluids at constant temperature (with emphasis on viscous and con-
vective momentum transport)--Chapters 1-8
Flow of pure fluids with varying temperature (with emphasis on conductive, con-
vective, and radiative energy transport)-Chapters 9-16
Flow of fluid mixtures with varying composition (with emphasis on diffusive and
convective mass transport)-Chapters 17-24
That is, we build from the simpler to the more difficult problems. Within each of these
parts, we start with an initial chapter dealing with some results of the molecular theory
of the transport properties (viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusivity). Then we
proceed to the microscopic level and learn how to determine the velocity, temperature,
and concentration profiles in various kinds of systems. The discussion concludes with
the macroscopic level and the description of large systems.
As the discussion unfolds, the reader will appreciate that there are many connec-
tions between the levels of description. The transport properties that are described by
molecular theory are used at the microscopic level. Furthermore, the equations devel-
oped at the microscopic level are needed in order to provide some input into problem
solving at the macroscopic level.
There are also many connections between the three areas of momentum, energy,
and mass transport. By learning how to solve problems in one area, one also learns the
techniques for solving problems in another area. The similarities of the equations in the
three areas mean that in many instances one can solve a problem "by analogy"-that is,
by taking over a solution directly from one area and, then changing the symbols in the
equations, write down the solution to a problem in another area.
The student will find that these connections-among levels, and among the various
transport phenomena-reinforce the learning process. As one goes from the first part of
the book (momentum transport) to the second part (energy transport) and then on to the
third part (mass transport) the story will be very similar but the "names of the players"
will change.
Table 0.2-1 shows the arrangement of the chapters in the form of a 3 x 8 "matrix."
Just a brief glance at the matrix will make it abundantly clear what kinds of interconnec-
tions can be expected in the course of the study of the book. We recommend that the
book be studied by columns, particularly in undergraduate courses. For graduate stu-
dents, on the other hand, studying the topics by rows may provide a chance to reinforce
the connections between the three areas of transport phenomena.
At all three levels of description-molecular, microscopic, and macroscopic-the
conservation laws play a key role. The derivation of the conservation laws for molecu-
lar systems is straightforward and instructive. With elementary physics and a mini-
mum of mathematics we can illustrate the main concepts and review key physical
quantities that will be encountered throughout this book. That is the topic of the next
section.
4 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena

Table 0.2-1 Organization of the Topics in This Book

Type of transport Momentum Energy Mass

Transport by 1 Viscosity 9 Thermal 17 Diffusivity
molecular motion and the stress conductivity and the
(momentum flux) and the heat-flux mass-flux
tensor vector vectors
Transport in one 2 Shell momentum 10 Shell energy 18 Shell mass
dimension (shell- balances and balances and balances and
balance methods) velocity temperature concentration
distributions distributions distributions
Transport in 3 Equations of 11 Equations of 19 Equations of
arbitrary continua change and their change and change and
(use of general use their use their use
transport equations) [isothermal] [nonisothermall [mixtures]
Transport with two 4 Momentum 12 Energy transport 20 Mass transport
independent transport with with two with two
variables (special two independent independent independent
methods) variables variables variables

Transport in 5 Turbulent 13 Turbulent 21 Turbulent

turbulent flow, and momentum energy transport; mass transport;
eddy transport transport; eddy eddy thermal eddy
properties viscosity conductivity diffusivity
Transport across 6 Friction factors; 14 Heat-transfer 22 Mass-transfer
phase boundaries use of empirical coefficients; use coefficients; use
correlations of empirical of empirical
correlations correlations
Transport in large 7 Macroscopic 15 Macroscopic 23 Macroscopic
systems, such as balances balances balances
pieces of equipment [isothermal] [nonisothermall [mixtures]
or parts thereof
Transport by other 8 Momentum 16 Energy 24 Mass transport
mechanisms transport in transport by in multi-
polymeric radiation component
liquids systems; cross
effects

