CHAPT2 4 Masonry Materials-I

(Mortar and Brick)

CHAPTER OUTLINE
24.1 MASONRY MORTAR
24.7 BOND PATTERNS IN MASONRY WALLS

24.2 MORTAR MATERIALS AND SPECIFICATIONS 24.8 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INITIAL RATE OF
ABSORPTION (I RA) OF BRICKS
24.3 MORTAR JOINT THICKNESS AND PROFILES
24.9 THE CRAFT AND ART OF BRICK MASONRY
24.4 MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS
CONSTRUCTION

24.5 DIMENSIONS OF MASONRY UNITS 24.10 EFFLORESCENCE IN BRICK WALLS

24.6 TYPES OF CLAY BRICKS 24.11 EXPANSION CONTROL IN BRICK WALLS

Masonry is one of the oldest building materials. Sun-dried clay (adobe) bricks were
used as early as 8,000 BC. The origin of stone masonry is generally traced by historians
to the early Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations, which existed around 3,000 BC.
Indeed, until steel and portland cement were discovered in the mid-nineteenth cen-
tury, stone was the only building material available for the construction oflarge building
structures and bridges.
The history of architecture is replete with examples of magnificent buildings in which
dressed (and partially dressed) stones were used in almost every building element-walls,
columns, beams, arches, roofs (vaults and domes), and floors. In some buildings, the
stones were so large that historians have differing theories as to the hoisting apparatus used
by the builders at the rime.
The history of architecture is also a testament to the durability and aesthetics of stone. Ir
is these properties that render stone a matchless material even for present-day buildings,
particularly chose chat require durable and maincenance:free facades, Fi_gure 24. l. In fac t,
together with glass, stone is one of rhe most-used macenal for the extenor facades of con-
temporary skyscrapers. . . . . . . .
Whereas stone is un iquely suited fo r cladding high-me and s1g?1ficant bu1ldmgs,
0 ther masonry materials such as brick and block, are more economical facade alterna-

tives and are widely used'. If we lump all masonry materials together, we observe chat rhe
use of masonry on contemporary building facades exceeds that of all ocher mate rials
combined.

549
r PART 2
MATERIALS ANO SYSTEMS
OP CONSTRUCTION

I
1 dding material in the J. Paul Getty
f Italian travertine use~ a~ c ~ The building in the background is
FIGURE 24.1 (a) Split-~ace (cl~a t~omplex of several burld1:~:e-sy of Dr. Jay Henry)
Center, Los Angeles, Cal1fom1a . Richard Meyer. (Photo co
clad with metal panels. Architect.

FIGURE 24.1 (b) Smooth-surfaced limestone cladding, Morton Meyerson Symphony Center, Dallas,
Texas. Architect: I. M. Pei and Partners.

