PETROLEUM EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT

Volume 48, Issue 1, February 2021

Online English edition of the Chinese language journal

Cite this article as: PETROL. EXPLOR. DEVELOP., 2021, 48(1): 30–42. RESEARCH PAPER

Multi-source genesis of continental carbonate-rich

fine-grained sedimentary rocks and hydrocarbon
sweet spots
JIANG Zaixing, KONG Xiangxin*, YANG Yepeng, ZHANG Jianguo, ZHANG Yuanfu, WANG Li,
YUAN Xiaodong
School of Energy Resources, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China

Abstract: This paper systematically discusses the multiple source characteristics and formation mechanisms of carbonate-rich
fine-grained sedimentary rocks through the analysis of material source and rock formation. The hydrocarbon accumulation
characteristics of carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks are also summarized. The results show that the main reason
for the enrichment of fine-grained carbonate materials in rift lake basins was the supply of multiple material sources, including
terrestrial material input, formation of intrabasinal authigenic carbonate, volcanic-hydrothermal material feeding and mixed
source. The development of carbonate bedrock in the provenance area controlled the filling scale of carbonate materials in rift
lake basins. The volcanic-hydrothermal activity might provide an alkaline fluid to the lake basins to strengthen the material
supply for the formation of carbonate crystals. Authigenic carbonate crystals induced by biological processes were the main
source of long-term accumulation of fine-grained carbonate materials in the lake basins. Carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimen-
tary rocks with multiple features were formed through the interaction of physical, biochemical and chemical processes during
the deposition and post-deposition stages. The source and sedimentary origin of the fine-grained carbonate rock controlled the
hydrocarbon accumulation in it. In the multi-source system, the types of “sweet spots” of continental shale oil and gas include
endogenous type, terrigenous type, volcanic-hydrothermal type and mixed source type.

Key words: carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks; rift lake basins; multiple sources; hydrocarbon accumulation;
sweet spot of continental shale oil and gas

Introduction canic, and ‘deep’ sources. The terrigenous-source material

Shale oil and gas are important replacement hydro-
carbon resources, which commonly occur in fine-grained
sedimentary rocks with particle size smaller than 62.5
μm[12]. Following the successful commercial development
of marine shale gas in China and abroad, China has
started theoretical research and tentative exploration of
continental shale oil and gas since 2010, and has found
abundant hydrocarbon resources in continental shale
strata to date[3].
Different from marine shale, continental shale has
unique characteristics such as unstable depositional en-
vironments, complex source materials, and diverse com-
ponents[45]. Based on the source type, the fine particles in
shale can be divided into terrigenous, endogenous, vol-
includes quartz, feldspar, and clay minerals formed by
physical weathering of the parent rocks in the prove-
nance region[1]. The endogenous-source material refers to
authigenic minerals that precipitate directly from the
intrabasinal lake water. The formation of such materials
is largely related to the metabolism of biological organ-
isms[6]. Volcanic-source material refers to the volcanic ash
transported into the lake basins by wind. The deep-
source material refers to the crystalline deposits from
hydrothermal fluids upwelling along faults and/or blow-
ing as springs. Volcanic and deep source materials com-
monly occur together in lake basins as a result of volcanic
eruptions and are collectively known as volcanic-hydro-
thermal materials[78]. These fine-grained materials have

Received date: 14 Aug. 2020; Revised date: 05 Jan. 2021.

* Corresponding author. E-mail: kongxiangxin@cugb.edu.cn
Foundation item: Supported by National Major Research Program for Science and Technology of China (2017ZX05009-002); the National Natural Sci-
ence Foundation of China (41772090); Postdoctoral Science Foundation of China (2020M680624).
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1876-3804(21)60003-4
Copyright © 2021, Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development, PetroChina. Publishing Services provided by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42
undergone physical, chemical, and biological processes
during depositional and post-depositional stages[9], lead-
ing to differentiation in their particle structure, accumu-
lation patterns, coexistence with organic matter, and dia-
genetic pathways. Thus fine-grained sedimentary rocks
formed by them have widely different physical properties
and hydrocarbon accumulation capacities[1]. Understand-
ing lithofacies types of fine-grained sedimentary rocks is
the base and core of evaluating integrated source-re-
servoir[1011]. Based on composition, the fine-grained
sedimentary rock can be classified into carbonate-rich,
silty, and clayey and mixed-source fine-grained sedimen-
tary rocks[2].
Carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock, widely
distributed in rift lake basins of China, is an important
carrier of shale oil and gas[4,8,12]. The reasons of the depo-
sition of fine-grained carbonate materials and the origins
of fine-grained carbonate sedimentary rocks in conti-
nental lake basins haven’t been studied systematically so
far, limiting further understanding on their lithofacies
types and characteristics, and hindering the study on the
mechanisms of hydrocarbon accumulation in carbon-
ate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks. Based on previ-
ous understandings of our study, we examined system-
atically the forming mechanisms of multi-source fine-
grained carbonate materials in continental rift lake ba-
sins and sorted the hydrocarbon accumulation types in
Fig. 1. Carbonate content of petroliferous fine-grained sedimentary rocks in continental basins of China [13].
 31 
carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks in this
work, in the hope to propel the discovery of more hydro-
carbon resources in the carbonate-rich fine-grained
sedimentary rocks in lacustrine rift basins of China.
1. Carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary
rocks and continental shale oil and gas
Carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks are de-
fined as the fine-grained sedimentary rocks dominated by
carbonate minerals[4], which are widely distributed in
continental rift basins in eastern and western China (Fig.
1). Based on the authors’ database[13], the calcite-rich
fine-grained sedimentary rocks are mainly distributed in
the Eocene lacustrine strata of the Bohai Bay Basin, and
the Oligocene lacustrine strata of the Nanxiang Basin.
The dolomitic fine-grained sedimentary rocks are mainly
distributed in the Eocene lacustrine strata of the Jiang-
han Basin and the Cangdong Sag of the Bohai Bay Basin
as well as in the Middle Permian lacustrine strata of the
Junggar and Santanghu Basin (Table 1). Oil and gas ex-
ploration in shale formations dominated by carbon-
ate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock was first started in
the Henan Oilfield and has revealed good prospects. For
example, the carbonate fine-grained sedimentary rock in
third member of the Oligocene Hetaoyuan Formation in
the Biyang Sag yielded high oil and gas production after
fracturing[3]. Subsequently, shale oil and gas exploration in
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42

