See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/326985877

Engineers' Practical Databook: A Technical Reference Guide for Students and

Professionals (Chapter 8: Fluid Mechanics)

Preprint · August 2018

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.32518.06722

CITATIONS READS

0 10,433

1 author:

Jay Smith
Blackpool and the Fylde College
2 PUBLICATIONS   0 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Trent XWB-84 aircraft engine development View project

Create new project "Engineers' Practical Databook" View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Jay Smith on 12 August 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

ENGINEERS’
PRACTICAL DATABOOK
First Edition
ENGINEERS’ PRACTICAL DATABOOK
First Edition in SI Units

This Data Book is provided for the teaching of engineering and conforms to typical teaching structure for
selected modules within HNC, HND, Foundation Degree and Bachelor’s Degree qualifications in
Engineering.

Cover: “Azure Blue McLaren P1” by Axion23, cropped, is licenced under CC BY 2.0. “F-35 Front profile
in flight” by MSgt John Nimmo Sr. public domain cropped, from defenseimagery.mil. "The Severn
Bridge" by Martin Edwards is licensed under CC BY-SA 2.0. “Gear with terminology” is licenced under
CC BY-SA 3.0. “Sine and cosine” is public domain. “Mohr’s circle plane stress” by Sanpaz is licenced
under CC BY-SA 3.0. Unit Circle Angles by Gustavb is licenced under CC BY-SA 3.0. Material
properties derived or calculated from various sources, including Materials Handbook (ASM Vol.2, 1979),
th
Granta Design (2018), Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach (Çengel & Boles, 6 ed., 2007),
www.engineeringtoolbox.com (2018), www.matweb.com (2018). Avogadro constant (2018 definition)
and atomic elements from IUPAC (2018). The author accepts no liability for any injuries or damages
caused that may result from the reader's acting upon or using the content contained in the publication.
Always consult a professional.

Whilst every care has been taken to include accurate information, the author would appreciate any
corrections to be sent to EngineersDatabook@gmail.com, quoting the page number.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise
without either the prior written permission of the author or a licence permitting restricted copying in the
United Kingdom issued by the aforementioned.

All formulae are written in SI units (m, kg, s) unless otherwise explicitly stated.

Full Textbook:
USA:
https://www.amazon.com/dp/1980619344

UK:
https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1980619344

Copyright © 2018 Jay Smith

All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-198-061934-5
Brief Contents
Symbols ................................................................................................................ 1
Units of Measurement .......................................................................................... 2
Mathematical Constants ....................................................................................... 4
Physical Constants ................................................................................................ 4
Conversion Factors ................................................................................................ 5
1. Mathematics .................................................................................................. 9
2. Materials ..................................................................................................... 55
3. Mechanics .................................................................................................... 83
4. Structures .................................................................................................... 91
5. Machines and Mechanisms ........................................................................ 101
6. Electrical and Electronics ............................................................................ 111
7. Thermodynamics ....................................................................................... 127
8. Fluid Mechanics ......................................................................................... 137
9. Systems ..................................................................................................... 149
10. Project Management ................................................................................. 153
Properties of Water .......................................................................................... 157
Atmosphere ...................................................................................................... 158

