Diseases of the Rumen, Reticulum and Omasum
rumen contents. The cause of this is not
Fig. 8-8 Ruminal parakeratosis in the dorsal
rumen of a 3-month-old Holstein Friesian
calf with recurrent free gas bloat and poor
weight gain. Note the clumping of rumen
papilla and excessive cornification of
papilla.
region can no longer detect the presence of
free gas. This supposition needs to be veri-
fied. It is thought that parakeratosis is
caused by the lowered pH and the increased
volatile fatty acid content in the rumen
liquor. The fact that unprocessed, whole
grain—on which animals gain weight as
readily as on processed grain—does not
lead to the devel- opment of the disease is
probably related to the higher pH and
higher concentration of acetic versus longer
chain volatile fatty acids in the ruminal
liquor. The incidence of affected animals in
a group may be as high as 40%.
RUMINAL TYMPANY (BLOAT)
Ruminal tympany is abnormal distension of
the rumen and reticulum caused by
excessive retention of the gases of
fermentation, either in the form of a
persistent foam mixed with the rumen
contents or as free gas separated from the
ingesta. Normally, gas bubbles pro- duced
in the rumen coalesce, separate from the
rumen contents to form pockets of free gas
above the level of the contents, and finally
are eliminated by eructation.
Etiology Ingestion of bloating forages or interference with
Epidemiology Primary ruminal tympany (frothy bloat) iseructation,
Bloating forages most dangerous in prebloom stage andobstruction,
frothiness
1
ETIOLOGY
Primary Ruminal Tympany
(Frothy Bloat)
Primary ruminal tympany or frothy bloat is
caused by the production of a stable foam
that traps the normal gases of fermentation
in the rumen. The essential feature is that
coalescence of the small gas bubbles is
inhib- ited and intraruminal pressure
increases because eructation cannot occur.
Pasture and Feedlot Bloat
Leguminous or pasture bloat is caused by
the foaming qualities of the soluble leaf
pro- teins in bloating legumes and other
bloating forages ingested by cattle on
pasture. Alfalfa hay may also cause bloat.
Feedlot bloat is caused by feeding
finely ground grain, which promotes
esophagus or eructation mechanism, as in
reticular adhesions.
Clinical signs Cattle may be found dead on
pasture. Mild to marked distension of left
abdomen, which is tympanic; when severe
it distends right abdomen also. Severe
distress, dyspnea, protrusion of tongue.
Passage of stomach tube in frothy bloat
reveals froth and failure to release a
significant amount of gas; in secondary
free-gas bloat, large quantities of gas
released with ease. If severe, animal
may die within a few hours if tympany
not relieved.
Lesions Marked congestion and hemorrhages
of tissues of cranial aspect of body
(tongue, nasal sinuses, lymph nodes, and
proximal part of esophagus—bloat line)
compared with caudal because of ruminal
tympany. Distended rumen, frothy
contents if examined early; later the froth
dissipates.
Diagnostic confirmation Excessive quantity
of froth or free gas in rumen.
Differential diagnosis Primary bloat is easily
recognizable, and there are no other
diseases of the reticulorumen that result in
ruminal tympany. Secondary bloat must be
differentiated
eructation from causes of failure of
mechanism.
a major problem in esophageal
cattle pastured on bloating forages (legumes) and in feedlot cattle fed high-level grain ratio
including
when covered with dew in the morning. Feedlot mation.
chronic reticuloperitonitis,
vagus indigestion, and tetanus.
Treatment Remove animals from bloating
pasture. In severe cases, emergency
rumenotomy. In less severe cases,
passage of stomach tube or trocar and
cannula to release rumen gas.
Antifoaming agents into rumen
Control Pasture bloat Management strategies
to reduce rate of rumen fermentation. Use
of grass–legume mixtures. Delay grazing
each day until dew is off; feed hay before
grazing. Feed forage supplements before
grazing. Strategic use of antifoaming
agents to pastured cattle. Sustained-release
antifoaming agents such as monensin.
Feedlot bloat Use total mixed rations
containing chopped roughage and grain
of
clear. Feeding large quantities of grain to
cattle results in marked changes in the
total numbers and proportions of certain
ruminal protozoa and bacteria. Some
species of encapsulated bacteria increase in
numbers and produce a slime that may
result in a stable foam. Feedlot bloat may
also be of the free-gas type based on the
observations that gas may be easily released
with a stomach tube. Feedlot cattle are sus-
ceptible to esophagitis, ruminal acidosis,
rumenitis, overfill, and ruminal atony, each
of which can interfere with eructation and
cause secondary ruminal tympany and free-
gas bloat.
Frothy Rumen Contents
Frothiness of the ruminal contents is the
vital factor in pasture bloat. The froth in
the rumen contents is not a true foam but
rather a dispersion of gas and particles in
liquid. The liquid lamellae between the
bubbles are wide, and fragments of
chloroplast mem- branes are dispersed in
the fluid. The stable dispersion of small
feed particles is primarily responsible for
the frothiness of the rumen fluid. The
concentration of chloroplast mem- brane
particles (measured as chlorophyll) is higher
in frothy rumen fluid than in non- frothy
liquid.
The soluble leaf cytoplasmic proteins
were once considered to be the principal
foaming agents, but their role is now ques-
tioned. It is now accepted that bloat-causing
legumes are more rapidly digested by
rumen microflora than nonbloat-causing
forages and that rupture of leaf mesophyll
cells leads to the release of chloroplast
particles. These particles are readily
colonized by rumen microflora and gas
bubbles are trapped among the particles,
which prevent coales- cence of bubbles by
preventing drainage of rumen fluid from the
liquid lamellae between the bubbles. The
higher foam production in bloat-prone cattle
is attributed to slower rates of passage of
the liquid phase of ruminal contents. The
slower clearance enhances microbial
activity and promotes gas produc- tion,
which contributes to stable foam for-
bloat common Rapid clearance
when feed contains 80% decreases
grain and is ground fi
microbial gas production, enhances protein
bypass, and reduces the probability of bloat.
Gener- ally, bloat-causing legumes are
susceptible to rapid digestion by rumen
microflora, whereas bloat-safe legumes
are digested more slowly.
The condition of the rumen before
feeding is an important factor in the imme-
diate susceptibility of an animal to pasture
bloat. A predisposed rumen is character-
ized by an excess of dispersed particulate
matter with adherent microbes, which
pro- vides an active inoculum for the
fermenta- tion of incoming feedstuffs.
The soluble leaf protein may contribute to
the frothiness but is not the primary
foaming agent. The chlo- roplast particles in
the rumen have a slower
2 Chapter 8  Diseases of the Alimentary Tract–Ruminant
rate of clearance from the rumen in bloating
animals than in nonbloating ones. It is also
known that bloating animals have larger
rumen volumes than nonbloating animals.
Because chloroplast particles are negatively
charged, it is possible that the
concentrations of ions such as sodium,
potassium, calcium, and magnesium in the
rumen fluid before feeding are associated
with the onset of bloat.
The froth in feedlot bloat is associated
with high-level grain diets. The viscosity of
the ruminal fluid is markedly increased
because of the production of insoluble slime
by certain species of bacteria that proliferate
to large numbers in cattle on a high-
carbohydrate diet. The slime may entrap the
gases of fermentation. The delay in occur-
rence of feedlot bloat suggests that a
gradual change in the microbial population
of the rumen may be an important factor in
explaining the cause. The physical form of a
grain ration appears to be related to grain
bloat. As in frothy legume bloat, in which a
rapid release of leaf nutrients is important in
producing bloat, it seems likely that the
small particle size of ground feed could
have the same effect.
Fine particulate matter can markedly
increase foam stability. The feeding of
ground grain of fine particle size (geometric
mean particle size 388 µm) was associated
with more rumen froth than the use of a
coarse particle size (715 µm). The pH of the
rumen contents also plays an important part
in the stability of the foam (maximum
stability occurs at a pH of about 6), and the
composi- tion of the diet and the activity
and composi- tion of the rumen microflora
are known to influence this factor.
Role of Saliva
The rate of flow and composition of the
saliva has an effect on the tendency for
bloat to occur. Saliva may have a buffering
effect on the pH of the rumen contents or it
may influ- ence the contents because of
variation in its content of mucoproteins.
The physical effects of dilution of ruminal
ingesta by saliva may also be important.
There is a negative cor- relation between the
moisture content of the feed and the
incidence of bloat. Feed of a low fiber and
high water content depresses the volume of
saliva secreted. Also, bloat- susceptible
cows secrete significantly less saliva than
nonsusceptible cows, and there are
differences in the composition of saliva that
are genetically determined.
In summary, primary frothy pasture
bloat occurs when there is rapid digestion
of leaf material by rumen
microorganisms, leading to the release of
chloroplast par- ticles into the liquid
phase of the rumen contents, which
prevents the coalescence of the gas
bubbles. In addition, there is a slower rate
of clearance of these particles from the
rumen in bloating cows, which also have
larger rumen volumes. In primary
frothy feedlot bloat, the fine particle size of
the feed and the presence of rumen micro-
organisms that produce slime may be
important factors.
Secondary Ruminal
Tympany (Free-Gas Bloat)
Physical obstruction to eructation occurs in
esophageal obstruction caused by a foreign
body, by stenosis of the esophagus, by pres-
sure from enlargements outside the esopha-
gus, such as tuberculous lymphadenitis or
bovine viral leukosis involvement of bron-
chial lymph nodes, or by obstruction of the
cardia. Interference with esophageal groove
function in vagus indigestion and diaphrag-
matic hernia may cause chronic ruminal
tympany and the condition also occurs in
tetanus, particularly in young animals and
in poisoning with the fungus Rhizoctonia
legu- minicola, probably as a result of
spasm of the esophageal musculature.
Carcinoma, granu- lomatous lesions
associated with Actinomy- ces bovis near the
esophageal groove and in the reticular
wall, and papillomata of the esophageal
groove and reticulum are less common
causes of obstructive bloat. Tetanus in
cattle is usually accompanied by secondary
free-gas bloat caused by spasm of the
esophagus and inability to eructate
normally.
Interference with the nerve pathways
responsible for maintenance of the eructa-
tion reflex may also occur. The receptor
organs in this reflex are situated in the
dorsal aspect of the reticulum and can
discriminate between gas, foam, and liquid.
The afferent and efferent nerve fibers are
contained in the vagus nerve, but the
location of the central coordinating
mechanism has not been defined.
Depression of this center or lesions of the
vagus nerve can interrupt the reflex, which
is essential for removal of gas from the
rumen.
Normal tone and motility of the muscu-
lature of the rumen and reticulum are also
necessary for eructation. In anaphylaxis,
bloat is common because of ruminal atony
and is relieved by the administration of epi-
nephrine or antihistamine drugs. A sudden
marked change in the pH of the rumen con-
tents caused by either acidity or alkalinity
causes ruminal atony but the tympany that
results is usually of a minor degree only,
probably because the gas-producing activity
of the microflora is greatly reduced. Hypo-
calcemia in milk fever of cattle is
commonly associated with secondary free-
gas bloat caused by ruminal atony, which is
reversible following treatment with calcium
salts.
Although most cases of feedlot bloat
associated with outbreaks are of the frothy
type (primary) and cannot be easily relieved
with a stomach tube, sporadic cases are of
the free-gas type, which suggests that they
are secondary. Possible causes of the
ruminal atony and failure of eructation
include esophagitis, acidosis, rumenitis,
and failure
of rumination because of an all-grain
diet. Feedlot cattle on high-level grain diets
for long periods will not ruminate normally,
and their rumen movements are
significantly reduced.
Chronic Ruminal Tympany
Chronic ruminal tympany occurs in
calves up to 6 months of age. Persistence of
an enlarged thymus, continued feeding on
coarse indigestible roughage, and the
passage of unpalatable milk replacer into
the rumen in which it undergoes
fermentation and gas production, instead of
into the abomasum, have all been suggested
as causes, but the condition usually
disappears spontaneously in time and in
most cases the cause is undetermined.
Necropsy examination of a number of cases
has failed to detect any physical
abnormality, although a develop- mental
defect appears to be likely because of the
age at which it occurs. Unusual postures,
particularly lateral recumbency, are com-
monly characterized by secondary tympany.
Cattle may die of secondary tympany if they
become accidentally cast in dorsal recum-
bency in handling facilities, crowded trans-
portation vehicles, irrigation ditches, and
other restrictive positions.
In some cases of vagus indigestion char-
acterized by ruminal hyperactivity the sec-
ondary bloat may be of the frothy type
because of ruminal hyperactivity.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
Occurrence
Pasture Bloat
Pasture bloat occurs in both dairy and beef
cattle that graze pastures consisting of
bloat- ing forages. The incidence is highest
when the pasture is lushest. Spring and
autumn are the most dangerous seasons,
when the pas- tures are lush and young and
the leaves of the plants contain a high
concentration of soluble proteins. Dry hot
conditions and matured plants, and thus
midsummer, are the forerunners of a decline
in incidence. Sheep can also be affected but
appear to be much less susceptible than
cattle.
Feedlot Bloat
Feedlot bloat occurs in feedlot cattle
during the 50 to 100 days when cattle are
fed large quantities of grain and small
quantities of roughage. In some cases the
use of pel- leted, finely ground feed has
been associated with outbreaks of feedlot
bloat. High- producing dairy cows that are
fed 12 to 22 kg of grain daily may also
develop grain bloat.
Morbidity and Case Fatality
Pasture Bloat
Reliable current field data on the incidence
of pasture bloat in cattle are not available.
Canadian observations in 1975 indicated
that cattle fed fresh alfalfa typically bloat on
35% of the feeding days and 10% of the
total