Table 1. Mineral compositions of shales in continental basins in China.

Mineral composition/%
Basin Sag Formation Evaporitic
Calcite Dolomite Clay Quartz Feldspar Pyrite Analcite
mineral
Upper part of 4th member and lower
Dongying
part of 3rd member of Eocene Shahejie 37.5 10.3 20.3 23.1 6.3 2.5
Sag[4, 13]
Formation (Es3L & Es4U)
Zhanhua Lower part of 3rd member of Eocene
Bohai Bay 30.8 8.3 25.4 24.0 6.0 4.1 1.3
Sag[4, 13] Shahejie Formation (Es3L)
Basin
Shulu Lower part of 3rd member of
54.3 18.3 14.3 10.3 1.5 1.3
Sag[4, 13] Eocene Shahejie Formation (Es3L)
Cangdong 2nd member of Eocene
8.0 25.9 14.2 20.5 23.7 0.6 6.8
Sag[13] Kongdian Formation (Ek2)
Nanxiang Biyang 3rd member of Oligocene Hetaoyuan
17.4 10.4 28.9 19.5 18.8 2.8
Basin Sag[4, 13] Formation
Jianghan Qianjiang 3rd member of Eocene Qianjiang
9.8 30.9 12.4 6.7 7.6 5.3 27.2
Basin Sag[4] Formation (Eq3)
Junggar Jimusaer Middle Permian Lucaogou
10.6 26.7 10.4 20.2 30.9 0.9 0.6
Basin Sag[13] Formation (P2l)
Luanping Lower Cretaceous Xiguayuan
10.0 18.3 21.7 19.2 28.9 1.2 0.4 0.1
Basin[13] Formation (C1x)
Songliao Gulong Upper Cretaceous Qingshankou
2.4 9.1 34.8 36.2 16.7
Basin Sag[13] Formation
7th member of Upper Triassic
Ordos Basin[13] 0.7 57.0 22.5 15.0
Yanchang Formation (T3y7)

the carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks was
conducted in the Jiyang Depression[11] and in the Shulu
Sag by the Huabei Oilfield Company[14]. In recent years,
breakthroughs in shale oil and gas exploration in car-
bonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks have been
made successively in the Jimsar Sag [15], the Cangdong
Sag[16], and the Qianjiang Sag[12], rendering the carbon-
ate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks the major source
of shale oil and gas in the continental rift basins of east-
ern and western China.
2. Multi-sourced geneses of carbonate-rich
fine-grained sedimentary rocks
2.1. Sources of fine-grained carbonates
The common occurrence of fine-grained carbonate
sediments in continental rift basins is related to multiple
sources of Ca2+, Mg2+, and CO32 [7,17]. Through this study,
we find that the major factors for the large-scale
development of fine-grained carbonate sediments in the
continental rift basins of China include rock composition
of the provenances, biochemical conditions of the water
body in the basin, and volcanic-hydrothermal activity
during the depositional period.
2.1.1. Terrigenous source
The carbonate accumulation in lakes depends on the
amount of carbonate or calcium-rich rocks in the
provenances or underground[17]. Limestone, dolomite,
marble, basalt, and carbonatite all can release calcium
 32 
ions through weathering and leaching, which can provide
material base for crystallization of carbonate minerals[18].
If carbonate rocks prevail in the bedrock of provenance
region, the basin will mainly be filled by carbonate-rich
sediments. If carbonate and siliceous rocks jointly exist in
the bedrock, the distribution of carbonate sediments in
the basin will be affected by the type of terrigenous
sources. If there is only a small amount of carbonate
rocks in the provenance, sediments in the basin would
only contain a small amount of carbonate minerals[17].
Most of the Eocene lacustrine strata in the Bohai Bay
Basin overlie the basement of Cambrian-Ordovician
marine carbonate rocks. The marine carbonate rocks
exposed on the surface can supply carbonate debris and
dissolved ions to the lake basin. For example, the Shulu
Sag is a typical rift basin dominated by carbonate rock
provenancesthe Ningjin Uplift in the west and the
Xinhe Uplift in the east[19]. Input of carbonate debris is an
important source of carbonate sediments in the basin; as
a result, a large amount of carbonate breccia and
carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks developed
in the Es3L[20]. A large amount of terrigenous carbonate
debris decompose into carbonate silt and mud during
transportation and form carbonate-rich fine-grained
sedimentary rocks in the deepwater (Fig. 2a, b). In
addition, under warm and humid climates, the carbonate
is supplied in the form of ions or colloids through
chemical weathering, which is an another efficient
mechanism for carbonate deposition in the lake[20]. As a
result, in the Es3L of the Shulu Sag, carbonate materials
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42