Contents
Symbols ...................................... 1
Units of Measurement ................ 2
Prefixes ........................................ 2
S.I. Units ........................................ 2
Derived Units ................................. 3
Mathematical Constants ............. 4
Physical Constants ...................... 4
Conversion Factors ..................... 5
1. Mathematics........................... 9
1.1. Algebra ............................ 9
Laws of Exponents ........................... 9
e (the base of the natural logarithm)9
Laws of Logarithms ........................ 10
Polynomials ................................... 11
Partial Fractions ............................. 12
1.2. Sequences and Series .... 13
Sum of First n Natural Numbers .... 13
Sum of First n Squared Natural
Numbers ........................................ 13
Sum of Arithmetic Progression ...... 13
Sum of Geometric Progression ...... 14
1.3. Coordinate Systems ....... 15
1.4. Complex Numbers ......... 16
Cartesian Form .............................. 16
Polar Form ..................................... 16
De Moivre’s Theorem .................... 17
1.5. Power series .................. 18
Taylor Series .................................. 19
Maclaurin Series ............................ 19
1.6. Fourier Series ................. 19
Fourier Series ................................. 20
1.7. Trigonometry................. 21
Definitions ..................................... 21
Unit Circle Identities ...................... 21
Unit Circle Angles........................... 22
Trigonometric Identities ................ 23
Sinusoidal Waveforms ................... 24
Expansion of R sin ωt+θ ............... 25
Area of a Triangle........................... 25
Law of Sines and Cosines ............... 25
1.8. Hyperbolic Functions ..... 26
1.9. Vectors .......................... 27
Notation ........................................ 27
Vector Multiplication ..................... 28
Triple Products .............................. 29
Vector Calculus .............................. 29
1.10. Matrices ........................ 30
Notation ........................................ 30
Rotation Matrices .......................... 31
Screw Matrix ................................. 31
Euler Angles ................................... 31
Determinant .................................. 32
Eigenvectors and Eigenvalues ........ 32
Matrix Inverse ............................... 33
1.11. Calculus ......................... 34
Derivatives ..................................... 34
Integrals......................................... 34
Table of Derivatives ....................... 35
Surface of Revolution .................... 36
Volume of Revolution .................... 36
Time Average of a Function ........... 36
1.12. Laplace Transforms ....... 37
Table of Laplace Transforms .......... 38
1.13. Statistics ........................ 40
Discrete Random Variables ............ 40
Grouped Frequency Distribution ... 40
Linear Regression (Least Squares
Regression Line) ............................ 41
Pearson Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient .................. 42
Spearman’s Rank Correlation
Coefficient ..................................... 42
Combinatorics ............................... 43
Binomial Formula .......................... 44
Binomial Distribution ..................... 44
Poisson Distribution....................... 47
Normal Distribution ....................... 50
2. Materials ...............................55
2.1. The Elements ................. 55
Periodic Table ................................ 59
Pure Metallic Solids – Mechanical . 60
Pure Metallic Solids – Thermal and
Electrical ........................................ 62
2.2. Steels and Alloys ............ 64
2.3. Alloys ............................. 67
2.4. Polymers ........................ 71
2.5. Specific Heat Capacity ... 74
 2.6. Ashby Charts .................. 75
2.7. Composites .................... 78
Classifications................................. 78
Two-Phase Composites .................. 79
Fibre-Reinforced Composites ......... 79
Short Fibres, Random Orientation . 81
Discontinuous and Aligned Fibre
Composites .................................... 81
3. Mechanics ............................. 83
Stress-Strain Relationship .............. 83
Uniaxial Stress ................................ 84
Shear .............................................. 84
Triaxial Stress ................................. 85
3.1. Mohr’s Circle .................. 87
For Plane Stress.............................. 87
Principle Stress ............................... 87
General Three-Dimensional Stress . 90
Yield Criteria................................... 90
4. Structures .............................. 91
4.1. Bending of Beams .......... 91
Second Moment of Area ................ 91
Radius of Gyration ......................... 91
4.2. The Bending Formula ..... 92
Plane Sections ................................ 93
4.3. Linear Elastic Beams ...... 94
4.4. Torsion of Shafts ............ 98
Max Shear Stress............................ 98
Torsional Stiffness .......................... 99
4.5. Euler’s Buckling Criterion100
Euler Buckling Force ..................... 100
Euler Buckling Stress .................... 100
5. Machines and Mechanisms . 101
5.1. Mechanisms ................. 101
Mobility (Gruebler’s Equation)..... 101
Grashof’s Criterion ....................... 101
5.2. Classical Mechanics ..... 102
Linear Terms ................................ 102
Rotary Terms................................ 102
Derivatives of Linear Position....... 102
Derivatives of Angular Position .... 102
Kinematics.................................... 103
Kinetics......................................... 106
5.3. Periodic motion ............ 109
Springs (Hooke’s Law) .................. 109
Dampers or Dashpots .................. 109
Simple Harmonic Motion ............. 109
Mass-Spring-Damper ................... 110
Simple Pendulum ......................... 110
5.4. Lagrange’s Equation .... 110
6. Electrical and Electronics ..... 111
6.1. Fundamentals of
Electromagnetism ...................... 111
Ohm’s Law ................................... 111
Resistance .................................... 111
Inductance ................................... 111
Capacitance ................................. 112
Stored Energy .............................. 112
Reactance .................................... 112
Complex Impedance .................... 113
6.2. Transformers................ 114
Induced EMF ................................ 114
Ideal Transformers ....................... 114
6.3. Electrical Machines ...... 115
Lorentz Force ............................... 115
DC Machines ................................ 115
AC Machines ................................ 116
6.4. AC Power...................... 117
Single Phase ................................. 117
Balanced 3-Phase ......................... 117
Star-delta Conversions ................. 118
Complex Waveforms.................... 118
6.5. Electronics .................... 119
Circuit Diagram Symbols .............. 119
Diodes .......................................... 120
Field Effect Transistors ................. 120
Bipolar Junction Transistors ......... 121
Bipolar Amplifier Configurations .. 122
Operational Amplifiers ................. 123
Logic Gates ................................... 124
Boolean Algebra ........................... 125
Resistor Colour Code Table .......... 126
7. Thermodynamics ................. 127
7.1. First Law....................... 127
Internal Energy............................. 127
7.2. Second Law .................. 128
7.3. Ideal Gas Equations ..... 129
Ideal Gas Law ............................... 129
Combined Gas Law....................... 129
Specific Heat Capacities ............... 130
7.4. Isentropic Processes in Gas
Turbines ..................................... 130
 7.5. Cycle Efficiency ............ 130 Mach Number.............................. 145
Ideal Cycle Efficiency ................... 131 Ram Air Recovery ........................ 146

