CHAPTER 4: FOOTWEAR MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY

Shoe Last

A last is a mechanical form that has a shape similar to that of a human foot. It is used by
shoemakers in the manufacture and repair of shoes. Lasts typically come in pairs, and have
been made from various materials, including hardwoods, cast iron, and, high density
plastics.

Shoe lasts are fundamental to shoe manufacturing since they dictate the exact shape, size
and fitting of the shoes made out of them. Last design depends on fashion, trends as well
as anatomy of human foot.

Traditionally, last were made from hardwood such as Maple or Beech., now they are not
suited for modern shoe production. In countries with warm climates and high humidity,
wooden lasts react to the effects of the weather-they shrink. Imprecise lasts cause
problems in shoe production and result in complaints about poor fitting at the point of
sale.

Wooden lasts have been replaced by plastic lasts which has waxy finish so the shoe may
be removed from them with greater ease. The plastic used is a high density Polyethylene
in powder foam. The metal usually an aluminum alloy is also used for the manufacturing
of the shoe last.

Each "shoe last” is designed

for a particular heel height,
Wooden Last Plastic Last
toe shape, and type of footwear. The volume, design, and shape of the shoe last determine
how well the shoe fits. A proper fitting pair of shoe lasts is a solid investment, and the first
step towards creating proper fitting and fashionable footwear.

Many styles of shoes can be made on the same shoe last, but the toe shape and heel height
will be the same for each pair made on that shoe last.
 3 Different Shoes Made on the same “Shoe Last”

For shoes with different toe shapes, then it is necessary to create more than one pair of
shoe lasts.

Different styles of shoes require lasts with different characteristics. For instance, an open
toe sandal will require a last broader at the toes to allow the toes to spread out when
walking in the sandal, and a boot last is designed to hug the instep for a closer fit. When a
heel height varies on the same sandal last, a new last must be created in order for the shoe
to balance & fit properly.

Four Different sections of a Last-

1) Heel- it must be wide enough at the bottoms so that this portion of the shoe can be
attached firmly and will have solid resting place. The heel of the last must be narrow
toward the top so that the finished shoe will hug the ankle with slipping or gaping.

2) The waist- this section of the shoe must hug the arch of the foot snugly to keep it from
jamming forward into the front of the shoe. It must connect the heel and ball of the
shoe with proper arch fitting curve.

3) The Ball- this section of the finished shoe forms the base on which the entire weight is
borne when foot bends to take step in walking. The ball must have proper width in
proportion to the length of the shoe. Also have ample depth

4) The toe- this forms the shape of the shoe where the greatest activity takes place as the
foot function. The last must provide proper surface in which the toes can grip to
perform their balancing and propelling functions. It must give them room in the upper
to perform these functions.
 Types of Last-

1) The Solid Black Last/ Rigid-

Chiefly used for making of chappals and sandals, low heel shoes. These lasts have no
mechanisms. It is the most simplest.

2) The Scoop Black Last With Cut Wedge-

These lasts mostly used by the hand made footwear industry. They have a wedge on the
top and can be detached from the main body. The last can be easily taken out of the
lasted shape by removing the wedge.

3) Hinged Last

These last are mostly manufactured in PVC material and exclusively used by machine
made footwear industry as well as by some hand made shoe industry which is producing
the good quality of the footwear. The last have a fore part and a back part and are
 connected by a spring. When slipping, the last is bent to shorten at the V- cut hinge.
Then the last is removed from the shoe without damaging the back part of the shoe.

Rigid last without Hinges Last with Hinge Last with Slide

1) Telescopic Last/ Slide last-

These are similar to hinge last but without V cut. The last will slide and reduce in
length when slipping

2) Three piece last-

It consists of three parts. The center and the back pieces

will be removed when slipping. After the removal of the
center and back parts, it becomes easier to remove the
front part.