are the dominant components of the fine-grained sedi-
mentary rocks (Table 1). It should be noted that avail-
ability of carbonate bedrock in a provenance is not man-
datory for development of carbonate-rich fine-grained
sedimentary rocks in the basin; rather it mainly controls
the development scale of the carbonate-rich fine-grained
sedimentary rock.
2.1.2. Intrabasinal biogenic source
Intrabasinal biogenic source is an important source of
authigenic carbonate in lacustrine basins. Carbonate
minerals can be formed by evaporation, the chemomotive
force and solution concentration required for calcite
crystallisation do not control the calcite precipitation.
Without the participation of organisms such as algae, it is
difficult to form large-scale chalk deposits in lakes[21]. The
planktonic algae and bacteria in the lake can reduce the
partial pressure of CO2 in the water body through their
metabolism, which increases the pH of the water body
and makes the chemical equilibrium shift from HCO3
toward CO32. They create a favourable microenvironment
for calcite crystallisation[6,20]. Since the cell surface of
bacteria is negatively charged, positively charged metal
ions such as Ca2+ would be adsorbed on their surface[22],
making the cytoderm the base for calcite nucleation[23].
Calcite formed in this way is called biologically-induced
calcite. The polysaccharides in the extracellular polymer
secreted by organisms, as catalysts, can weaken the bond
between Mg2+ and H2O, reducing the energy required for
dolomite crystallisation[24]. The microorganisms and the
organic matter they made of are essential for dolomite
crystallisation in lacustrine basins. Dolomite crystalli-
sation resulting from an organic environment is also
considered to be a form of biologically influenced
precipitation[25]. During the carbonate rock genesis,
authigenic carbonate minerals are closely related to the
organisms and the organic matter they are made of. Such
coexistence of inorganic and organic matter is also
present in resulting sediments. For example, intracry-
stalline pores are formed in the interior of fine-grained
carbonate crystals due to the degradation of residual
organic matter[26]. In addition, organic films and organic
filaments from the residual organisms surround the
carbonate crystals (Fig. 2c). Organisms can also control
biomineralisation through an organic matrix composed
of organic macromolecules to form calcareous organisms,
which would evolve into ultramicrofossils in special
forms (Fig. 2d). Changes in the chemistry conditions of
the water caused by intrabasinal biological activities are
the main mechanism that causes the pre-existing Ca2+
and Mg2+ to form carbonate crystals.
2.1.3. Volcanic-hydrothermal source
Hydrothermal fluid accompanied by volcanic eruption
could increase the CO2 content and alkalinity of the water
body by introducing Ca2+ and Mg2+, creating a suitable
environment for carbonate mineral crystallization [7].
Volcanic activity is common in continental rift basins due
to their active tectonic activity. For example, a large
amount of tuffaceous fine-grained clastic material has
been found in the Jimsar Sag of Junggar Basin and

Fig. 2. The fine-grained carbonates formed from different sources. (a) Well ST3, 3 816.86 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, terrigenous
detrital carbonate particles; (b) Well ST3, 3 817.01 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, terrigenous dolomitic debris[20]; (c) Well ST1H,
4 206.60 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, organic ribbon and biologically induced calcite [20]; (d) Well NY1, 3 333.71 m, the Es4U of
Dongying Sag, calcareous nannofossils[4]; (e) Well LT1, 1 136.73 m, the C 1x of Luanping Basin, microcrystalline dolomite; (f ) Well
LT1, 958.06 m, the C1x of Luanping Basin, tuffaceous microcrystalline dolomite.