animal days. Frothiness of rumen contents,
observed in fistulated cattle, occurs on
about 50% of the feeding days and 25% of
the animal days. In dairy herds in New
Zealand, the average death rate from
legume pasture bloat has ranged from 0.3%
to 1.2%. A survey of 312 dairy farms in
New Zealand over a period of 2 months
revealed that 87% of all farms experienced
bloat, ranging from mild to severe. The
percentage of lactating cows dying of bloat
in the spring of 1986 averaged 0.8%. The
highest death rate of milking cows in an
individual herd was 16% and in young
stock 48%. The majority of variation among
farms in bloat severity was not accounted
for by any of the management, soil, or
pasture factors measured.
Feedlot Bloat
In a survey of Kansas feedlots (60 feedlots
totaling 450,000 head of cattle) the
incidence of deaths from bloat was 0.1%;
0.2% of cattle had severe bloat and 0.6%
moderate bloat. In a Colorado feedlot,
during one full year, bloat was the cause of
3% of all mortalities. In the same study,
bloat was among the four most common
causes of sudden death or of cattle found
dead without having been obvi- ously ill.
Outbreaks of feedlot bloat are usually of the
frothy type (primary), whereas the sporadic
cases are of the free-gas type and secondary
to lesions that cause dysfunc- tion of
eructation.
Risk Factors That Influence
the Occurrence of Primary
Ruminal Tympany
Several risk factors have an influence on the
occurrence of primary bloat and possibly
contribute to its causation. Dietary, weather,
and animal factors have received the most
attention.
Dietary Risk Factors
Bloating Forages
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), red clover
(Trifo- lium pratense), and white clover (T.
repens) are the principal bloat-causing
legumes. Alfalfa has been recognized for its
superior yield and quality in seeded
pastures. Alfalfa is the most productive and
most widely adapted forage species and is
considered the “queen of forages.” Sweet
clover and alsike clover are also bloat-
causing forages.
Bloat also occurs occasionally when
cattle are grazed on cereal crops; rape;
cabbages; leguminous vegetable crops,
including peas and beans; and young grass
pasture with a high protein content. An
increasing occur- rence of bloat is noted
when cattle are grazed on young green
cereal crops such as winter wheat,
especially if it is heavily fertilized and
irrigated.
Frothy bloat may also occur in cattle fed
alfalfa hay, even when mixed with cereal
grains and another hay. Outbreaks are com-
monly associated with particular lots of hay,
often containing fine particles. Alfalfa hay
Diseases of the Rumen, Reticulum and Omasum 3
portions can be a precipitating factor, and
produces a frothy bloat with a typical
viscous consistency of the rumen contents,
but it is commonly more subacute and
chronic rather than acute and peracute as in
pasture bloat.
Nonbloating Forages
Bird’s foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), cicer
milkvetch (Astragalus cicer), arrowleaf clover
(T. vesiculosum), sainfoin (Onobrychis vici-
ifolia), and crown vetch (Coronilla varia)
are the bloat-safe forages. These contain
tannins that bind with soluble proteins and
inhibit microbial digestion.
Crop Maturity
The maturity of the forage is the major
plant factor affecting the incidence of
pasture bloat. Grazing very succulent
pasture— immature, rapidly growing
legumes in the prebloom stage—is the
biggest single risk of bloat in cattle. The
bloat potential of alfalfa varies
significantly with the phenologic stage of
the plant. The greatest risk to cattle occurs
during the vegetative stage of growth, and
the risk declines during the bud stage and
may be absent during the bloom stage.
Feeding cattle freshly chopped alfalfa
herbage daily at different stages of growth
resulted in animal-days of bloat of 62, 10,
and 0, respec- tively, for the vegetative,
bud, and bloom stages of the alfalfa. The
leaf : stem ratio decreased from 1.2 to 0.5
and 1.5 to 0.4 in two different years as the
crop matured from vegetative to bloom
stage. The absence of bloat during bloom
can be attributed to the much lower leaf :
stem ratio at that stage. As most
chloroplasts are within the leaves, the
lower leaf : stem ratio at bloom would
reduce the concentration of these
fragments. A leaf : stem ratio of less than
0.5 (1 : 2) could be used as an indicator of
a low potential for bloat in alfalfa.
The rapid rate of digestion of the imma-
ture bloating forages results in the produc-
tion of a stable foam. In the summer
months, especially under irrigated
conditions when the growth rate of alfalfa is
rapid, bloat occurs in cattle fed alfalfa
herbage at the veg- etative to prebud
stages of growth. Alfalfa’s potential for
causing bloat is highest when moisture
conditions are optimal for vegeta- tive
growth. Under these conditions the stems
become turgid and fleshy but not fibrous;
the leaves are soft and easily crushed
between the fingers. In autumn, the growth
rate of alfalfa is slower because of lower
temperatures. A rapid rate of growth of the
alfalfa is a necessary condition for bloat.
Field observations of the relationship
between plant factors to alfalfa bloat found
that the percentages of dry matter and acid
detergent fiber were lower, and the concen-
tration of chlorophyll, total nitrogen, and
soluble nitrogen were higher on days when
bloat occurred.
Ingestion of the more succulent parts
of
plants and avoidance of the more mature
4 Chapter 8  Diseases of the Alimentary Tract–Ruminant
tympany is less likely to occur if the crop
is harvested and fed than if it is grazed.
Restric- tion of the grazing area has a
similar effect; it forces the cattle to eat the
entire plants. A high incidence is
recorded when pasture is wet, but this is
probably caused by the rapid growth of
the plants during heavy rainfall periods
rather than to the physical wetness of the
crop. Under experimental conditions the
production of tympany is not influenced
by the water content of clover or by
wilting. Other plant factors that are known
to be associated with an increased
tendency to bloat are liberal administration
of urea to the pasture; a high intake of
glucose, calcium, and magnesium; and a
high nitrogen intake. A high herbage
potassium to sodium ratio can increase
the risk of bloat in cattle, which may be
caused by digestion rate. There is some
indication that sodium fertilizer can affect
the digestion rate of perennial ryegrass and
white clover. Sodium fertilizer increased
phase of forage crops and optimize condi-
tions for bloat. On a daily basis, bloat
tended to be preceded immediately by
nights and days that were cooler than usual.
Bloat can also occur after a killing frost.
Feedlot Bloat
Feedlot bloat occurs in hand-fed cattle con-
fined in feedlots and barns when
insufficient roughage is fed or the feed is
too finely ground. Two separate sets of
circumstances conducive to feedlot bloat
have been identi- fied. In one, the cattle are
being fed a high- level grain finishing
ration in which grain comprises more than
80% of the weight of the ration. The effect
of these rations on the rumen is a tendency
to acidity and a shortage of rumen-
stimulating roughage, which may interfere
with motility and eructation. In the other
situation, grain comprises 30% to 70% of
the ration, with the same but less marked
effect as mentioned previously, but the
roughage component is alfalfa hay with
its own bloat-inducing capacity.
Animal Risk Factors
Cattle vary in their susceptibility to primary
ruminal tympany, especially that caused by
legumes, and this individual susceptibility
may be inherited. Cows can be classified
according to their susceptibility to pasture
bloat into high or low susceptibility and
their progeny are similar. Total exchange of
rumen contents between high-susceptibility
and low-susceptibility animals produces a
temporary exchange of susceptibilities that
lasts about 24 hours. A number of inherited
characteristics are related to bloat. They
include ruminal structure and motility, com-
position of salivary proteins, rate of saliva-
tion, and the greater capacity of the rumen
contents of high-susceptibility animals to
degrade mucoproteins that would either
reduce antifoaming activity or increase
foam-stabilizing activity. A salivary protein,
bSP30, is correlated with susceptibility to
maximum gas output from grass and rate
of production, which was associated with
an increase in grass digestibility; however,
in clover it had the opposite effect,
potentially reducing bloat in cows fed a
high-legume
diet.
The risk of bloat is reduced by waiting
until the dew was off the alfalfa before
allow- ing cattle to graze, leading to the
practice of many cattlemen of delaying
morning grazing “until the dew has dried.”
Bloat was observed 2 to 17 times more
often when cattle were fed between 0700
and 0800 hours than when they were fed 4
hours later in both grazing and feedlot
trials. Ruminal chlorophyll was higher
before the early feeding than before the
late feeding, suggesting that feeding later
in the morning reduced the predisposition
of cattle to bloat by increasing particle
clear- ance from the rumen. The risk of
bloat was also reduced when cattle grazed
alfalfa con- tinuously than when grazing
was interrupted and cattle were allowed to
bloat in cattle herds selected for high or low
bloat susceptibility. One obvious
application for such a protein marker for
bloat would be to screen cattle to eliminate
highly suscepti- ble herds. Blood and
urinary metabolites in cattle have also
differed with respect to sus- ceptibility to
bloat.
There may also be differences between
animals in the rate and extent of physical
breakdown of feed in the rumen and the rate
of passage of solids out of the rumen.
However, neither differences in gas produc-
tion nor foam production nor the stability of
the foam are important factors in distin-
guishing between high-susceptibility and
low-susceptibility cows. One major physio-
logic difference between high and low sus-
ceptibility is the volume of rumen fluid. It is
suggested that low-susceptibility cows do
not bloat because they have a lower relative
volume of rumen digesta than high-
susceptibility cows.
graze for only 6 hours daily. Pasture
management systems that promote
continuous and rapid ruminal clearance
(more bypass and less gas produc- tion) are
most likely to reduce the incidence of bloat.
Weather Risk Factors
The relationship of weather conditions to
the occurrence and incidence of pasture
bloat has been examined under conditions
in Canada. Under ordinary grazing
conditions, bloat occurs sporadically over
large parts of the growing season. The
occurrence of pasture bloat was not
associated with a simple, unique weather
variable. The effect of temperature on the
incidence of bloat is complex. Bloat seems
to occur when moder- ate daytime
temperatures (20°C–25°C) permit optimum
vegetative growth. Cool overnight
temperatures in combination with moderate
daytime temperatures may induce bloat in
the fall. Cool temperatures delay maturation
and extend the vegetative growth
Under experimental conditions the pro-
duction of tympany is not influenced by the rate
of intake or the total intake of dry matter.
Susceptibility increases with time when a
tympany-producing diet is fed for a relatively
short period. However, animals accustomed over
very long periods to grazing bloating pastures
may be less susceptible than other animals.
Accordingly, the mortality rate in young cattle is
much higher than in mature animals.
There may be a common biological basis for
partial preference for grass and clover in sheep
and cattle. Dairy heifers select between 50% and
65% white clover when given a free choice
between adjacent ryegrass and white clover
monocultures. There is also a diurnal pattern to
preference, with a stronger prefer- ence for
clover in the morning, with the pref- erence for
grass increasing toward evening. Providing
animals with antibloat treatment (slow-release
monensin capsules) did not have any effect on
the proportion of clover selected.
Economic Importance
Primary ruminal tympany causes heavy losses
through death, severe loss of produc- tion, and
the strict limitations placed on the use of some
high-producing pastures for grazing. For
example, it is estimated that bloat costs the dairy
industry in New Zealand
$50 million annually. The incidence of the
disease has increased markedly with the
improvement of pastures by heavy applica- tions
of fertilizers and the use of high- producing
leguminous pasture plants, and losses in cattle at
times have reached enor- mous proportions.
The most obvious form of loss is sudden
death. Although this is the dramatic loss,
especially when a large number of cattle are
unexpectedly found dead, an equivalent loss
occurs as the result of reduced food intake. For
example, on clover-dominant pasture (60%–
80% white clover) in which bloat was common
the weight gains of cattle grazing it were 20% to
30% less than normal. It has been argued that the
returns achieved by good bloat prevention in