Types of Bottom plating-

 A = No plating
B = Heel plated last
C = Shank plated last
D = Toe plated last
E = Shank and Toe plated last
F = Fully plated last

B C E F

Steel plate

Most of the lasts have steel plates on the bottom of the last. This steel plate may
cover the entire bottom, the half of the last bottom or only the heel part. In each
steel plate in the middle of the heel area there is a hole thatis used to attach the
insoles with nails to the last’s bottom during lasting.

Why we need this steel plate?

We need it to use nails during lasting, to attach lasted uppers with all its layers to
the insoles. So the uppers will be attached to the insoles not only with glue but
with nails as well.

How does it work? The nails pass through the upper, counters, lining and insoles,
meets the steel plate and bend because of steel plate. So at the end of the process
you could take off your shoes from the last. Without steel plate you can’t use nails,
as they will stay inside of the plastic shoe last bottom and you will not be able to
take your shoes off the lasts.

The Length of the Last-

1) The last is measured from the tip of the toe to the apex of the heel with the intended
heel height
2) The last is measured from the tip of the toe to the apex of the heel without the intended heel
height

3) The insole of the last is measured from the tip of the toe to the base of the heel.

Flow Chart for Shoe Design & Development

1) Define requirement which type of shoe is required

2) Visualize the Shoe

3) Select or develop the last of required shape and profile

4) Select the mould with the combination of the last and sole selected

5) Work out the designs and patterns with the designer

6) Get the upper components cut from the cutter as per the cutting pattern provided

7) Get the stitching done from the stitcher as per the marking pattern provided

8) Assemble upper with the sole

9) Make sample shoe ready by providing sock and laces etc.

10) Get the design of complete shoebox and poly bag made ready from advertising
agencies

11) Present sample shoe, shoebox & poly bag to the approval committee for approval of
tentative launch date, MRP & tentative quantity.

12) If disapproved or amendment suggested , start from step 6 again

13) If approved then make more pairs of the sample and go for fit test.

14) If fit is not OK then start from step 5

15) If fit test is not OK then again start from Step 5

16) Fit test OK then discuss with production department & purchase department
regarding material availability

17) Fittest is OK go for grading of patterns of complete size role and get the duplicating
of patterns done.

18) Make sample of each size and go for final fit test.

19) If fit test found OK, then make order sheet containing the total consumable
requirement and get it approved

20) Make component sample sheet of all consumables and get it approved.

21) Provide order and sample to the purchase dept.

22) Get the quality approval from the quality chief of the concerned factory

23) Go for the production of pilot lot for the market feed back

24) If market feedback is negative then start from step 2

25) If market feedback is positive and shoebox & poly bags are ready for supply then
give green signal to all concerned production units for final production.
 Shoe Making Operation

1) Product Development-

The development is the process of designing new styles of shoes or adapting existing
or previous ones an. After specifying the materials and components, detailing the
materials and processes to be followed in order that the styles of shoes can be
produced in bulk and then satisfies the needs of consumer when purchased.

2) Designing and Pattern Cutting-

According to the samples of shoes, design or requirement of the customer the model
last is selected by the shoe designers then patterns are developed. Sample shoe is
manufactured in the sampling room under the supervision of the shoe designer by
the craftsmen/artisan. When the samples are approved by the buyer/customer the
patterns are graded by hand or machines in required sizes and handed over to the
production division for manufacturing the shoes. The designers also specify the
materials required for making the shoes.

‘
 Grading of Patterns

3) Cutting-

The cutting is called clicking. The cutting of upper and linings is the first step in shoe
construction and is done in cutting room. These parts are cut to a pattern and later
fitted together in much the same way as parts of a dress are cut & sewn. Most of the
cutting today is done by machines. Still some hand cutting is done in factories.

4) Closing-

The construction, cost, design, function,

material and style of the shoe vary, and so does
its upper fitting. The number of different steps
included in this group may range from more
than 60 to as few as 15. The progressive
assembly of the various upper parts by stitching
is done. Other operations include things as
perforating the upper fro decorative purposes,
skiving which reduces the thickness of edge of
leather parts that are to be assembled, seam
rubbing and taping to remove the bulk of the
material to ensure foot comfort, and so forth.