 33 
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42
Luanping Basin[2728]. Volcanic-hydrothermal materials
also provide material sources for the development of
fine-grained carbonate sediments in continental rift ba-
sins. On one hand, the influx of hydrothermal fluids rich
in Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+, and CO32 increases the ion concentra-
tion and temperature required for mineral crystallisation
of the water near the spring or fault in a short time, thus
directly leading to precipitation of carbonate minerals
rich in Fe and Mg[29]. On the other hand, hydrothermal
fluids diffuse around and increase the temperature of the
surrounding water, promoting the growth of microor-
ganisms, and providing substances for biochemical reac-
tions related to biological activities in the water[30]. Influ-
enced by volcanic activity, fine-grained sedimentary rocks
with microcrystalline dolomite laminae developed in the
Lower Cretaceous Xiguayuan Formation of the Luanping
Basin (Fig. 2e).
2.1.4. Mixed source
Studying sources of fine-grained sediments in conti-
nental basins is a challenging task because different
sources can exist in the same area at the same time,
leading to the formation of sediments with mixed
sources[31]. For example, sediments that comprise a mix-
ture of terrigenous clastic and carbonate sediments, tuffs,
hydrothermal minerals have been found. Such sediment
combinations are characterised by multi-source sedi-
ments mixed within one layer, which is different from
sediments formed by a single component from a single
source. Taking the Luanping Basin as an example, authi-
genic microcrystalline dolomite and volcanic ash coexist
in some of the laminae (Fig. 2f ). Multi-source substances
not only form a sediment combination but also may be
mutually supplemental in genesis. For example, tuff can
release Mg2+ through hydrolysis, which contributes to
dolomite precipitation[27]. Mixed-source sediment combi-
nations have been found in many continental basins,
such as the combination of authigenic dolomite and
authigenic albite in the Jianghan Basin[4] and the com-
bination of terrigenous carbonate debris and authigenic
calcite in the Bohai Bay Basin[20].
2.1.5. Other sources
Sea water transgressing into lacustrine rift basins is
another source of fine-grained carbonate sediments[32]. It
affects the salinity of water in the lake and brings about a
large amount of ions (SO42, Mg2+, etc.), nutrients, and
marine organisms. In addition, during burial diagenesis,
organic matter evolution may give rise to fluids rich in
HCO3—, which can transform or have carbonate precipi-
tated[2].
2.2. Formation of carbonate-rich sedimentary rocks
After entering the lake basin, multi-source fine-grained
 34 
carbonate materials can form carbonate-rich fine-grained
sedimentary rocks with different characteristics through
interactions of physical, chemical and biological pro-
cesses in the depositional and diagenetic stages[4].
2.2.1. Physical process
Physical processes refer to mechanical transportation
in the depositional stage, including suspended deposition,
bottom current, and density current deposition induced
by waves, storms, and earthquakes[3335]. For example, in
the Shulu Sag, a large amount of terrigenous carbonate
clastic material entered the lake basin in form of clastic
flows[19] and then evolved into turbidite flows. The tur-
bidites transported fine clastic materials into the deep
area of the lake basin, which were deposited into silty
lamina with graded beddings (Fig. 3a, b). Clay-sized
carbonate mud was suspended in the water layer and
precipitated to form laminated carbonate-rich fine-
grained sedimentary rocks (Fig. 3c). The content and
grain size of terrigenous fine-grained carbonate clasts in
different laminae varied (Fig. 3d), reflecting the periodic
change of terrigenous material supply. The original car-
bonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks could be
eroded, transported, and redeposited by underflow to
form laminae with lenticular structures[36] (Fig. 3b). In
addition, it has been found that the tectonic activity of
the rift lake basin can cause earthquakes and lake seiche,
resulting in the formation of thick turbidite layers due to
liquefaction and resuspension, leading to rapid settle-
ment in form of massive fine-grained sedimentary
rocks[33] (Fig. 3e, f ).
According to the genesis and sedimentary characte-
ristics, the carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks
formed by physical processes can be divided into lami-
nated carbonate siltstones, laminated marlstones, and
massive marlstones (Fig. 3).
2.2.2. Biochemical process
Carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks can be
deposited in course of biochemical process triggered by a
series of organic reactions and microbial life activities[4, 37].
The carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks
formed that way are characterised by the development of
authigenic carbonate laminae. For example, in the Bohai
Bay Basin, carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks
with regular laminae are characterised by a combination
of microbial induced calcite laminae and clay laminae
containing organic matter[38] (Fig. 4a, b). Formation of
this rock is related to periodic change of material supply
and sedimentation in the lake basin caused by climate
and hydrological environment influences[20]. In the Eo-
cene lacustrine strata of the Jianghan Basin, carbon-
ate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks with high total
organic carbon (TOC) values are presented by the com-
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42

Fig. 3. Carbonate-rich fine-grained rocks formed by physical processes. (a) Well ST3, 3 817.90 m, the Es 3L of Shulu Sag, lami-
nated carbonate siltstone; (b) Well ST3, 3 797.77 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, laminated carbonate siltstone with graded bedding and
lenticular structure; (c) Well ST3, 3 809.50–3 809.80 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, laminated carbonate mudstone; (d) Well ST3,
3 676.60 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, laminated carbonate mudstone; (e) Well ST3, 3 897.30–3 897.60 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag,
massive laminated carbonate mudstone; (f ) Well ST3, 3 997.31 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, massive laminated carbonate mudstone.