pas- tured cattle would not compensate for
the costs incurred, but the opposite view is
strongly held.
PATHOGENESIS
Normally, gas bubbles produced in the
rumen fluid coalesce, separate from the
rumen contents to form pockets of free gas
above the level of the contents, and are
finally eliminated by eructation. Much of
the gas of fermentation will be eructated. A
grass-fed cow can produce 100 L during the
first hour of feeding. A cow maintained on
a legume diet may produce 200 L/h. In
frothy bloat, the gas bubbles remain
dispersed throughout the rumen contents,
producing an abnormal increase in the
volume of the ruminoreticu- lar contents
and, consequently, inhibiting
during the night or to the lack of observa-
tion, detection, and treatment. Dairy cattle
that are being milked and observed
regularly will commonly begin to bloat
within 1 hour after being turned into a
bloat-producing pasture. There is
commonly a lag period of
24 to 48 hours before bloating occurs in
cattle that have been placed on a bloat-
producing pasture for the first time. They
may bloat on the first day but more com-
monly they bloat on the second and third
days. A similar situation has been observed
in pastured beef cattle that have been on a
particular pasture for several days or weeks
before bloat occurs. This is always a
surprise to the owner and the veterinarian,
who find it difficult to explain why bloat
suddenly becomes a problem on a pasture
that cattle have grazed safely for some time.
In primary pasture bloat, obvious dis-
tension of the rumen occurs quickly, some-
times as soon as 15 minutes after going on
to bloat-producing pasture, and the animal
stops grazing. The distension is usually
more obvious in the upper left paralumbar
fossa, but the entire abdomen is enlarged.
There is discomfort and the animal may
stand and lie down frequently, kick at its
abdomen, and even roll. Frequent
defecation and urination are common.
Dyspnea is marked and is accompanied by
mouth breathing, protru- sion of the tongue,
Diseases of the Rumen, Reticulum and Omasum
eructation. The characteristic
frothiness of ruminal contents is caused
by inadequate coalescence of gas
bubbles. In free-gas bloat the gas
bubbles coalesce and separate from the
rumen fluid, but the animals cannot
eructate the pockets of free gas because
of abnormalities of the reticulorumen or
esophagus.
Most cases of naturally occurring
pasture or feedlot bloat are not
accompanied by ruminal atony. In the
early stages there is unusually
pronounced hypermotility. Most of the
gas is mixed with the solid and fluid
ruminal contents to form a dense, stable
froth. Some free gas is present but the
amount that can be removed by a
stomach tube or trocar and cannula
does little to relieve the distension of
the rumen. Gener- ally, free-gas bloat
characterized by the accu- mulation of
free gas is caused by esophageal
obstruction or ruminal atony. If the
eructa- tion reflex is functional, the
experimental introduction of very large
amounts of gas does not cause tympany,
because eructation removes the excess.
Bloat-producing forages do not produce
more gas than safe feeds, and the
simple production of excessive gas is
known not to be a precipitating factor.
Frothiness of the ruminal contents
interferes with function of the cardia
and inhibits the eructation reflex.
Rumen move- ments are initially
stimulated by the disten- sion, and the
resulting hypermotility exacerbates the
salivation, and extension of the head. The
respiratory rate is increased up to 60
breaths/min. Occasionally, projec- tile
vomiting occurs and soft feces may be
expelled in a stream.
In mild bloat, the left paralumbar fossa
is distended, the animal is not in distress,
and 5 to 7 cm of skin over the left
paralumbar fossa may be easily grasped and
“tented,” which provides a measure of the
degree of abdominal distension and
tautness of the skin. In moderate bloat, a
more obvious dis- tension of the abdomen
is evident, the animal may appear anxious
and slightly uncomfort- able, and the skin
over the paralumbar fossa is usually taut
but some can be grasped and tented. In
severe bloat, there is prominent distension
of both sides of the abdomen and the animal
may breathe through its mouth and protrude
the tongue. The animal is usually
uncomfortable, anxious, and may be
staggering. The skin over the left flank is
very tense and cannot be grasped and
tented.
Ruminal contractions are
usually
increased in strength and frequency in the
early stages and may be almost continuous,
but the sounds are reduced in volume
because of the frothy nature of the ingesta.
Later, when the distension is extreme, con-
tractions are decreased and may be com-
5
frothiness of the ruminal contents.
Terminally there is a loss of muscle tone
and ruminal motility.
The most distinctive aspect of bloated
cattle is abdominal distension, particularly
the left abdomen, caused by distension of
the rumen. Experimentally there is a
relation- ship between reticulorumen
volume, intraru- minal pressure, and the
abdomen of cows fed fresh alfalfa. The
volumes of gas in a bloated cow are large,
50 to 70 L, and there is an exponential
increase in intraruminal pres- sure with
increasing rumen volume, espe- cially as the
potential for further increases in the
abdomen diminishes. Most severely bloated
cows will attempt to urinate and def- ecate
when intraruminal pressures exceed 25
cmH2O but some cows can tolerate
pressures in excess of 50 cmH2O. As the
intraruminal pressure increases, occlusion
of the vena cava occurs, causing congestion
of the caudal part of the body. In addition,
the pressure exerted by the distended rumen
on the diaphragm is very high, which results
in reduced lung capacity and death from
hypoxia.
CLINICAL FINDINGS
Primary Pasture or Feedlot Bloat
Bloat is a common cause of sudden death
(or found dead) in cattle. Pastured beef
cattle that die of bloat are usually found
dead because they are not observed as
regularly as dairy cattle. Feedlot cattle that
die of bloat are commonly found dead in the
morning, which may be from their relative
inactivity
pletely absent. The low-pitched tympanic
sound produced by percussion over the
rumen is characteristic. Before clinical
tympany occurs, there is a temporary
increase in eructation, but this disappears in
the acute stages. The course in ruminal
tympany is short but death does not usually
 6 Chapter 8  Diseases of the Alimentary Tract–Ruminant