UNIT MASONRY

Because bricks are generally made from clay, brick masonry is also referred to as clay masonry.
Block masonry is called concrete masonry because the blocks are made from concrete. BeGl~
masonry is laid unit by unit (e.g., brick by brick or block by block), it is also referred to as un_rt
masonry. Bricks and blocks are, therefore, called clay masonry units and concrete masonry umli
(CMU), respectively.
Masonry units are bonded together with monar to yield a composite building component-
generally a wall. Thus, m~nar ~s the common ingredient in all masonry construction. Morcarl~ss
masonry, although poss,ble, IS uncommon and has relatively few applications; it is not d~
cussed m this text. Because mortar 1s common to virtually all masonry we discuss lt first,
followed by a discussion of bricks. Ocher masonry materi'al · l d' ' CMU srone, and
l . u mg
s, me , .
g ass masonry, are cl.1scusse
. . Chapter 25 Masonry
cl m discussed in
Ch apters an
26 cl 28 · construction systems are
50
 1 M"soNRY MORTAR
,i. -~ ,'1
. h"mJc-r ,~mc-mmous matni.tl)
J
I ••
I'll
Cl-IA PTIJH 2•1
M ASON RY M Al'liK l/\l~- 1
,1111.,~-lime ,,,mpri..o;c the hinJn. and the m1;/is 1 <'r , -111 ~: \\'.tlC'f. Pnnbnd .-c111r111 ( MOR1'AR ANU DIIICK)
,._: h,,lrJ hc-r \\i th th(' rc-qui~I nu.1ntin- f • S.lnJ. \\; hen tht'Se th rt'\' demc111 s
r ~\I'~ "~ . ,
• n· fu1Klh'll ,,f m.1.~,11n· mnrtu is Ill L
. '' \\Jlc-r.Illlort.tr rc-suh,
I' ..nolll . I· • ••
11'( 1· . 11. ~ -JU~ nmn.1r. .m 11-S .· · nt,n, I 1c m.1sunn.• unit ·
rl.1s1ic SI-li e, i, ,Ii hi . • ., . s l~llll ,Ill ·lllll'~f-1 I
,r"" " -"JL~ 1101·,,. k in":- mt,~11't\.1 Th'1s n I I 1· I .1 e. ll mnlds Hsdl Ill ihc surfan·
1 - 1, ,,111i-
, ...,,,. ·,1 JI~,!'!\'' ,·J
' . . • . L · · L . o on •y ,cl,,s .s(\I I i I,c'"·'II ,1g.11·11s1 \V:lll'f and 11ir
C'S a ,\1:,111on llC't\\-een the unit s
·,'¥"11'"'· 11,r ,·mh1,rn . .1Iso ,·11mpc-ns . . •
a1cs Im sit ..
·. · h . . .
,,. 11< 11,,,rt I 1- . c v:trt,llllllls ctween mdtv1d\l'II units
I . no.,runt ro c () mortar 1s to provide s ~ I · ··
,ih({ 1011 · · · · t· . J I
\ fl'
~ •" Ill• ··
1. ,.,, ll 01,,rr:ir llllll s .m ,.,_, or •mtc-n"C't11.ton urL . ..ace
,_
' ,,,m(lcr
h . 10 mason I)• thruu11h c-
uc., nil t C llllll S.