Fig. 4. Carbonate-rich fine-grained rocks formed by biochemical and chemical processes. (a) Well ST1H, 4 206.37 m, the Es 3L of
Shulu Sag, rhythmic laminated marlstone; (b) fluorescence photo of (a), organic lamina showing bright yellow light, calcite
lamina showing yellow green light; (c) Well BY2, 2 816.49-2 816.59 m, lower part of Eq3 of Qianjiang Sag, rhythmic laminated
dolomitic mudstone; (d) Well LT1, 1 241.40 m, the Xiguayuan Formation of Luanping Basin, rhythmic laminated dolomitic
mudstone with dolomicritic laminae and tuffaceous laminae; (e) Well FY1, 3 332.64 m, the Es4U of Dongying Sag, rhythmic
laminated marlstone with sparry calcite laminae; (f ) Well FY1, 3 397.56 m, the Es4U of Dongying Sag, sparry calcite laminae and
organic-rich clay laminae.

bination of yellow dolomitic laminae and grey marl lam-

2.2.3. Chemical process
inae (Fig. 4c). The genesis of the dolomitic laminae is
considered to be related to microorganisms[12]. The supply The chemical process of carbonate-rich fine-grained
of volcanic-hydrothermal materials can also lead to the sedimentary rocks can occur in a special environment,
enrichment of nutrients in the basin[7], resulting in algal such as strong evaporation and hydrothermal influx, re-
blooms, biochemical reactions and the formation of au- sulting in supersaturation of the local ion concentration.
thigenic carbonate lamina (Fig. 4d). Carbonate materials can be directly precipitated through
 35 
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42

chemical reactions, forming carbonate-rich fine-grained

sedimentary rocks mainly composed of inorganic crystal-
line materials. For example, in the Eocene lacustrine salt
strata of the Jianghan Basin, the dolomitic fine-grained
sedimentary rock near evaporite has low organic matter
content and evaporite minerals, such as glauberite and
anhydrite. The chemical process caused by evaporation
and concentration changes are possible factors for their
formation[12].
Chemical processes are also the main mechanism of
material transformation in the diagenetic stage. The
HCO3 rich fluids can cause a change in the original car-
bonate materials[37]. During the thermal maturation of
organic matter, the discharged organic acid can dissolve
the original calcite laminae, resulting in recrystallisation
of sparry calcite[10]. Carbonate-rich fine-grained rocks
with sparry calcite laminae are formed through chemical
processing (Fig. 4e, f ).

2.3. Multi-source genetic model of carbonate-rich

fine-grained sedimentary rocks
The multi-source material is the main supply for
deposition of fine-grained carbonate materials in
continental rift basins. Main continental rift basins in
China often have provenance regions mainly composed of
carbonate rocks, basalts, and other calcium-bearing
bedrock in surrounding areas[19,39]. Physical and chemical
weathering products of these rocks can provide basic
materials for carbonate filling in the basins. Volcanic
activities caused by tectonic evolution can further
enhance or compensate the material supply of the
provenance regions by providing alkaline fluids to the
basin, resulting in the enrichment of Ca2+, Mg2+, and CO32
in the basins. In the Bohai Bay Basin, Jianghan Basin,
Junggar Basin, and Luanping Basin, sediments related to
volcanic activities are found in the formations of
carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock[4,2829,3940].
Aided by microbial activities in the basin, endogenous
authigenic carbonate materials can crystallise from the
ionic materials introduced into the basin from land and
volcanic activities. The formation of endogenous ma-
terials is a stable mechanism of carbonate material filling
in rift lake basins, while terrigenous and volcanic-hy-
drothermal sources are the basic guarantee for genera-
tion of this kind of material. These material sources are
closely related with each other and form mixed material
sources in the basin. The multi-source material supply
also led to multiple depositional processes in the basins.
Under the combined influence of physical, chemical, and
biochemical processes, a variety of different types of
carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks were
formed (Fig. 5). Just because of the multiple sources,
multiple depositional processes, and their mutual
influences, the carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary
Fig. 5. Multi-source genetic model of carbonate-rich fine-
grained sedimentary rocks[4].
rocks formed in the rift lake basins have quick changes in
material composition and sedimentary characteristics in
space and multiple lithofacies types in coexistence, and
thus strong heterogeneity, which further affect the
generation and enrichment of shale oil and gas in the
fine-grained carbonate rocks.
3. Types and characteristics of sweet spots in
carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks
Fine-grained sediments in rift lake basins are from
multiple sources and have experienced complex deposi-
tional and diagenetic processes. Hence, although gener-
ally rich in carbonate minerals, carbonate-rich fine-
grained sedimentary rocks in rift lake basins of different
sources and origins differ significantly in material com-
position, sedimentary structure, and organic matter en-
richment degree[4], which would further result in differ-
ences in reservoir quality, oil-bearing property, and hy-
drocarbon accumulation mechanisms[41]. Influenced by
the supply of materials from multiple sources, the strata
of carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock may
have various other types of sedimentary rocks, such as
siltstones, tuff, and other coarse clastic sedimentary
rocks[20,27]. These sedimentary units, together with limy
mudstone rich in fine-grained carbonate content, dolo-
mitic mudstone, and carbonate siltstone, constitute main
reservoirs of continental shale oil and gas. The sweet
spots of continental shale oil and gas are characterised by
diverse lithologies. According to the material sources, the
sweet spots of continental shale oil and gas can be di-
vided into four types: endogenous, terrigenous, vol-
canic-hydrothermal, and mixed source ones.