occur in less than 3 to 4 hours of the onset CLINICAL PATHOLOGY

of clinical signs. Collapse and death almost
without struggle occur quickly.
If animals are treated by trocarization
or the passage of a stomach tube, only
small amounts of gas are released before
froth blocks the cannula or tube. In a group
of affected cattle, some will be bloated and
the remainder will have mild to moderate
dis- tension of the abdomen. These animals
are uncomfortable, graze for only short
periods, and their milk production is
decreased. The drop in production may be
caused by depres- sion of food intake or by
failure of milk letdown.
Secondary Bloat
In secondary bloat, the excess gas is present
as a free gas cap on top of the ruminal con-
tents, although frothy bloat may occur in
vagus indigestion with increased ruminal
motility (see vagus indigestion). There is
usually an increase in the frequency and
strength of ruminal movements in the early
stages followed by atony. Passage of a
stomach tube or trocarization results in the
release of large quantities of gas and
subsidence of the ruminal distension. If an
esophageal obstruc- tion is present, it will be
detected when the stomach tube is passed.
Dyspnea and Tachycardia in
Severe Bloat
In both severe primary and secondary bloat
there is dyspnea and a marked elevation of
the heart rate up to 100 to 120 beats/min in
the acute stages. A systolic murmur may be
audible, caused probably by distortion of the
base of the heart by the forward displace-
ment of the diaphragm. This murmur has
been observed in ruminal tympany associ-
ated with tetanus, diaphragmatic hernia,
vagus indigestion, and esophageal obstruc-
tion and disappears immediately if the bloat
is relieved.
Laboratory tests are not necessary for the
diagnosis of ruminal tympany.
NECROPSY FINDINGS
In cattle that have died from bloat within an
hour previously there is protrusion and con-
gestion of the tongue; marked congestion
and hemorrhages of lymph nodes to the
head and neck, epicardium, and upper
respiratory tract; friable kidneys; and
mucosal hyperemia in the small intestine.
The lungs are com- pressed and there is
congestion and hemor- rhage of the cervical
portion of the esophagus, but the thoracic
portion of the esophagus is pale and
blanched. Generally, congestion is marked
in the front quarters and less marked or
absent in the hindquarters. The rumen is
distended but the contents are much less
frothy than before death. A marked
erythema is evident beneath the ruminal
mucosa, espe- cially in the ventral sacs.
The liver is pale
because of expulsion of blood from the
organ. Occasionally, the rumen or
diaphragm have ruptured. In animals dead
for several hours there is subcutaneous
emphysema, almost complete absence of
froth in the rumen, and exfoliation of the
cornified epithelium of the rumen with
marked congestion of submuco- sal tissues.
TREATMENT
The approach to treatment depends on the
circumstances in which bloat occurs,
whether the bloat is frothy or due to free
gas, and whether or not the bloat is life-
threatening.
First-Aid Emergency Measures
Emergency Rumenotomy
It is often necessary to advise an owner to
use some first-aid measures before the
veterinar- ian arrives on the farm. All
animals should be removed immediately
from the source of the bloating pasture or
feed. In severe cases in which there is gross
distension, mouth- breathing with
protrusion of the tongue, and staggering, an
emergency rumenotomy is necessary to
save the life of the animal. Once the animal
falls down, death occurs within a few
minutes, and many animals have died
unnecessarily because owners are unable or
reluctant to do an emergency rumenotomy.
Using a sharp knife, a quick incision 10 to
20 cm in length is made over the midpoint
of the left paralumbar fossa through the skin
and abdominal musculature and directly
into the rumen. There will be an explosive
release of rumen contents and marked relief
for the animal. There is remarkably little
con- tamination of the peritoneal cavity, and
irri- gation and cleaning of the incision site
followed by standard surgical closure
usually results in uneventful recovery with
only occasional minor complications.