7.6. Heat Pumps and 8.4. Jet Engines ................... 147

Refrigeration .............................. 131 Propulsive Power ......................... 147
Coefficient of Performance .......... 131 Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption 147
Propulsive Efficiency .................... 147
7.7. Carnot Cycle ................ 131 Thermal Efficiency ....................... 147
Overall Efficiency ......................... 147
7.8. Heat Transfer .............. 132
Sensible Heat ............................... 132 9. Systems ...............................149
Conduction .................................. 132
Convection ................................... 132 Transfer Function ........................ 149
Composite Slab or Laminate with First Order Systems ..................... 149
Fluid Boundaries .......................... 132 Response to a Step Input ............. 149
Solid Expansion ............................ 133 Second Order Systems ................. 150
Work ............................................ 133
Power .......................................... 133 10. Project Management .........153
7.9. Flow Equations ............ 134 Earned Value Analysis .................. 153
Change in Enthalpy ...................... 134 Performance Indices .................... 154
Steady Flow Energy Equation (open
system) ........................................ 134 Properties of Water .................157
7.10. Diffusion ...................... 135 Atmosphere .............................158
Fick’s First Law of Diffusion.......... 135
International Standard Atmosphere 158
Fick’s Second Law of Diffusion ..... 135
Troposphere Model ......................... 158
The Arrhenius Equation ............... 135
Standard Atmosphere Table ............ 159
8. Fluid Mechanics ...................137
8.1. Statics .......................... 137
Static Pressure ............................. 137
Buoyancy Force ........................... 137
Surface Tension ........................... 138
8.2. Dynamics ..................... 139
Stagnation Pressure ..................... 139
Bernoulli’s Equation..................... 139
Mass Continuity ........................... 139
Dynamic Viscosity ........................ 139
Reynolds Number ........................ 140
Pipe Friction - D’Arcy’s Formula ... 140
Laminar Friction Factor ................ 140
Stokes Drag .................................. 140
Pipe Roughness............................ 141
K-Factor of a Pipe Fitting ............. 143
Mass Continuity (Control Volume)
..................................................... 144
Momentum Continuity (Control
Volume) ....................................... 144
Navier-Stokes Equation ............... 144
8.3. Aerodynamics .............. 145
Lift and Drag Coefficient .............. 145
Induced Drag Coefficient ............. 145
Speed of Sound ............................ 145
SYMBOLS
Name Uses
alpha Angles, angular acceleration, thermal expansion coefficient
beta Angles, coefficients
gamma Heat capacity ratio, kinematic viscosity, shear strain
𝛤 Gamma Circulation (fluid dynamics)
delta Difference, damping
∆ Delta Difference, determinant (matrix)
Strain, permittivity (electromagnetism), electromotive force
epsilon
(EMF), random error (regression), emissivity (thermodynamics)
eta Efficiency
theta Angle, temperature (thermodynamics)