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 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42
3.1. Endogenous type
The “sweet spot” of endogenous type refers to hydro-
carbon accumulation in fine-grained sedimentary rock
composed mainly of authigenic minerals. The petro-
graphic carrier of this “sweet spot” is laminated carbon-
ate-rich mudstone containing authigenic carbonate
laminae. They mainly occur in the Bohai Bay Basin, Nan-
xiang Basin, and Jianghan Basin in eastern China.
Due to the low maturity of the continental shale res-
ervoirs, the development of organic matter pores is lim-
ited[42]. Hydrocarbons are mostly accumulated in the in-
tercrystalline and intracrystalline pores of inorganic
minerals[4344]. Moreover, as carbonate minerals have
weak adsorption to hydrocarbons, the oil and gas in these
reservoirs are more likely in free state[4344]. In the Eocene
lacustrine strata of the Bohai Bay Basin, authigenic cal-
cite laminae have intercrystalline and intracrystalline
pores, of which intercrystalline pores are filled with hy-
drocarbons (Fig. 6a). In addition, the sparry calcite lam-
inae formed in the diagenesis stage can develop more
interlaminar fractures, which together with intercrystalline
pores and fractures make the migration and accumula-
tion of hydrocarbons easier (Fig. 6b).
Controlled by the origins of authigenic carbonate
Fig. 6. Reservoir spaces and hydrocarbon accumulation in
the “sweet spot” of endogenous type. (a) Well ST1H, 4 209.30
m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, intercrystalline and intracrystalline
pores in calcite [42]; (b) Well NY1, 3 464.89 m, the Es4U of Shulu
Sag, interlaminar fractures between sparry calcite laminae;
(c) Well ST1H, 4 207.89 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, organic
matter-rich laminae[4]; (d) Well BY1, 3 126.32 m, lower part of
the Eq3 of Qianjiang Sag, with scattered organic matter[4]; (e)
Well FY1, 3 182.69-3 183.69 m, the Es3L of Dongying Sag,
rhythmic laminated marlstone and rhythmic laminated
marlstone with sparry calcite laminae, red arrows indicating
the potential direction of hydrocarbon migration.
 37 
laminae, organic matter is mostly enriched near or within
the laminae (Fig. 6c, d)[20, 41]. The hydrocarbons dis-
charged from their parent materials can directly enrich in
the nearby authigenic carbonate laminae to form in situ
self-sourced reservoirs. Affected by the HCO3-rich fluids
during the diagenetic stage, original carbonate materials
in local parts can be modified to form sparry calcite (Fig.
6c). Compared with the original carbonate laminae,
sparry calcite laminae have better reservoir properties
and can be favourable locations for shale oil and gas ac-
cumulation[45]. Hence, hydrocarbon migration and accu-
mulation can also occur in the self-source and self-reser-
voir “sweet spot” due to changes in the material struc-
ture.
Based on the hydrocarbon accumulation model of the
“sweet spot” of endogenous type, it can be concluded that
the generation and migration of hydrocarbons are re-
stricted to the interior of the lithofacies. The formation of
the shale oil and gas “sweet spot” depends on the hydro-
carbon generation potential and reservoir property of the
carrier lithofacies. Taking the Es4U in the Well NY1 of the
Dongying Sag as an example, this formation is mainly
composed of carbonate-rich mudstone and clay-rich
mudstone with abundant organic matter (Fig. 7). Ac-
cording to the free hydrocarbon content (S1) and oil sat-
uration index (OSI), it was found that hydrocarbons were
mainly concentrated in the carbonate-rich fine- grained
sedimentary rock with obvious sparry calcite and dolo-
mitization, this is because they have more matrix pores
developed. In addition, due to the limited migration of
hydrocarbons, the maturity of organic matter is also an
important factor affecting the formation of this kind of
“sweet spot”. With the increase of maturity indicated by
Ro value, the hydrocarbon conversion rate (S1/(S1+S2))
increases significantly, this is why the lower section has
higher oil content than the upper section. The
identification and evaluation of endogenous “sweet spots”
should not only take into consideration the potential of
hydrocarbon generation and accumulation of lithofacies
but also the thermal evolution degree of the organic
matter. Furthermore, it is necessary to study in detail the
evolution of fine-grained carbonates in depositional and
diagenetic processes, because diagenesis plays an impor-
tant role in the transformation of materials and im-
provement of reservoir properties in lithofacies.
3.2. Terrigenous type
The “sweet spot” of terrigenous type refers to hydro-
carbon accumulation in fine-grained sedimentary rocks
mainly composed of terrigenous clastic materials. Typical
example is shale oil and gas accumulated in interbedded
mudstones and siltstones in the Yanchang Formation of
the Ordos Basin[46]. They are also found in formations
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42

Fig. 7. Lithofacies, organic geochemistry and mineral composition of Es4U in Well NY1 of the Dongying Sag. S1—free hydro-
carbon content, mg/g; S2—cracked hydrocarbon content, mg/g; OSI—oil saturation index.