50.3 THE CONSERVATION LAWS: AN EXAMPLE

The system we consider is that of two colliding diatomic molecules. For simplicity we as-
sume that the molecules do not interact chemically and that each molecule is homonu-
clear-that is, that its atomic nuclei are identical. The molecules are in a low-density gas,
so that we need not consider interactions with other molecules in' the neighborhood. In
Fig. 0.3-1 we show the collision between the two homonuclear diatomic molecules, A
and B, and in Fig. 0.3-2 we show the notation for specifying the locations of the two
atoms of one molecule by means of position vectors drawn from an arbitrary origin.
Actually the description of events at the atomic and molecular level should be made
by using quantum mechanics. However, except for the lightest molecules (H, and He) at
 90.3 The Conservation Laws: An Example 5

Fig. 0.3-1 A collision

between homonuclear
diatomic molecules,
/ such as N, and 02.
/
/ Molecule A is made up
Molecule A before collision I
I / Molecule B before collision of two atoms A1 and
\ A2. Molecule B is made
\ up of two atoms B1
\
'b and B2.

Molecule B after collision

Molecule A after collision

temperatures lower than 50 K, the kinetic theory of gases can be developed quite satis-
factorily by use of classical mechanics.
Several relations must hold between quantities before and after a collision. Both be-
fore and after the collision the molecules are presumed to be sufficiently far apart that
the two molecules cannot "feel" the intermolecular force between them; beyond a dis-
tance of about 5 molecular diameters the intermolecular force is known to be negligible.
Quantities after the collision are indicated with primes.
(a) According to the law of conservation of mass, the total mass of the molecules enter-
ing and leaving the collision must be equal:

Here m, and mBare the masses of molecules A and B. Since there are no chemical reac-
tions, the masses of the individual species will also be conserved, so that
m, = mi and rn, = mf, (0.3-2)
(b) According to the law of conservation of momentum the sum of the momenta of all
the atoms before the collision must equal that after the collision, so that

in which r,, is the position vector for atom 1 of molecule A, and i,, is its velocity. We
now write r,, = r, + RA, so that r,, is written as the sum of the position vector for the

of molecule A

0
Arbitrary origin Fig. 0.3-2 Position vectors for the atoms
fixed in space A1 and A2 in molecule A.
6 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena

center of mass and the position vector of the atom with respect to the center of mass, and
we recognize that RA2= -RA,; we also write the same relations for the velocity vectors.
Then we can rewrite Eq. 0.3-3 as

That is, the conservation statement can be written in terms of the molecular masses and
velocities, and the corresponding atomic quantities have been eliminated. In getting
Eq. 0.3-4 we have used Eq. 0.3-2 and the fact that for homonuclear diatomic molecules
mAl = mA2 = 51 mA.
(c) According to the law of conservation of energy, the energy of the colliding pair of
molecules must be the same before and after the collision. The energy of an isolated mol-
ecule is the sum of the kinetic energies of the two atoms and the interatomic potential en-
ergy,+, which describes the force of the chemical bond joining the two atoms 1 and 2 of
molecule A, and is a function of the interatomic distance lrA2- rA,l.Therefore, energy
conservation leads to

Note that we use the standard abbreviated notation that el .

= (fAl iAl).We now write
the velocity of atom 1 of molecule A as the sum of the velocity of the center of mass of A
and the velocity of 1 with respect to the center of mass; that is, r,, = iA+ RA,. Then Eq.
0.3-5 becomes

in which MA = $mA1~il + $nA2~;,+ 4, is the sum of the kinetic energies of the atoms, re-
ferred to the center of mass of molecule A, and the interatomic potential of molecule A.
That is, we split up the energy of each molecule into its kinetic energy with respect to
fixed coordinates, and the internal energy of the molecule (which includes its vibra-
tional, rotational, and potential energies). Equation 0.3-6 makes it clear that the kinetic
energies of the colliding molecules can be converted into internal energy or vice versa.
This idea of an interchange between kinetic and internal energy will arise again when
we discuss the energy relations at the microscopic and macroscopic levels.
(dl Finally, the law of conservation of angular momentum can be applied to a collision
to give

in which X is used to indicate the cross product of two vectors. Next we introduce the
center-of-mass and relative position vectors and velocity vectors as before and obtain

in which 1, = [R,, x m , , ~ ~ ,+] [ R x~m~A 2 ~ Ais2the

] sum of the angular momenta of the
atoms referred to an origin of coordinates at the center of mass of the molecule-that is,
the "internal angular momentum." The important point is that there is the possibility for
interchange between the angular momentum of the molecules (with respect to the origin
of coordinates) and their internal angular momentum (with respect to the center of mass
of the molecule). This will be referred to later in connection with the equation of change
for angular momentum.
 s0.4 Concluding Comments 7