5) Component-

While upper is being fitted and assembled, other

parts of the shoe are being prepared in stock cutting department. These parts include
insoles, and outsoles, welting, counters which are moulded to the shape of the last,
heels, toe puffs, both hard and soft preserve the shape of the toe of the shoe.

6) Lasting-
 Lasting is the series of operations in which the shoe upper and linings are drawn tightly
to the last over which the shoe is made. Then, it is fastened to the insole of the shoe. It
is here that shape is built for the life of the shoe.

7) Finishing-

These include attaching soles, heels, trimming soles, edges, staining, setting and
burnishing the edges of the heel and sole.

Burnish: The process of rub a shoe surface to achieve an antiquing effect of the leather.

Finishing includes the preparation of outsoles for the final wax, gum or buffed finish,
removal of the last, nailing of heels inside when necessary, inserting sock lining and heel
pads and branding the manufacturer’s or retailer’s name.

8) Packing-

The shoe lift is inserted in the shoes to maintain the shape of the finished shoes. After
this operation the finished shoes are kept in the boxes.

Main types of Shoe Construction-

1) Cemented Construction/ Stuck on construction (UK) / Compo Process-

A shoe construction in which the upper of a shoe is cemented, rather than stitched, to
the sole of the shoe. Cement construction results in a lighter, more flexible shoe.
Adhesives, with machinery for attaching, along with production technique are
improving day by day. This process is one of the most widely used in the production of
men’s and women’s footwear.

How to Identify a cemented Shoe-

The cement process sticks the outsole; the upper and insole into a single unite
without the use of sole stitching

thread.
2) Goodyear Welt:

A shoe construction, in which the upper and sole of the shoe are stitched together,
results in greater durability. The resulting seam is visible and runs around the outside of
the shoe, where the upper and outsole meet. The feature that distinguishes this
construction from all other is the insole rib to which both the welt and upper are
secured by a strong, flexible stitch. The Goodyear welt construction is unique in the
position of its two seams in the shoe bottom. There is a hidden seam holding together
the welt, the upper, the lining and the insole, which, in cross section, is almost horizontal
in position. This is stitched with a Goodyear Welt machine.

Shoe Assembly

Assembly starts by pulling the uppers over the

last and tacking with nails; a canvas lip band of
the sole is attached to the uppers (except for the
heel area). The upper leather is tacked to the
last and a few temporary tacks are applied to
the front, before the upper edges are trimmed.

The Goodyear Welt is sewn to the upper leather,

through the rib on the sole; a wooden shank is
added for strength and stability, and cork filling
is put between the inner and outsole, to provide some cushioning for the foot. Next, the
outer sole is cemented to the rest of the shoe under high pressure; the sole is attached
by adhesive and then shaped to fit the rest of the shoe. After this the thread is stitched
to attach the upper to the sole. This can mean stitching through leather thicknesses of
up to 2cms in order to hold the materials firmly together. Mass produced shoes can be
sewn by machine, but shoes are usually sewn by hand.
3) Stitched down construction-

The sole stitching appears on the foot side of the insole and on the outsole bottom. The
seam may sometimes be hidden in a groove on the sole’s bottom to minimize abrasion
of the stitching. A cheaper method used to produce lightweight flexible soles for
children's shoes and some casual footwear. Here the upper turned out (flanged) at the
edge of the last and stitched to the runner. In some countries it is known as 'veldt' and
'veldtschoen.' The technique is used for lower priced footwear.
4) Moulded Methods-

The lasted upper is placed in a mould and the sole formed around it by injecting liquid
synthetic soling material (PVC, urethane). Alternatively, the sole may be vulcanised by
converting uncured rubber into a stable compound by heat and pressure. When the
materials in the moulds cool the sole-upper bonding is complete. These methods
combine the upper permanently into the sole and such shoes cannot therefore be
repaired easily. Moulded methods can be used to make most types of footwear.
5) Mocassin-