Fig. 8. Reservoir spaces in the “sweet spot” of terrigenous
type[42]. (a) Well ST3, 3803.80 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, in-
tergranular pores between clastic particles; (b) Well ST3,
3801.57 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, intergranular pores and
fractures.
where carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks
have been developed, such as the Zhanhua Sag and Shulu
Sag[47].
A rift lake basin can develop abundant clastic sedi-
mentary units, which are controlled by the input of ter-
rigenous materials and mechanical transport. Compared
to clay-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks, these silty
grains are more resistant to compaction, which results in
preserving more intergranular pore space. The overall
porosity and permeability of the lower part of Shahejie 3
Formation in the Shulu Sag is low owing to the influence
of compaction[14]. Rhythmic laminated marlstones formed
by biochemical process cannot accumulate hydrocarbons
due to their poor reservoir properties. The development
of “sweet spot” of endogenous type in the Shulu Sag is
limited. However, abundant carbonate siltstones and
breccias are deposited in the formation of Shulu Sag due
to the abundant terrigenous material input[19]. These
carbonate-rich clastic sedimentary units developed
abundant intergranular pores and other forms of storage
space between the clastic carbonate particles (Fig. 8),
which greatly improve the reservoir quality of the com-
 38 
pact reservoir.
As the input of terrigenous materials made the pres-
ervation conditions of organic matter poorer, the car-
bonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rock layers adjacent
to the terrigenous clastic sedimentary units have lower
organic matter abundances[47]. These fine-grained sedi-
mentary rock layers are not effective source rocks. For
example, the laminated carbonate-rich siltstone and limy
mudstone formed by geologic event in the lower part of
Sha 3 M in the Shulu Sag have lower TOC values (Fig. 9).
One of the conditions for the formation of terrigenous
type “sweet spot” is the development of migration chan-
nels connecting effective reservoir rocks and source rocks.
A previous study showed that the lower part of the Eq3L
in the Shulu Sag had high fractures in high density and
mostly high angle. The fractures can connect the effective
source rocks with reservoir rocks composed of clastic
materials, making it possible for hydrocarbons to accu-
mulate in the carbonate-rich siltstone and conglomerate
to form “sweet spots” of terrigenous type (Fig. 9).
3.3. Volcanic-hydrothermal type
The “sweet spot” of volcanic-hydrothermal type refers
to hydrocarbon accumulation in the fine-grained sedi-
mentary rocks mainly composed of materials derived
from volcanic sources or hydrothermally derived crystal-
line materials. Typical examples of this type sweet spot
are the Lucaogou Formation in the Jimusar Sag of Jung-
gar Basin, NW China[15] and the Xiguayuan Formation in
the Luanping Basin[28]. Volcanic eruption and associated
hydrothermal activities can give rise to tuff and dolomitic
mudstone in rift lake basins[30]. Tuff is a direct product of
volcanic activity. Dolomite can be either a direct hydro-
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42
Fig. 9. Lithofacies, fracture density and organic geochemistry of Es3L in Well ST1H of Shulu Sag [42]. Rlld—deep lateral resis-
tivity; Rlls—shallow lateral resistivity.
Fig. 10. Reservoir spaces in the “sweet spot” of vol-
canic-hydrothermal type. (a) Well LT1, 992.20 m, the C1x of
Luanping Basin, hydrocarbons filling intergranular pores
between tuff particles; (b) Well LT1, 958.06 m, the C 1x of
Luanping Basin, hydrocarbons filling the dolomite inter-
crystalline pores.
thermal precipitation product or an endogenous mineral
precipitated in the biochemical process induced by
hydrothermal fluid. The main reservoir space types of
sedimentary units formed by volcanic-hydrothermal
events are intergranular pores in tuff and intercrystalline
pores between dolomite crystals (Fig. 10). In the Jimusar
Sag, tuff and tuff-dolomite in the Middle Permian Lu-
caogou Formation have the highest oil content[27], and the
sweet spots appear at the locations with a high content of
tuff (Fig. 11). This is because volcanic-hydrothermal fluids
are usually rich in nutrient elements, promoting biologi-
cal growth and enrichment of organic matter after the
geological event. As a result, the dolomitic fine-grained
sedimentary rock formed in this background has better
hydrocarbon generation potential. Compared with the
terrigenous type, the “sweet spot” of the volcanic-hy-
drothermal type has reservoir and source rocks more
closer in space or lithology, and thus featuring integrated
source and reservoir (Fig. 11). Moreover, the transition
metal elements in volcanic eruption materials have cata-
lytic effect on hydrocarbon generation of the source
 39 
rock[48], which can offset the low maturity of continental
source rock, facilitating hydrocarbon expulsion of the
source rock earlier.
3.4. Mixed source type
The “sweet spot” of mixed source type refers to hydro-
carbon accumulation in fine-grained sedimentary rocks
composed of material from multiple sources. Compared
with the “sweet spots” formed under the control of a sin-