The conservation laws as applied to collisions of monatomic molecules can be ob-

tained from the results above as follows: Eqs. 0.3-1, 0.3-2, and 0.3-4 are directly applica-
ble; Eq. 0.3-6 is applicable if the internal energy contributions are omitted; and Eq. 0.3-8
may be used if the internal angular momentum terms are discarded.
Much of this book will be concerned with setting up the conservation laws at the mi-
croscopic and macroscopic levels and applying them to problems of interest in engineer-
ing and science. The above discussion should provide a good background for this
adventure. For a glimpse of the conservation laws for species mass, momentum, and en-
ergy at the microscopic and macroscopic levels, see Tables 19.2-1 and 23.5-1.

50.4 CONCLUDING COMMENTS

To use the macroscopic balances intelligently, it is necessary to use information about in-
terphase transport that comes from the equations of change. To use the equations of
change, we need the transport properties, which are described by various molecular the-
ories. Therefore, from a teaching point of view, it seems best to start at the molecular
level and work upward toward the larger systems.
All the discussions of theory are accompanied by examples to illustrate how the the-
ory is applied to problem solving, Then at the end of each chapter there are problems to
provide extra experience in using the ideas given in the chapter. The problems are
grouped into four classes:
Class A: Numerical problems, which are designed to highlight important equa-
tions in the text and to give a feeling for the orders of magnitude.
Class B: Analytical problems that require doing elementary derivations using
ideas mainly from the chapter.
Class C: More advanced analytical problems that may bring ideas from other chap-
ters or from other books.
Class D: Problems in which intermediate mathematical skills are required.
Many of the problems and illustrative examples are rather elementary in that they in-
volve oversimplified systems or very idealized models. It is, however, necessary to start
with these elementary problems in order to understand how the theory works and to de-
velop confidence in using it. In addition, some of these elementary examples can be very
useful in making order-of-magnitude estimates in complex problems.
Here are a few suggestions for studying the subject of transport phenomena:
Always read the text with pencil and paper in hand; work through the details of
the mathematical developments and supply any missing steps.
Whenever necessary, go back to the mathematics textbooks to brush up on calculus,
differential equations, vectors, etc. This is an excellent time to review the mathemat-
ics that was learned earlier (but possibly not as carefully as it should have been).
Make it a point to give a physical interpretation of key results; that is, get in the
habit of relating the physical ideas to the equations.
Always ask whether the results seem reasonable. If the results do not agree with
intuition, it is important to find out which is incorrect.
Make it a habit to check the dimensions of all results. This is one very good way of
locating errors in derivations.
We hope that the reader will share our enthusiasm for the subject of transport phe-
nomena. It will take some effort to learn the material, but the rewards will be worth the
time and energy required.
8 Chapter 0 The Subject of Transport Phenomena

QUESTIONS FOR DISCUSSION

What are the definitions of momentum, angular momentum, and kinetic energy for a single
particle? What are the dimensions of these quantities?
What are the dimensions of velocity, angular velocity, pressure, density, force, work, and
torque? What are some common units used for these quantities?
Verify that it is possible to go from Eq. 0.3-3 to Eq. 0.3-4.
Go through all the details needed to get Eq. 0.3-6 from Eq. 0.3-5.
Suppose that the origin of coordinates is shifted to a new position. What effect would that
have on Eq. 0.3-7? Is the equation changed?
Compare and contrast angular velocity and angular momentum.
What is meant by internal energy? Potential energy?
Is the law of conservation of mass always valid? What are the limitations?