progressive over the last several days or Continued

few weeks with loss of weight and scant
feces. In addition, the rumen is grossly DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS
enlarged and the ventral sac is commonly
e with a distendedenlarged
abdomen and distends
and markedthe right lower
distension of the left paralumbar fossa, the most obvious diagnosis is ruminal tympany.
onditions are presentflank.and the passage of a stomach tube reveals the presence of froth and the inability to release gas.
y indicates that• distension
Tetanus is of manifested
the abdomen by and
limbleft
andflank
tail has been present for a few days or if the bloat has been intermittent within the last several days. Passage of a stomach tube will d
agus indigestion,rigidity,
the history usually
free-gas indicates
bloat, prolapsethatofdistension
the of the abdomen has been
third eyelid, and hyperesthesia.
• Carcinoma and papillomata of the
esophageal groove and reticulum and
actinobacillosis of the reticulum cannot
usually be diagnosed antemortem
without exploratory rumenotomy.
• Animals found dead. One of the difficult
situations encountered in veterinary
practice is the postmortem diagnosis of
bloat, especially in animals found dead at
pasture in warm weather. Blackleg,
lightning strike, anthrax, and snakebite
are common causes of cattle being found
dead, and the necropsy findings are
characteristic. A diagnosis of bloat must
depend on an absence of local lesions
characteristic of these diseases, the
presence of marked ruminal tympany in
the absence of other signs of postmortem bridle to promote the production of exces- siv
decomposition, the relative pallor of the
liver, and the other lesions described
 Diseases of the Rumen, Reticulum and Omasum 7
e saliva, which is alkaline and may assist
in denaturation of the stable foam. Careful An emulsified oil or one containing a deter-
drenching with sodium bicarbonate gent such as dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate
is preferred because it mixes effectively
with ruminal contents. Of the synthetic sur-
i(n1510–200 g L of water) or any factants, poloxalene is the one in most
nontoxic
on a horse oil as described later is also satisfactory.

Stomach Tube
The passage of a stomach tube of the largest
bore possible is recommended for cases in
which the animal’s life is not being threat- ened.
The use of a Frick oral speculum and passage of
the tube through the oral cavity permits the
passage of tubes measuring up to
2incmdiameter, whereas this may not be
possible if passed through the nasal cavity. In
free-gas bloat, there is a sudden release of gas
and the intraruminal pressure may return to
normal. While the tube is in place, the anti-
foaming agent can be administered. In frothy
bloat, the tube may become plugged imme-
diately on entering the rumen. A few attempts
should be made to clear the tube by blowing
through the proximal end of the tube and
moving it back and forth in an attempt to locate
large pockets of rumen gas that can be released.
However, in frothy bloat it may be impossible to
reduce the pressure with the stomach tube, and
the antifoaming agent should be administered
while the tube is in place.
Trocar and Cannula If the bloat cannot be relieved but an anti-
The trocar and cannula have been used for foaming agent has been administered, the animal
many years for the emergency release of must be observed closely for the next hour to
rumen contents and gas in bloat. However, determine whether the treatment has been
the standard-sized trocar and cannula does successful or if the bloat is becoming worse,
not have a large enough diameter to allow which requires an alternative treatment.
the very viscous stable foam in peracute
frothy bloat to escape quickly enough to Feedlot Bloat
save an animal’s life. A larger-bore In an outbreak of feedlot bloat, the acute and
instrument i(n2.5dciammeter) is necessary, peracute cases should be treated individually as
and an necessary. There may be many “swellers,”
incision with a scalpel or knife must be which are moderate cases of bloat that will
made through the skin before it can be usually resolve if the cattle are coaxed to walk.
inserted into the rumen. If any size of trocar After a few minutes of walking they usually
and cannula fails to reduce the intraruminal begin to eructate. Shaking of experi- mentally
pressure and the animal’s life is being com- reproduced foam results in loss of stability of
promised by the pressure, an emergency foam and coalescence into large bubbles and the
rumenotomy should be performed. If the movement of walking has the same effect. If
trocar is successful in reducing the pressure, walking is effective in reducing the foam, the
the antifoaming agent of choice can be animals should be kept under close surveillance
administered through the cannula, which for several hours for evidence of continued
can be left in place until the animal has bloating, which is unusual.
returned to normal in a few hours. Owners
Antifoaming Agents
should be advised on the proper use of the
Details of the oils and synthetic surfactants used
trocar and cannula, the method of insertion
as antifoaming agents in treatment are described
and the need for a small incision in the skin,
in the section on control because the same
and the care of cannulas left in place for
compounds are used in prevention. Any
several hours or days.
A corkscrew-type trocar and cannula has nontoxic oil, especially a mineral one that
been recommended for long-term insertion persists in the rumen, that is not biode- gradable,
in cases of chronic bloat that occur in is effective and there are no other significant
feedlot cattle and in beef calves following differences between them. Their effect is to
weaning. The etiology of these is usually reduce surface tension and foam. A dose of 250
uncertain; insertion of a cannula for several mL is suggested for cattle but doses of up to 500
days or use of a rumen fistula will often mL are commonly used.
yield good results.