Thought to be the oldest shoe construction this consists of a single layer section, this
forms the insole, vamp and quarters. The piece is moulded upwards from the under
surface of the last. An apron is then stitched to the gathered edges of the vamp and the
sole is stitched to the base of the shoe. This method is used for flexible fashion
footwear. The imitation moccasin has a visual appearance of a moccasin but does not
have the wrap around construction of the genuine moccasin.
MATERIALS USED IN FOOTWEAR MANUFACTURING
Introduction:

A broad spectrum of materials and material combinations are used today in shoe
manufacturing. Leathers, synthetics, rubber and textile materials are counted among the
basic upper materials. Each material has its own specific character and they differ not only
in their appearance but also in their physical properties, their service life and treatment
needs. The choice of shoe material significantly influences the life of the footwear and in
many cases dictates its use. The ability for leather to crease over flex or surfaces further
facilitates the function of the foot.

Ironically synthetics used as uppers display elastic properties, which mean shoe uppers
never quite adjusts to the foot shape in the same way as natural leather. Synthetics are
cheaper to mass-produce and are now found in most footwear. Synthetic surfaces provide
waterproofing and most leather today has synthetic components. An alternative shoe cover
is cotton corduroy woven fabrics which provide lightweight breathable surfaces.

Shoe making materials are broadly classified into two groups Upper and Bottom which are
listed below:

l ) Upper-

i)Main Material-

a) Outer- Leather, synthetic, Textiles

b) Lining- Leather, Synthetic, Textiles

c) Interlining- Fabric, Textile, Synthetic

ii) Auxiliary-

Threads, Adhesives, Eyelets, Ornament etc.

2) Bottom-

i) Main material- Heel, insole, Outsole

ii) Auxiliary- Toe Puffs, Stiffness, adhesives, finishing

Symbols of Structure-

Upper Material-

1) Leather-

Leather is a durable and flexible material created by the tanning of animal rawhide and
skin. Leathers are preserved animal hides and skins. They can also be considered as
byproducts of the meat industry. Leather is most suitable material to be used as upper
making because of its physical properties, Elasticity, Flexibility, ease of working,
availability in varieties of color and finish, thermal conductivity etc. The leather industry
 utilizes hides and skins which would, if the industry did not exist to process them, create
an enormous waste disposal problem and create health hazards.

It is natural, breathable and flexible; having better stretch ability and adjusts to feet
easily. The main sources for raw material for the leather industry worldwide are cattle,
sheep and goats.

Types of leathers- Alligator, calf, Cowhide, Elk, Pigskin, Reptile etc.

2) Textiles/ Fabrics-

Two basic reasons for the introduction of so many materials other than leather:

a) Fabrics both natural and man- made, give certain properties to footwear that could
not be achieved by leather.

b) Population Explosion- mass production technique would be needed to meet greatly

increased demand.

Animals, hides and leather are now relatively in limited supply and their prices are
increasing.

Textiles term describes any woven or Knitted materials. Textile Characterized by a wide
colour selection and lightness; used mainly for casual footwear.

Yarns- can be of

 natural origin such as cotton, wool or linen

 Synthetic- viscose, nylon, Polyester etc.

 Blended- terecot etc.

i) In Shoe Upper-

Wide variety of non coated fabrics used such as cotton, corduroy, denim are in great
demand for rubber soled shoe and sneakers. Nylon straw and mesh find their place in
summer shoes for men, women and kids. Also, in sports shoes nylon mesh provides easy
care, dries quickly, breathability and flexibility.

Fakes fur that are textile product, imitating sealskin, leopard and host of other animal skins,
are used in winter footwear.

Cotton fabric used in upper

 Denims in Shoe Upper

Corduroy fabric on
Shoe Upper

Fake Furs on Footwear

 Imitated animal skin

ii) In Linings-

Most used vamp lining fabric for women’s dress shoe used is called Faille fabric- A slightly
ribbed, woven fabric of silk, cotton, or rayon Today for demand for softness in footwear
Nylon tricots backed with foam are used. The use of cotton drills for the vamp lining of
men’s and boy’s shoe is still common. Textile is suitable for winter footwear because of its
good thermal insulation qualities.