gle source, the “sweet spot” of the mixed source type lacks
a dominant material source during the depositional stage,
and fine-grained materials of different sources generally
mix together. The “sweet spot” of volcanic-hydrothermal
type may contain endogenous materials formed by bio-
chemical process besides tuff formed by volcanic eruption,
hydrothermal precipitation formed by chemical process.
It can be regarded as the “sweet spot” of mixed source
type. In addition, the terrigenous detrital and endoge-
nous carbonates can mix and deposit into another sub-
type of the “sweet spot” of mixed source type. In the Es3L
of the Shulu Sag, the original rhythmic laminated marl-
stone was eroded and transported by debris flow, and the
intrabasinal clasts deposited together with terrigenous
detrital carbonates to form mixed-source sediments (Fig.
12a). The hydrocarbon released by the parent material in
the intrabasinal sedimentary rock could directly trans-
port to the terrigenous dolomitic particles and fill in the
intercrystalline pores to form the “sweet spot” of
mix-source type (Fig. 12b, c). Compared with the
“sweet spot” of terrigenous type, the mixed source type
has lower requirement on the development of structural
fractures.
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42
Fig. 11. Comprehensive geological histogram of the Lucaogou Formation in the Jimsar Sag [27].
Fig. 12. Reservoir lithofacies of the “sweet spot” of mixed
source type[42]. (a) Well ST2X, 3 724.55–3 3724.94 m, the Es3L
of Shulu Sag, mixed-source carbonate-rich sedimentary rocks;
(b) Well ST2X, 3 722.71 m, the Es3L of Shulu Sag, detrital
carbonates and abnormal pressure fractures; (c) fluorescence
photo of (b).
4. Key issues and thoughts of the hydrocarbon
accumulation in carbonate-rich fine-grained
sedimentary rocks
Carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks are
important hydrocarbon reservoirs of continental shale oil
and gas in China. With growing exploration and devel-
opment, new perspectives of exploring shale oil and gas
have been discovered, and some key problems have been
come up. Based on the multi-source genesis of carbon-
ate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks and the charac-
teristics of hydrocarbon accumulation, the relevant
problems are summarised as follows.
(1) Multi-source supply and multi-depositional dynam-
ics lead to formation of various types of carbonate-rich
fine-grained sedimentary rocks. These rocks are different
from claystones in terms of their material composition
 40 
and are also different from carbonate rocks in terms of
their depositional models. At present, the concept and
types of carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks
are still vague; thus, the definition, classification and
sedimentary environment of carbonate-rich fine-grained
sedimentary rocks is a fundamental problems that needs
to be addressed.
(2) The wide distribution of carbonate-rich fine-grained
sedimentary rocks in continental basins indicates that
the formation of these rocks is controlled by many factors.
To date, there have been no systematic studies on the diffe-
rences in sedimentary structure, material composition and
diagenetic pathways of carbonate-rich fine-grained sedi-
mentary rocks controlled by various material sources, lake
water chemistries, basin tectonics, and climate conditions.
(3) Carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks and
other genesis-related fine-grained facies have multi-hydro-
carbon enrichment models. Different types of “sweet
spots” have different requirements for the accumulation
conditions of oil and gas. During the evaluation of “sweet
spot” of shale reservoirs, we should carefully consider
different types of shale reservoirs, perform targeted re-
search correctly identifying different types of “sweet spot”
of continental shale oil and gas, and finally tailor a suit-
able development plan for the specific accumulation.
5. Conclusions
Carbonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks are
important components of fine-grained sedimentary rocks
in continental rift basins of China, and are important
hydrocarbon reservoirs for continental shale oil and gas
as well.
The source of fine-grained carbonate materials in car-
bonate-rich fine-grained sedimentary rocks mainly in-
cludes terrigenous input, intrabasinal biochemical crys-
tallization, volcanic-hydrothermal material input and
 JIANG Zaixing et al. / Petroleum Exploration and Development, 2021, 48(1): 30–42
mixture of them. Supply of multi-source materials is the
main reason for the enrichment of fine-grained carbonate
in continental rift basins. The interactions of physical,
chemical and biological processes lead to the multi-
source fine-grained carbonate sediments and form dif-
ferent types of lithofacies.
In the multi-source system of continental basins, the
hydrocarbon accumulation of carbonate-rich fine-grained
sedimentary rocks and their genetically related fine-
grained facies are largely controlled by the material
source and forming mechanism. Such kind of fine-
grained sedimentary rocks in continental rift basins are
typified by many types, which includes the endogenous,
terrigenous, volcanic-hydrothermal, mixed-source types.
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