Promote Salivation
For less severe cases, owners may be
advised to tie a stick in the mouth like a bit
8 Chapter 8  Diseases of the Alimentary Tract–Ruminant
general use for leguminous bloat, and a
dose of 25 to 50 g is recommended for
treatment. Poloxalene is not as effective
for feedlot or grain bloat. Alcohol
ethoxylates are also used as bloat
remedies and both poloxalene and the
ethoxylates are more effective and
faster than oil, which is relatively slow
and better suited to prevention than
treatment. All three are recommended
as satisfactory for legume hay bloat, but
poloxalene is not recommended for
feedlot bloat. All of them can be given
by drench, stomach tube, or through a
ruminal cannula. The effect of all
treatments is enhanced if they are
thoroughly mixed with the ruminal
contents; if rumen movements are still
present mixing will occur. If the rumen
is static, it should be kneaded through
the left flank while the animal is
encouraged to walk.
A polyoxypropylene-polyoxyethylene
glycol surfactant polymer (Alfasure),
day. The principle of each of these
strategies is to decrease the rate of rumen
fermenta- tion. These methods have value
when the pasture is only moderately
dangerous but may be ineffective when the
bloat-producing potential is high. In these
circumstances the use of simple
management procedures is unreliable
because the occurrence of bloat is
unpredictable. In other cases, the strategies
such as limited grazing are impractical.
Gen- erally, the farmer does not know if the
pas- tures are dangerous until bloat occurs
and, once effective prophylactic methods
are being used, it is difficult to know when
they are no longer required. The bloat-
producing poten- tial of a pasture can
change dramatically almost overnight, and
the management strat- egy can be quickly
nullified.
Stage of Growth
The probability of legume bloat decreases
with advancing stages of plant maturity
because of a decrease in the soluble protein
content of the legume. Alfalfa at the vegeta-
tive stage of growth results in the highest
incidence of bloat compared with the bud
and bloom stages, with moderate and no
bloat, respectively. These results indicate
the potential for grazing management
through selection of plant phenology
(periodic phases of plant growth) as a
method of bloat control. In practice, it
would be essential to recognize the
predominant stage of growth of the stand
before turning cattle into the pasture. The
leaf : stem ratio should also be considered
as a factor.
Choice of Forages
Seeding cultivated pastures to grass–legume
mixtures is the most effective and least
costly method of minimizing pasture bloat,
par- ticularly for beef herds grazing over
large areas under continuous grazing
systems. In a grass–legume mixture, a
legume content of 50% is suggested as the
which is a water-soluble pluronic
detergent available in Canada, is
effective for the treatment of alfalfa
bloat when 30 mL is given intrarumi-
nally using a 6-cm 14-gauge
hypodermic needle directly into the
rumen through the abdominal wall in
the middle of the paralum- bar fossa.
The median time of disappearance after
treatment was 25 minutes; the swelling
returned to normal within 52 minutes.
Return to Pasture or Feed
Following the treatment of the
individual cases of bloat. The major
problem remaining is the decision
about whether or not, or when, or under
what conditions, to return the cattle to
the bloat-producing pasture or to the
concentrate ration in the case of feedlot
cattle. The possible preventive mea-
sures are presented under control but,
unless one of the reliable ones can be
maximum bloat-safe level. However, this
ratio may be impractical for large areas,
especially on rolling terrain, in which it is
impossible to maintain a uniform 50 : 50
stand. If cattle have a ten- dency to avoid
the grass and select the legume, the
potential for bloat increases. Bloat can
occur in mixed pastures in which the
proportion of legume is less than 15%,
possibly because of selective grazing.
Because of the potential for causing
bloat,
grasses alone or nonbloating forages may
be used. Sainfoin, bird’s foot trefoil, cicer
milkvetch, and crown vetch are useful
bloat- safe legumes in regions in which
they are adapted. However, their yield,
vigor, regrowth, winter-hardiness, and
persistence are well below the superior
growth and pro- duction characteristics of
alfalfa. Seeding grasses alone avoids the
problem of bloat but the benefits of
including a legume in the mixture include
much greater production, higher protein and
nutritional value, and lower fertilization
costs. A decision to use
instituted, the cattle should not be returned
until the haz- ardous period has passed. This
is difficult on some farms because the bloat-
producing pasture may be the sole source of
feed.
CONTROL
Pasture Bloat
Management Strategies to Reduce
Rate of Rumen Fermentation
The prevention of pasture bloat is challeng-
ing. Grazing management strategies are the
principal methods used for the prevention of
pasture bloat, along with controlling pasture
yields and quality. Several different
manage- ment practices have been
recommended, including the prior feeding
of dry, scabrous hay, particularly Sudan
grass, cereal hay and straw, or orchardgrass
hay,1 restricting the grazing to 20 minutes at
a time or until the first cow stops eating,
harvesting the crop and feeding it in
troughs, and strip grazing to ensure that all
available pasture is used each
grass with or without bloat-safe legumes
should be based on the economic benefits of
the greater protein from alfalfa or clover
compared with the possible losses from bloat.
At present, a pasture comprising equal
quantities of clovers and grasses comes
closest to achieving this ideal, but with avail-
able pasture plants and current methods of
pasture management this clover : grass ratio
is not easy to maintain. Research work in this
area is directed toward selecting cattle that
are less susceptible to bloat. More practical
are the moves being made to breed varieties
of legume that are low on bloat-producing
potential. The incidence of frothy bloat can
be substantially reduced if alfalfa herbage
contains as little as 25% orchardgrass.
Alternative Temperate Forages Forages
comprise a major proportion of the diet in
most ruminant animal–production systems.
Grazed forages are used especially during
the late spring, summer, and early autumn
in many countries, whereas in some
regions, such as Australasia and South
America, ruminant animal production is
based on year-round grazing of forages,
with no indoor housing. Grazing systems
are gen- erally based on swards of which
the major portion consists of grasses
(perennial rye- grass [Lolium perenne] in
the case of New Zealand), with a legume
(white clover [T. repens] in the case of New
Zealand) forming a minor portion
(approximately 20%), mainly to fix
atmospheric nitrogen and to provide a
higher quality feed. Different grasses and
legumes form the grazed pas- tures in other
countries. The grazing of alter- native
forages is being developed for the
sustainable control of internal parasites, with
reduced anthelmintic use, for increasing
reproductive performance in sheep and the
growth rate in young animals, and for
reduc- ing the incidence of bloat in cattle.
It has been long accepted in ruminant
nutrition that the feeding value of legumes is

greater than that of grasses, because of their
more rapid particle breakdown, faster rumen
fermentation, lower rumen mean retention
time and, consequently, greater voluntary
feed intake. Despite these advantages,
legumes have never attained their true
potential in many grazing systems because
of three principal disadvantages: legumes
gen- erally grow slowly in winter, producing
less feed per hectare than grasses; rumen
frothy bloat in cattle is caused by rapid
solubiliza- tion of protein in many legumes;
and the presence in some legumes of
estrogenic sub- stances depresses
reproductive performance when grazed by
ewes during the breeding season. Thus the
identification of legumes that could
overcome these limitations would offer
major advantages.
Grazing Management
Uniform and regular intake is the key to
man- aging cattle on legume pastures.
Waiting until
Reports of bloat on damp, moldy hay are
common but not documented and are unex-
plained. Because fine particles and leaves
are especially dangerous, chopping hay
can increase the incidence of bloat. When
alternative roughages are available, a coarse
grass hay, cereal grain hay, or straw can
be substituted for a portion of the bloat-
causing hay. In dairy herds, alfalfa hay can
be fed in the morning and grass hay in the
evening. Animals should be adjusted gradu-
ally to new lots of alfalfa hay; old and new
lots should be mixed for the first 5 days of
feeding.
Rations containing a 50 : 50 mixture of
alfalfa hay and grain are most dangerous,
but the risk of bloat is low when grain
consists of less than 35% of the mixture.
Antifoaming Agents
One satisfactory strategy for the prevention
of pasture bloat is the administration of
anti- foaming agents.
Oils and Fats
Oils and fats have achieved great success
for the control of pasture bloat in New
Zealand and Australia.
Individual Drenching
Individual drenching is sometimes practiced
but because of the time and labor involved
it is most suited to short-term prophylaxis.
It is popular as an effective standard
practice in pastured cattle in New Zealand.
Diseases of the Rumen, Reticulum and Omasum 9
entrance. In this way the animals are forced
the dew is off before placing animals on to graze a greater proportion of the entire
pasture is a common practice and is plant, which increases the dry matter intake
probably useful when animals are first and propor- tionately decreases the intake of
exposed to a legume pasture. Before soluble protein, which results in a decrease
animals are placed on a legume pasture in the rate of digestion in the rumen. In
they should be fed coarse hay to satiety. some situ- ations, the most reliable methods
This prevents them from gorging for the pre- vention of bloat in dairy cows
themselves and overeating the fresh and are either strip grazing of pasture sprayed
lush legume forage. Thereafter, they daily with oil or pluronics, or twice-daily
should stay on pasture. Mild bloat may drenching with the same preparations.
occur on first exposure, but the problem
should disappear in a few days because Swathing and Wilting
animals usually adapt to legume pastures The frequency of alfalfa bloat can be
with con- tinuous grazing. If the legume decreased by grazing pastures that have
pasture contin- ues to have a high bloat been swathed and wilted. Wilting swathed
potential, the animals should be removed alfalfa for 24 hours produces changes in the
until the legume becomes more mature protein configuration of the sulfhydryl and
and less bloat provoking. disulfide content of the proteins. Compared
with feeding a fresh swath, wilting a swath
Grazing Patterns and Strip Grazing for 24 or 48 hours reduces the incidence of
Bloat is often associated with alfalfa bloat. The reduction is greatest by 48
discontinuous grazing such as removal of hours and may be eliminated after 48 hours.
animals from the legume pasture for a A reduction in moisture content during
period of time, e.g., overnight. Similarly, wilting may be sufficient to eliminate the
outbreaks may occur when grazing is risk of bloat. Alfalfa silage is virtually bloat
interrupted by adverse weather, such as free because of protein degradation by
storms, and by biting flies or other insect proteoly- sis during ensiling.
pests. These factors alter normal grazing
habits, generally resulting in more Alfalfa Hay Bloat Prevention
intensive, shorter feeding periods that may The bloat potential of alfalfa hay is unpre-
increase the incidence of bloat. dictable. The best indicators are leafy,
In strip grazing, the field is grazed in imma- ture hay with soft stems. Hay grown
strips that are changed every 1 to 3 days. under cool, moist conditions is more likely
This is done by careful placement of an to cause bloat than hay produced in hot,
electric fence so that the grazing strip is dry areas.
moved further and further away from the
The common practice is to administer the that
antifoaming agent (antibloat drench) at the
time of milking using an automatic dose
syringe that is moved up and down to reach
each cow in the milking parlor. Cows
become conditioned quickly and turn their
heads to the operator to receive their twice-
daily dose of 60 to 120 mL of the oil. The
duration of the foam-preventing effect is
short, lasting only a few hours, and
increasing the dose does not significantly
lengthen the period of protection.
The combined use of sodium chloride
and antibloat drenching of lactating dairy
cows in New Zealand may stimulate the
closure of the reticular groove, causing the
swallowed fluid to bypass the
reticulorumen, rendering the drenching with
the antibloat solution ineffective. The
proportion of antibloat–sodium-chloride
fluid bypassed was considered to be of no
practical signifi- cance to the protection
from bloat in most animals. However, there
may be decreased protection in 10% to 15%
of drenched cows. Thus cows should be
drenched with these compounds at separate
times, morning for one, evening for the
other, or, if drenching at the same milking,
drench with the antibloat solution first,
followed by a separate drench with sodium
chloride.
Application of Oil to Pasture
If the oil or fat is emulsified with water it
can be sprayed onto a limited pasture area
10 Chapter 8  Diseases of the Alimentary Tract–Ruminant