κ kappa Curvature (=1/R)

Thermal conductivity, wavelength, eigenvalue, parameter in the
lambda Poisson Distribution (mean, variance)

mu Friction coefficient, dynamic viscosity

nu Kinematic viscosity, Poisson’s ratio
rho Mass density, resistivity (electrical), curvature (alternative to r)
𝜎 sigma Normal stress, standard deviation
𝜏 tau Shear stress, torque, time constant (electronics)
𝜑 phi Angles, heat flow, potential energy, magnetic flux
psi Helix angle (gears), stream function (fluid dynamics)
omega Angular velocity

Ω Omega Electrical resistance (ohm)

ζ zeta Damping ratio

𝐴 Area (m2), current (A)

Diameter (m)
Young’s modulus (Pa)
Shear modulus (Pa)
Mass moment of inertia (kg m2), area moment of inertia (m4)
Polar moment of inertia (m4)
Radius (m)
Volume flow rate (m3/s), heat flowrate (kW)
Volume (m3), velocity (m/s)
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
PREFIXES
Symbol Prefix Multiplication factor
P peta 1 000 000 000 000 000
T tera 1 000 000 000 000
9
G giga 1 000 000 000
M mega 1 000 000
k kilo 1 000
−
d deci 0.1
−
c centi 0.01
−
m milli 0.001
−
μ micro 0.000 001
−9
n nano 0.000 000 001
−
p pico 0.000 000 000 001

S.I. UNITS
Symbol Unit Quantity Dimension
m metre Length [L]
kg kilogram Mass [M]
s second Time [T]
A ampere Electric current [A]
K kelvin Temperature [θ]
cd candela Luminous intensity [I]
mol mole Amount of substance [N]
 DERIVED UNITS
Quantity Unit Symbol Base Units
−
Force newton N
− −
Pressure and Stress pascal Pa
−
Torque newton-metre N∙m
−
Energy, Work, Heat joule J
−
Power watt W
−
Frequency hertz Hz
−
Plane angle radian rad =
−
Solid angle steradian sr =
Luminous flux lumen lm
−
Illuminance lux lx
−
Kinematic Viscosity stokes St
− −
Dynamic Viscosity poiseuille Pl
−
Magnetic Flux weber Wb 𝐴−
−
Magnetic Flux Density tesla T 𝐴−
− −
Electrical Capacitance farad F 𝐴
Electrical Charge coulomb C 𝐴∙
− −
Electrical Conductance siemens S 𝐴
−
Electrical Inductance henry H 𝐴−
−
Electrical Resistance ohm  𝐴−
Potential difference/
volt V 𝐴− −
Electromotive force
MATHEMATICAL CONSTANTS
Symbol Value Description
. … Base of the natural logarithm

𝑖 √− Imaginary unit

Ratio of circumference to
. … diameter of a circle

°/ = . …° Radian

PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Symbol Value Description
−
Speed of light in vacuum
− 9
. × Elementary charge ( +

Electric constant (permittivity of

. free space, or vacuum
− − −
× 𝐴 permittivity)

Magnetic constant (permeability

− −
× 𝐴− of free space, or vacuum
permeability)

. / Standard gravity
− −
. × Gravitational constant
− −
. Universal gas constant

− −
. Specific gas constant for dry air

−
. × Avogadro constant
1. FLUID MECHANICS
1.1. STATICS
Static Pressure
The change in static pressure in a barotropic, compressible fluid is given by:
ℎ

Δ =− ∫ ℎ
ℎ
For an incompressible fluid, this simplifies to:

Δ =− Δℎ
−
= 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 [ ]
−
= 𝑖 𝑖 .
ℎ= 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 [ ]

A barotropic fluid is one whose pressure and density are related by an equation of
state that does not contain temperature as a dependent variable.