Nylon tricot

Faille
fabric

Cotton drill fabric in Lining

3) Coated fabric-

The term is used to describe a whole range of man -made leather like
materials. The base of this is either knitted or woven cotton in the form
of sheeting, drills sateen. To these a costing of synthetic resin is applied.
The most commonly used coating is Vinyl, sometimes known as PVC
(Poly vinyl chloride). Colours, types and embossing can be unlimited.
Feel and appearance can be such that they are very difficult to tell from
leather. They are further processed with backing, to give the weight and
thickness required.

PVC, PU, rubber, leatherette and polymeric materials all have a similar
look as leather but the characteristics of breathing, absorption, and
flexibility do not measure up to the qualities of natural leather. New
upper materials in PVC and PU combined with comfortable linings do
offer a few advantages however: namely affordable low prices; and a
multitude of colour choices, shapes and designs- especially in young fashion.

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

A synthetic plastic used for soling and coated upper materials, either dense or micro-cellular
in construction.

i) In Shoe Upper-

Coated fabrics are used for shoe uppers mostly in popular price field. Find used in
production of water proof winter snow shoes. They have good water repellency; resist
calcium, with stand cold temperature without cracking. Good wear value and attractive in
appearance from a fashion stand point.

Waterproof membrane is a special material which provides water resistance and

breathability to footwear. It is a major element in hiking and sport footwear
ii) In Linings-

Vinyl coated fabrics are used to make quarter linings in popular

priced, men’s and boy’s shoes. Quarter lining can be made of
cotton flannel, which has be saturated with rubber, and then
coated with a thin layer of vinyl. Same construction is used in
women’s shoe, except that the face of the cotton is flocked to
provide a non slip or suede effect. Synthetic easily cared for,
easily put on; limited airflow which can cause higher
perspiration.

4) Poromerics-

These are entirely man made- Artificial leather. They are also called as Polymeric
synthetic leathers. They are tough porous leather substitutes. Their fabrication duplicates
the flesh side of an animal skin by a base material of polyester, which is porous in
structure, and subsequently coated with a urethane polymer coating. They are called by
different Trade name- Corfam, Clarino, Aziran, Porvair etc. Most leather like in
appearance and performance due to their porous structure. Come in variety of patterns,
finishes, napped, smooth and shiny. They are scuffs, abrasion resistance. Require little
polishing or other care.

i) In shoe Upper-
 They have found widest use in the production of men’s footwear. Second biggest use is
women’s winter boots as they are water repellant, easy care properties.They are also
used in women’s high fashion footwear. Shoe with poromerics as upper hold their shape
throughout the life. They do not have stretch of leather

5) Rubber based uppers -are used for special safety

work boots. Textiles either natural or synthetic
combined with rubber materials are used extensively
in safety and casual footwear.

Materials in Non Visible Shoe Components-

1) Toe puffs-

A material inserted between the outer and the lining at the toe
to help maintain shape. The main purpose of introducing special
materials in the toe area is to provide shape retention. They may
be hard, soft, and straight or wing tipped and made from a
variety of materials and chemicals.

Thermoplastic- A plastic material that can be repeatedly

softened and remolded by heat, whilst retaining its molded form
in ambient temperatures are called thermoplastic materials.
Thermoplastic Shoe Toe Puff is usually used as reinforce
materials for uppers and heels of sports and leather shoes, Boots
and working shoes, etc

ii) Counters-

It’s reinforcement in the back part of the shoe placed

between the upper and quarter lining. They are made
of chemically treated fiberboard or textile. They have
strong viscosity, well bonding, high tensile, good
breaking and peeling resistance. Good in toughness,
deflection and flexibility.
(iii) Interlinings-

Textiles with napped surface are often used to

provide additional plumpness to the finished
shoe in the vamp and quarter areas, particularly
for flight weight leather.