provides part or all of the anticipated food producing period is passed.

Water-Soluble Feed Supplements
requirements for the day. Back-grazing must
Commercially available sources of Proan-
be prevented, and care is required during
thocynanidins (condensed tannins), and
rainy periods when the oil is likely to be
plant extracts of Yucca schidigera (yucca)
washed from the pasture. The method is
are a natural source of steroidal saponins.
ideal where strip-grazing is practiced on
Both compounds were ineffective in
irri- gated pasture but is ineffective when
preventing bloat in cattle fed fresh alfalfa
grazing is uncontrolled.
herbage when used as a water-soluble feed
supplement added to the drinking water or
Addition to Feed and Water
given as a top-dressing.
The oil can be administered at the rate of
120 g per head in concentrates fed before
Synthetic Nonionic Surfactants
the cattle go on to the pasture or by
Polyoxythylene-Polyoxypropylene
addition to the drinking water to make a
Block Polymer
2% emulsion. Oil can be added to water
Poloxalene is a nonionic surfactant (surface
in all available troughs, turning off the
active agent) that has been used
water supply and refilling the troughs
successfully for the prevention of
when they are emptied. However, the actual
leguminous bloat for more than 30 years. It
intake of the oil cannot be guaranteed.
is a polyoxythylene- polyoxypropylene
Climatic conditions also cause variations
block polymer that is highly effective for
in the amount of water that is taken, with
use in cattle grazing lush legume pasture or
conse- quent variation in the oil intake.
young cereal crops such as wheat pasture.
Thus it is best to make provision for a
Poloxalene moderates the ingestive
daily intake of 240 to 300 g of oil per
behavior of cattle grazing immature alfalfa.
head during those periods when the risk
In cattle the recommended daily level for
of bloating is highest. The rec-
prevention of bloat is 2 g/100 kg BW. In
ommended procedure is to provide an
high-risk situations it may be advisable to
auto- matic watering pump that injects
administer the drug at least twice daily.
antifoaming agents into all the drinking
Poloxalene is unpalatable and its use in
water supplies in amounts that will
drinking water was not possible until the
maintain a concentration of 1% of the
introduction of the pluronic L64, which is
antifrothing agent. Hand replenish- ment
suitable for mixing with drinking water and
means that the preparation must be added
is effective. It needs to be introduced to the
twice daily. Surfactants are preferred to oils
cattle several weeks before the bloat season
because of their faster action, the smaller
commences. It is commonly used as an
dose rates (5–8 mL in 10–20 mL of
addi- tive to grain mixtures, in feed pellets,
water), and their longer period of
and in mineral blocks. The use of pluronics
effectiveness (10–18 hours).
admin- istered by mixing with molasses to
Application to Flanks be licked from a roller drum was popular
Antifoaming agents can be applied with a for a short period of time for the control of
large paintbrush to the flanks of cows as bloat in pastured beef cattle, but
they go out of the milking shed. A consumption was erratic and the control of
preparation that is palatable to cattle and bloat unreliable. The alternative of mixing
encourages them to lick their flanks is pluronics with the drinking water is also not
preferred. This has been a popular method dependable.
of controlling bloat in dairy cows in
Polyoxypropylene-Polyoxyethylene
Australia, but failures are not infrequent,
Glycol Surfactant Polymer (Alfasure)
especially in individual cows.
Alfasure, a polyoxypropylene-polyoxye-
thylene glycol surfactant polymer, is very
Types of Oil
effective for the prevention of bloat when
Many different oils have been used and
used at 0.05% in drinking water of cattle fed
most vegetable oils, mineral oil, and
fresh alfalfa herbage and when added as a
emulsified tallow are effective. The choice
top-dressing. An Alfasure spray on pasture
of oil to be used depends on local is completely effective in eliminating the
availability and cost. If the oils are to be occur- rence of bloat in cattle grazing alfalfa
used over an extended period, some at the vegetative to bud stage of growth.
consideration must be given to the effects of
the oil on the animal. Contin- ued
Alcohol Ethoxylate Detergents
administration of mineral oil causes
These products are known to have equal
restriction of carotene absorption and
foam-reducing qualities to poloxalene and
reduces the carotene and tocopherol content
have the advantage of better palatability so
of the butter produced. Linseed oil, soya oil,
that they can be administered by a voluntary
and whale oil have undesirable effects on
intake method such as medicated blocks.
the quality and flavor of the milk and butter.
Small-scale field trials show that these
Peanut oil and tallow are the most satisfac-
blocks are palatable and attractive and
tory. In most areas the tympany-producing
should be satisfactory in reducing the
effect of pasture is short-lived and may last
severity and prevalence of bloat. Not all
for only 2 to 3 weeks. During this time the
cattle visit them voluntarily, so some cases
pasture can be grazed under the protection
of bloat are likely to occur. The blocks
of oil administration until the bloat-
contain 10% of the

