Module 2: Resistance, Resistivity and Conductivity

Resistivity (Specific Resistance of a Conductor)

Resistivity of materials is the resistance to the flow of an electric current with some
materials resisting the current flow more than others.

Ohms Law states that when a voltage (V) source is applied between two points in a
circuit, an electrical current (I) will flow between them encouraged by the presence of the
potential difference between these two points. The amount of electrical current which
flows is restricted by the amount of resistance (R) present. In other words, the voltage
encourages the current to flow (the movement of charge), but it is resistance that
discourages it.

But the electrical resistance between two points can depend on many factors such as the
conductors length, its cross-sectional area, the temperature, as well as the actual material
from which it is made. For example, let’s assume we have a piece of wire (a conductor)
that has a length L, a cross-sectional area A and a resistance R as shown.

A Single Conductor

The electrical resistance, R of this simple conductor is a function of its length, L and the
conductor area, A. Ohms law tells us that for a given resistance R, the current flowing
through the conductor is proportional to the applied voltage as I = V/R. Now suppose we
connect two identical conductors together in a series combination as shown.

Doubling the Length of a Conductor

Here by connecting the two conductors together in a series combination, that is end to
end, we have effectively doubled the total length of the conductor (2L), while the
cross-sectional area, A remains exactly the same as before. But as well as doubling
the length, we have also doubled the total resistance of the conductor, giving 2R as:
1R + 1R = 2R.
Therefore, we can see that the resistance of the conductor is proportional to its
length, that is: R ∝ L. In other words, we would expect the electrical resistance of a
conductor (or wire) to be proportionally greater the longer it is.

Doubling the Area of a Conductor

Here by connecting the two conductors together in a parallel combination, we have

effectively doubled the total area giving 2 A, while the conductors length, L remains
the same as the original single conductor. But as well as doubling the area, by
connecting the two conductors together in parallel we have effectively halved the total
resistance of the conductor, giving 1/2R as now each half of the current flows through
each conductor branch.
Thus, the resistance of the conductor is inversely proportional to its area, that
is: R 1/∝ A, or R ∝ 1/A. In other words, we would expect the electrical resistance of a
conductor (or wire) to be proportionally less the greater is its cross-sectional area.

Proportionality of Resistance

But as well as length and conductor area, we would also expect the electrical resistance
of the conductor to depend upon the actual material from which it is made, because
different conductive materials, copper, silver, aluminum etc. all have different
physical and electrical properties. Thus, we can convert the proportionality sign (∝) of
the above equation into an equals sign simply by adding a “proportional constant” into the
above equation giving:
Electrical Resistivity Equation

Where: R is the resistance in ohms (Ω), L is the length in meters (m), A is the area in
square meters (m2), and where the proportional constant ρ (the Greek letter “rho”) is
known as Resistivity.

Electrical Resistivity
The electrical resistivity of a particular conductor material is a measure of how
strongly the material opposes the flow of electric current through it. This resistivity
factor, sometimes called its “specific electrical resistance”, enables the resistance of
different types of conductors to be compared to one another at a specified temperature
according to their physical properties without regards to their lengths or cross-sectional
areas. Thus, the higher the resistivity value of ρ the more resistance and vice versa.
Materials such as copper and aluminum are known for their low levels of resistivity thus
allowing electrical current to easily flow through them making these materials ideal for
making electrical wires and cables. Silver and gold have much low resistivity values, but
for obvious reasons are more expensive to turn into electrical wires.
Then the factors which affect the resistance (R) of a conductor in ohms can be listed as:
✔ The resistivity (ρ) of the material from which the conductor is made.
✔ The total length (L) of the conductor.
✔ The cross-sectional area (A) of the conductor.
✔ The temperature of the conductor.

Example No1:

Calculate the total DC resistance of a 100 meters roll of 2.5mm 2 copper wire if the
resistivity of copper at 20oC is 1.72 x 10-8 Ω meter.

Solution:

Data given: resistivity of copper at 20oC is 1.72 x 10-8 Ω-m, coil length L = 100m, the
cross-sectional area of the conductor is 2.5 x 10 -6 m2.
That is 688 milli-ohms or 0.688 Ohms.

Electrical Resistivity, Rho

Electrical Conductivity
While both the electrical resistance (R) and resistivity (or specific resistance) ρ, are a
function of the physical nature of the material being used, and of its physical shape and
size expressed by its length (L), and its sectional area (A), Conductivity, or specific
conductance relates to the ease at which electric current con flow through a material.
Conductance (G) is the reciprocal of resistance (1/R) with the unit of conductance being
the siemens (S) and is given the upside-down ohms symbol mho, ℧. Thus, when a
conductor has a conductance of 1 siemens (1S) it has a resistance is 1 ohm (1Ω). So, if
its resistance is doubled, the conductance halves, and vice-versa as: siemens = 1/ohms,
or ohms = 1/siemens.
While a conductors resistance gives the amount of opposition it offers to the flow of
electric current, the conductance of a conductor indicates the ease by which it allows
electric current to flow. So, metals such as copper, aluminum or silver have very large
values of conductance meaning that they are good conductors.
Conductivity, σ (Greek letter sigma), is the reciprocal of the resistivity. That is 1/ρ and is
measured in siemens per meter (S/m). Since electrical conductivity σ = 1/ρ, the previous
expression for electrical resistance, R can be rewritten as:

Electrical Resistance as a Function of Conductivity

Then we can say that conductivity is the efficiency by which a conductor passes an
electric current or signal without resistive loss. Therefore, a material or conductor that has
a high conductivity will have a low resistivity, and vice versa, since 1 siemens (S) equals
1Ω-1. So, copper which is a good conductor of electric current, has a conductivity of 58.14
x 106 siemens per meter.
Example No2:
A 20 meters length of cable has a cross-sectional area of 1mm 2 and a resistance of 5
ohms. Calculate the conductivity of the cable.

Solution:
Data given: DC resistance, R = 5 ohms, cable length, L = 20m, and the cross-sectional
area of the conductor is giving A = 1 x 10-6 m2.

That is 4 mega-siemens per meter length.

Table of Resistivity and Conductivity

Material ρ (Ω-m) at 20°C σ (S/m) at 20°C

Resistivity Conductivity
Silver 1.59 × 10−8 6.30 × 107
Copper 1.68 × 10−8 5.96 × 107
Copper, annealed 1.72 × 10−8 5.80 × 107
Gold 2.44 × 10−8 4.10 × 107
Aluminum 2.82 × 10−8 3.5 × 107
Tungsten 5.60 × 10−8 1.79 × 107
Zinc 5.90 × 10−8 1.69 × 107
Nickel 6.99 × 10−8 1.43 × 107
Iron 1.00 × 10−7 1.00 × 107
Tin 1.09 × 10−7 9.17×106
Lead 2.20 × 10−7 4.55 × 106
Manganin 4.82 × 10−7 2.07 × 106
Constantan 4.90 × 10−7 2.04×106
Stainless steel 6.90 × 10−7 1.45 × 106
Nichrome 1.10 × 10−6 9.09 × 105