Materials in shoe Bottoms or soles-

Ideal qualities for soling material are:

 Durability

 Flexibility

 Water proof

 Lightness in weight

 Slip resistant

 Uniformity

 Cement holding

 Temperature Resistant

 Tack/ Stitch holding

Materials use in Insoles-

 Have strong bearing on wear, comfort, shape retention, foot health and appearance.

 Leather is still an important insole material particularly in men’s high grade shoe

 In women’s fashion shoes, man -made soles are used for flexibility and lightness.

a) Leather is not much used because of high cost a lack of uniformity in thickness.

b) Leather boards- a flexible manufactures board made up of 75% leather fibers, which give
ability to absorb perspiration. It is made in sheets in various thicknesses and in different
grades to suit particular shoe making requirements. It is a compound of fibrous
substance, vegetable matter and leather scrape bound together with latex rubber.
c) Cellulose Board- cellulose is the basic material found in vegetable matter. They are made
from wood pulp, resins, and bonded with latex. Its ability to absorb moisture

Materials used in Midsole-

1) Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA)-

It is highly resilient synthetic foam which provides good shock absorption. It’s a blend of
ethylene, vinyl acetate and blowing agent. This is a chemical compound with rubbery
properties ideal for midsoles in the blown or micro-cellular form. Also used as the basis
for adhesives

2) Phylon-

A next generation EVA manufactured by hot and cold moldings process. It is use as
midsole for running shoe due to its lightness, flexibility, density, elongation.

3) Phylite-

It is lightest material used for midsole that is again a refined form of EVA. It is used
only in expensive running shoe to provide the maximum lightness, flexibility, density
and elongation.

Materials for Outsoles-

6) Leather was always the main soiling material.

Advantages of leather sole-

 It is one of the most hygiene soiling material with ease of precipitation as the upper
leather

 It gives product the unique/ antique class & appearance

 Good sole binding with upper cement due to fibrous structure present.

Disadvantages-

 Very expensive

 Inflexible and sufficiently heavy

 Processing is quite time taking, skilled and expensive

 Less durable in wet conditions

In recent years many other materials are also used.

7) Resin Rubber-

These are compounded mixture of natural and synthetic rubber. They are used as
outsole because of high abrasion resistance and slip resistance properties
 4) Carbon Rubber- Mixture of carbon, synthetic and natural rubber. These materials have
high abrasion and resistance. These are highly durable materials.

5) TPU- Thermo poly urethane - It provides support to heel

6) PVC- Poly Vinyl compounds-

Its not biodegradable. When it burns it produce the most toxic gas known to human
being. That’s why it is not used by all sports companies. These materials are not
flexible

7) Duralon- It’s a plastic based compound. It is flexible as compare to any other rubber.
Generally used in forefeet of running shoes as people tend to put more pressure on
forefeet.

Out sole Patterns-

1) Waffle outsole- squares protect the runner from

the forces of impact, caused by running. Its Main
benefits are cushioning and grip.

2) Herringbone patterns-

As some sports require sideways movements and quick starts and stops, the parallel
lines trap the air between them, helping the player to get better traction (toehold)
and grip.

3) Aggressive Lug pattern-

It’s got number of benefits such as self cleaning patterns. Spike lugs ensure great
grip. It protects the shoe from wear and tear.
 4) Modified Waffle outsole- mainly used for cross trainer. It’s got the combination of
waffle and herringbone grip in one shoe.

5) Flex groove-

Deep grooves found on many shoes especially running and cross training shoes. Help
to bend the shoe where feet bend so increase flexibility and comfort of a shoe

Rubber- has very good anti skid property and resistance to wear.

 Widely used for safety and sport footwear.

 Synthetic Flexible, easy to care for; average resistance to wear; average thermo
insulation qualities; slips in difficult terrain; not overly flexible.

Bottom Filler-

Filler means the materials which fills the cavity or gap.

Purpose-

 It is a kind of material which fills the cavity formed during the lasting.

 Reduction the weight of the shoe

 Reduce the cost of shoe

Materials used- jute, felt, rags. Textile/ Foam materials, Insulation Board, Felt Paper, waste
leather pieces