The static pressure p2 in the manometer below is given by:

= + Δℎ + Δℎ

𝜌 𝛥ℎ 𝜌

𝑝 Δℎ

[ − ]
= 𝑖
′ −
= 𝑖 .

Buoyancy Force
=
= 𝑖 𝑖 [ ]
138 Fluid Mechanics

Surface Tension
𝐹
= cos ≈ ℎ 𝜃 𝜃

[ − ]
= 𝑖 ℎ
(capillary action)

Needle supported by surface tension

= cos
FRONT
SIDE
𝜃 𝜃

Pressure of a drop or bubble

Liquid Drop Hollow Bubble

𝛾 𝛾 𝑅
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 =
𝑅 𝑅 𝑃𝑖
(Two surfaces)
𝑃𝑜

Fluid Surface tension [10-3 N m-1]

Acetone (propanone) C3H6O 23

Crude oil, light Hydrocarbons 32
Crude oil, heavy Hydrocarbons 37
Ethanol (Ethyl alcohol) C2H6O 22.3
Ethylene glycol C2H6O2 48.8
Mercury Hg 465
Water H2O 72.8
Properties are at 20℃. For comparison, water at 100℃ has a surface tension of
59 × 10-3 N m-1.
Fluid Mechanics 139

1.2. DYNAMICS
Stagnation Pressure

𝑎 𝑎 𝑖 = 𝑎 𝑖 + 𝑦 𝑎 𝑖 = +
−
= 𝑖 [ ]

Bernoulli’s Equation

+ + ℎ=

For inviscid, incompressible, steady, irrotational flow, the sum of stagnation pressure
and elevation pressure is constant along a streamline.

𝑎 = + +ℎ

The total head (i.e. internal energy) of a fluid is comprised of the static pressure head,
velocity head, and elevation head.

Mass Continuity
̇ = ̇
=
𝐴 ⃗ ∙̂ = 𝐴 ⃗ ∙̂

[ − ]
= 𝑖
𝐴= [ ]
[ − ]
⃗= 𝑖
⃗⃗ = 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖

Dynamic Viscosity
For an isotropic Newtonian fluid

𝜏=

𝜏= ℎ [ ]
[ ]=[ − −
= 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 ]
−
= 𝑖 𝑖 [ ]
= 𝑖 [ ]
140 Fluid Mechanics

Reynolds Number

= 𝑖
= ℎ 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
= ℎ 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ

Pipe Friction - D’Arcy’s Formula

Head loss through a pipe

ℎ =

Pressure loss through a pipe

∆ =
= − 𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 .

Head loss through a fitting

ℎ𝐿 =

= 𝑖 𝑖 , 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ

Laminar Friction Factor

Stokes Drag
Flow past a sphere at Re<2

𝑎 = ∞

∞ 𝐷
Fluid Mechanics 141

Pipe Roughness
Absolute Roughness
Pipes (Material)
microns [ −𝟔 𝒎]
Drawn tubing (glass, brass, plastic) 1.5
Copper 1.5
Aluminium 1.5
PVC 1.5
Red brass 1.5
Fiberglass 5
Carbon steel or wrought iron 45
Stainless steel 45
Cast iron-asphalt dipped 120
Galvanized iron 150
Cast iron uncoated 250
Wood stave 100-200
Ductile iron 2,500
Concrete 300 – 3,000
Riveted steel 1,000 – 10,000

Fittings L/D
Globe valve 340
Gate valve 8
Lift check valve 600
Swing check valve 50 – 100
Ball valve 6
Butterfly valve 35
Flush pipe entrance (sharp corner) K=0.5
Flush pipe entrance (radius >0.15) K=0.04
Pipe exit K=1
Tee through 20
Tee branch flow 60
Elbow (90 degrees) 30
Elbow (45 degrees) 16
142 Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics 143