alcohol ethoxylate, known as Teric, and a
daily consumption of 17 to 19 g of it is
usual. Application of Teric to the flanks of
cows has not been as successful as a bloat
prevention as other similar application of
oils. Alcohol ethoxylate and pluronic
detergents con- trolled the occurrence of
bloat in sheep fed freshly harvested alfalfa
in confinement and in grazing studies in
which the products were added to the water
supply. In cattle grazing early to late bud
alfalfa stands, the addition of the products
to the water supplies prevented the
occurrence of bloat.
Ionophores
Rumen modifiers such as the ionophore
monensin have been used to control bloat
using controlled-release capsules and liquid
formulations.
Controlled-Release
Monensin Capsules
Sustained-release capsules containing anti-
foaming agents are available for the control
of pasture bloat. The capsule is
administered into the rumen, where it
opens, exposing an antifoaming agent,
which diffuses slowly from a matrix.
Monensin, a polyether iono- phore
antibiotic, is potentially an important agent
for bloat relief in dairy cows grazing
legume-based pasture. A monensin
controlled-release intraruminal capsule is
available that releases approximately 300
mg per head per day for 100 days.
Experimental and field studies indicate that
monensin can reduce the severity of bloat
and increase milk production in dairy cows
grazing legume pastures. In dairy farms in
Australia, sustained-release monensin
capsules were effective in reducing the
incidence of clinical bloat in pasture-fed
cattle. There was also a significant decrease
in the use of pasture spraying, drinking
water administration, and flank-spraying of
antifoaming agents on the farms using the
capsules, with no compensa- tory rise in the
use of other bloat-prevention techniques.
A controlled-release monensin capsule
reduced the incidence of bloat by about
50% in experimental steers fed alfalfa at the
veg- etative to early bud stages of growth.
Liquid Formulation of Monensin
Oral drenching with a liquid formulation of
monensin is effective in reducing bloat in
milking cows grazing white-clover–
ryegrass or red-clover pastures. A daily
dose of 300 mg per cow given as an oral
drench in a volume of 100 mL daily
provided protection for 24 hours.
Feedlot Bloat
Roughage in Ration
Feedlot high-level grain rations should
contain at least 10% to 15% roughage,
which is cut or chopped and mixed into a
complete feed. This ensures that cattle will
consume a minimum amount of roughage.
Diseases of the Rumen, Reticulum and Omasum 11
The roughage should be a cereal grain straw expensive in labor and can put the lives of
or grass hay. The use of leafy alfalfa hay otherwise valuable animals at risk.
may be hazardous. The roughage may be Selection on bloat score has been achieved
fed sepa- rately in the long form as a successfully in an experimental herd, and
supplement to the grain ration, but this genetic markers and candidate genes for
practice is dangerous because the voluntary bloat susceptibility are now being explored.
intake of roughage will vary considerably. The ultimate aim is to assist the dairy
The more palatable the grain ration, the less industry to identify bloat- susceptible
total roughage will be eaten, and outbreaks animals, so that they can be culled or used
of feedlot bloat may occur. less frequently as parents in the national
herd. Work in New Zealand suggests that
Consistency of Grain the prospects are good for providing the
The best results in feedlot bloat are dairy industry with a means of removing
achieved by the incorporation of bloat-susceptible cattle. Carrier sires could
nonbloating rough- ages in the grain ration be identified, using a marker, and these sires
at a level of at least 10% and avoiding fine could be withheld from the teams of widely
grinding of the grain. Grains for feedlot used proven sires available for commercial
rations should be only rolled or cracked, not use. The use of noncarrier artificial
finely ground. If the grain is very dry, the insemina- tion sires in the dairy cattle
addition of water during processing will industry could minimize the bloat problem
prevent pulverization to fine particles. The in one genera- tion by removing all
use of pelleted rations for feedlot cattle homozygous bloat- susceptible progeny
cannot be recommended, because a fine from the population. There has been no
grind of the grain is normally necessary to recent research on this aspect of bloat in
process a solid pellet. When the pellet cattle.
dissolves in the rumen, a fine pasty rumen
content forms, which may be associ- ated General Comments
with the development of a stable foam. In Apart from the impressive reduction in
addition, it is difficult to incorporate a clini- cal and fatal cases of ruminal tympany
sufficient quantity of roughage into a pellet. resulting from the prophylactic use of oils,
there are the added advantages of being able
Antifoaming Agents to use dangerous pasture with impunity and
The use of dietary antifoaming agents for the reduction of subclinical bloat and its
the prevention of feedlot bloat has had attendant lowering of food intake. Produc-
variable success. The addition of tallow at tion may rise by as much as 25% in 24
the level of 3% to 5% of the total ration has hours after the use of oil. Nevertheless,
been success- ful and judged empirically, these pre- ventive methods should be
but controlled trials did not reduce bloat considered as temporary measures only. The
scores. If animal fats are effective in ultimate aim should be the development of a
preventing feedlot bloat, they would be pasture of high net productivity in which the
useful as a source of energy and for the maximum productivity is consistent with a
control of dust in dusty feeds. Poloxalene is low inci- dence of bloat and diarrhea.
ineffective for the prevention of feedlot
bloat.
Dietary Salt
The addition of a 4% salt to feedlot rations
has been recommended when other methods
are not readily available. However, feed
intake and rate of BW gain will be reduced.
A high salt diet increased water intake,
causes an alteration in the proportion of dis-
rupted cells in the forage due to changes in
fermentation, and increases the rate of flow
of particulate material out of the rumen.
Other management factors considered to be
important in the prevention of feedlot bloat
generally include avoid overfeeding after
a period of temporary starvation (e.g.,
after bad weather, machinery failure,
transporta- tion, or feed handling failure),
and ensure that the water supply is
available at all times.
Genetic Control of Pasture Bloat
Because of the high costs of bloat from
deaths, lost production, treatment costs, and
extra labor, one possible long-term solution
is to breed cattle with reduced susceptibility
to bloat. Bloat score on a single day is
herita- ble, but the required testing
procedures are
12 Chapter 8  Diseases of the Alimentary Tract–Ruminant
 Diseases of the Rumen, Reticulum and Omasum 13

TREATMENT AND CONTROL

Treatment of pasture bloat

Immediately remove animals from bloating pasture (R-1)
In severe cases, emergency trocar/cannula (2.5-cm diameter) into left paralumbar fossa to release rumen foam (R-1)
In less severe cases, passage of stomach tube to release rumen foam and administer synthetic antifoaming agents (such as polyoxythylene-polyoxypropylene block

Treatment of feedlot bloat

Passage of stomach tube to release rumen foam and administer antifoaming agent (mineral oil preferred) into rumen, followed by walking for 20 minutes to disperse
Control of pasture bloat
Strategic daily use of synthetic antifoaming agents or sustained-release antifoaming

agents such as monensin to pastured
cattle (R-1)
Use of grass–legume mixtures (R-2)
Delay grazing each day until dew is off (R-2)
Feed hay before grazing (R-2)
Control of feedlot bloat
Increase ingestion of coarse roughage
and minimize sorting of feed (R-2)
FURTHER READING
Wang Y, Majak W, McAllister TA. Frothy bloat in
ruminants: cause, occurrence, and mitigation
strategies. Anim Feed Sci Tech. 2012;172:103-114.
REFERENCE
a1j.akMW, et al. Can J Anim Sci. 2008;88:29.
TRAUMATIC
RETICULOPERITONITIS
Perforation of the wall of the reticulum by a
sharp foreign body initially produces an
acute local peritonitis, which may spread to
cause acute diffuse peritonitis or remain
localized to cause subsequent damage,
including vagal indigestion and, in rare
cases, diaphragmatic hernia. The
penetration of the foreign body may
proceed beyond the peritoneum and cause
involvement of other organs resulting in
pericarditis; cardiac tam- ponade;
pneumonia; pleurisy and mediasti- nitis;
and hepatic, splenic, or diaphragmatic
Continued
abscess. These sequelae of traumatic a feed mixer wagon and become
perfora- tion of the reticular wall are shown fragmented, mixing the pieces of wire
diagram- matically in Fig. 8-9. throughout the ration.
This complexity of development makes
diagnosis and prognosis difficult, and the
possibility that a number of syndromes
may occur together further complicates the
picture. For convenience and to avoid
repeti- tion, all these entities except
endocarditis are dealt with together here,
even though many of them are diseases of
other systems.
ETIOLOGY
Traumatic reticuloperitonitis is caused by
the penetration of the reticulum by metal-
lic foreign objects that have been ingested
in prepared feed. Baling or fencing wire
that has passed through a chaff cutter, feed
chopper, or forage harvester is one of the
most common causes. In one series of 1400
necropsies, 59% of lesions were caused by
pieces of wire, 36% by nails, and 6% by
mis- cellaneous objects. The metal objects
may be in the roughage or concentrate or
may originate on the farm when repairs are
made to fences, yards, and in the vicinity of
feed troughs.
The wire from motor vehicle radial tires
may be the cause. Used tires are commonly
used to hold down plastic sheeting over
silage piles. The wire is gradually released
from the tires, which are in a state of
deterio- ration, and is mixed with the feed
supply, or the tires may be inadvertently
dropped into
14 Chapter 8  Diseases of the Alimentary Tract–Ruminant
Diseases of the Rumen, Reticulum and Omasum 15
 16 Chapter 8  Diseases of the Alimentary Tract–Ruminant

SYNOPSIS

ation of reticulum by metallic foreign objects such as nails and pieces of wire, including tire wire, which were ingested by the animal and located in the reticulum.
Most common in adult dairy cattle fed prepared feeds.
norexia and fall in milk yield, mild fever, ruminal stasis, and local pain in the abdomen. Rapid recovery may occur, or the disease may persist in a chronic form or spread widely to produce
ogy In acute local peritonitis, neutrophilia and regenerative left shift; in chronic form, leukopenia and degenerative left shift. Peritoneal fluid contains marked increase in nucleated cells and
ed reticuloperitonitis and varying degrees of locally extensive fibrinous adhesions. Abnormal peritoneal fluid. Abscesses and adhesions possible throughout the peritoneal cavity

Fig. 8-9 Sequelae of traumatic perforation of the reticular wall.