K-Factor of a Pipe Fitting

Fitting Types 𝑲
Standard (R/D = 1) 0.4
45° Elbow
Long Radius (R/D = 1.5) 0.2
Standard (R/D = 1) 0.8
90° Elbow Curved
Long Radius (R/D = 1.5) 0.5
90° Elbow Square or Mitred 1.3
180° Bend Close Return 1.5
Tee, Run Through Branch Blanked 0.4
Tee, as Elbow Entering in run 1
Tee, as Elbow Entering in branch 1
Tee, Branching Flow 1
Fully Open 0.2
3/4 Open 0.9
Gate valve
1/2 Open 4.5
1/4 Open 24
Fully Open 2.3
3/4 Open 2.6
Diaphragm valve
1/2 Open 4.3
1/4 Open 21
Fully Open 6
Globe valve, Bevel Seat
1/2 Open 9.5
θ = 5° 0.1
θ = 10° 0.3
Plug valve θ = 20° 1.6
θ = 40° 17
θ = 60° 206
θ = 5° 0.2
θ = 10° 0.5
Butterfly valve θ = 20° 1.5
θ = 40° 11
θ = 60° 118
Swing 2
Check valve Disk 10
Ball 70
144 Fluid Mechanics

Mass Continuity (Control Volume)

Integral Form

= ∫ +∫ ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗ 𝐴=
𝑉
=
⃗= 𝑖
⃗⃗ =
𝐴=

The mass change within a control volume plus the mass flowing out of the surface of
the control volume equals zero.

For incompressible flows, there is no mass change term:

=∫ ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗ 𝐴=

Differential Form

+∇∙ 𝒖 =

For incompressible flows, the divergence equals zero:

∇∙ =
Momentum Continuity (Control Volume)
⃗
= ∫ ⃗ +∫ ⃗ ⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗ 𝐴=
𝑉

Navier-Stokes Equation
𝒖
+ 𝒖 ∙ ∇𝒖 = −∇ + ∇ 𝒖 + 𝒈

The Navier-Stokes Equations are analogous to Newton’s Second Law applied to an

infinitesimal unit volume. The LHS includes the material derivative and is analogous
to mass times acceleration. The RHS is analogous to net force.

The material derivative of an infinitesimal fluid packet is equal to the sum of the
negative pressure gradient, shear forces, and body forces.
Fluid Mechanics 145

1.3. AERODYNAMICS
Lift and Drag Coefficient

𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 = = = =
∞ 𝐴 𝐴 ∞ 𝐴 𝐴

= 𝑖 =
𝐴= [ ]

Induced Drag Coefficient

𝐿
𝑖 =
𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑖
= 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖

e is the wing span efficiency value by which the induced drag exceeds that of an
elliptical lift distribution, typically 0.95-0.99.

Speed of Sound
=√ 𝑇

𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ . 𝑖
− −
𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 . 𝑖
𝑇𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 [ ]

Mach Number
=
[ − ]
= 𝑖
[ − ]
=

Air is generally considered incompressible below M = 0.3.

146 Fluid Mechanics

Ram Air Recovery

To calculate ideal ram air temperature and pressure recovery (e.g. NACA
scoops, engine intakes):

−
𝑇𝑇 = 𝑇 ( + ( ) )

𝛾
− 𝛾−
𝑇 = ( +( ) )

𝑇𝑇 = [ ]
𝑇 𝑖
𝑇 𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 ℎ 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 ℎ . 𝑖
The actual recovery pressure is slightly less than the total pressure due to
losses:
 Fluid Mechanics 147

1.4. JET ENGINES

Propulsive Power
=𝑇∙ ∞ = ̇ − ∞ ∙ ∞

𝑇= ℎ [ ]
[ − ]
̇ =
[ − ]
∞ = 𝑖
−
= ℎ 𝑖 [ ]

Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption

̇
=
𝑇
[ − ]
̇ =

Propulsive Efficiency

= 𝑣
+ 𝑣𝑒
∞

Thermal Efficiency
𝛾−
−𝛾
𝛾
= −( ) = −( ) 𝛾

= 𝑖 [ ]
= 𝑖 [ ]
= 𝑖

Overall Efficiency
=

View publication stats