~ABILITY AND WATER RETENTIVITY NOT E

,,,oMoRTAR: THE Rou OF LIME
of d . Mortarless Masonry Walls
,u,;h rortlan ~cm~nt IS t hC pnmary ·
cememitious
-~ . ·1in mort".tr. hmc- m~parts se,·e.r-.u useful and impor- Acommon contemporary use of rnortarless masonry Is In aegmental
~ ,rerti(S l'O the plastK as \\"C'll as the hardened mor- retaining walls. Mortarless masonry Is extremely uncommon In a
rs-~1 r"' he pl:isri, (wet) state of mortar, lime improves irs conventional wall.
¢ Int J .. A
~1;-Jhilicy an \\"Jter ~cenav1~·- . . mormr comprising If a mortarless masonry wall (also called dry-stacked masonry) 11
",itl,.nd ,--ement only (w1thouc hme) 1s coarse and, hence, used in a conventional wall, the units may need grinding to provide
a smooth bed surface. To provide bending resistance In a rnortarless
I' tl-;ible. In the hardened state, lime improves the masonry wall, the voids in the units may be grouted and reinforced,
ks:<· ",:)~,ranee ot- t he ,v-.u - 'I built
·-·'l - A \\r.u · w1th
· pordand
.'ii({ . and/or both surfaces of the wall may be coated with a surface-bonding
1 :ind lime mortar 1s more watertight than a wall material, such as plaster.
~ ith only partland cement monar.
i-uIn Chapter 21 , \\re _observed rhat the workability of concrete is a quantifiable property.
Ibis is not ~e case wtth "?onar. The workability of mortar is difficult ro quantify because
. 61 funcuon of several mterdependent factors. However, a mason with even a limited
~ t of e.~ence and training can easily distinguish between a workable
and a non-
- le mortar. _ _
Aworkable mortar is cohesive and spreads easily on the units using a trowel. Because of NOT E
• cohesiveness, it clings to the venica.l surfaces of the units and the trowel without sliding
~ -It o'UUdes easily so chat excess mortar in the joints can be troweled off without
the
ll)(llt3f dropping off or smearing the units. A lay (and rather crude)
explanation of the dif-
bfflcr between a workable and a nonworkable mortar is the difference between spreading
1 Cfe2.lllY (more workable) and a crunchy (less workable) peanut butter on
a piece of
masted bread.
Anocher important property of plastic mortar is its
nttr recentiviry. This is the ability of mortar to retain
N OT E
wmr "~chouc letting it bleed out. A mortar with good
wmr recentivity remains soft and plastic for a long period
Autogenous Healing
rJ time and allows only a limited amount of water to be Because a lime-based mortar is somewhat el
absorbed by che units. crack. However, if cracks are formed, the ca
Water r~centivity and workability are directly related to them. In the carbonation process, lime absorbs
dioxide (see Chapter 21), which increases Its
ach ocher. Excremely fine sand particles, air-entraining increase helps to fill the voids caused by drying
agrn15, and lime increase the workability and water retentiv- cement and by flexural cracking of masonry-, protess
iy of monar. While a certain amount of water absorption autogenous healing.
by the uni ts is necessary for the bond between che mortar The term autogenous healing has been borrowed
and the units, excessive water retentivity is to be avoided and refers to the natural healing ~ of human
bcause i1reduces che strength of the bond. bone in the body fractures, a surgeon simply at·
in their original position and sustains them in tijat
cast. The fractured pieces fuse together automa~ ly In
Although the healing of a bone fracture is complex, it i$
WATERTIGHTNESS OF A MASONRY WALL: to the calcium In human bones-$imllar to the calcium in.Ji
THE ROLE OF LIME
lime also improves the elasticity of hardened mortar. In other words, a lime-based mor-
i.s able to flex somewhac in its hardened scate. This reduces the cracks caused by the
· g of a wall under lateral loads. Lime also provides an autogmous healing pro~erty
monar. Aucoge nous healing refers co the self-sealing of small cra~ks produced enher
·n the monar or at the interface between che morcar and che units. The cracks may
1 from eiiher che bending messes in masonry or the drying
shrinkage of portland

5;[
 PORTLAND
PAR'r 2 MORTAR STRENGTH: THE ROLES Of
MJ.re1ttA1A M o/I) S'YITJ1.I O CEMENT AND LIME
°" CoNmucrioN 211y of interest:
Two strength propcnia of mort ar are gcnef
• Comprcsiive mength
• Flexural teruile bond mcngch
ve srr~ngth of mortar, the mo .
Although KVeral factor& aff« t the comprwi
~ we "'.' JI o~scrve later, the to~t 11l!Po,,_
factor is the monar's ccmcnritiou.s content. ~
lime) in various types of mo rr~ ~°"~
M•eon,y unit cementitiow conrenr (porrland cement plus 1 • . J>orrla rrI! r~
r to the amo unt of san d• 1 ne re anve propomons of
- r1- t~
con.S tant with resp« d~
and lime are, however, different. ses h
with mpc ct t~ lime increa
Mortar Increasing the amount of port/and cement
y, increasing the amount of lime wirh respc t c IIJo,,.,
compressive strength. Conversel . e strengch · Because mortar 1s. an inrq to~ ""· ~..,.,
rhe mort ar 's compressiv
cement decre ases
e_scr~ngth of the wall, Figure?~ Part 0(1
masonry wall, its strength affects the comprcssiv
which IS a property only of the Ill ·
Unlike the compressive strength of mortar,
strength is a property of the masonry wall. It
is a meas~e of the bond between th;ia,' ~
an unreinforced masonry waJ/ is sub '~
units and the mortar. It comes into play when . ~ ~i
.
bending (flexure), Figure 24.3. n·
both a chemical and a mccha
The bond between a masonry unit and the mortar JS ~<:al¼
~ ion of several factors'. such as
Therefore, the bond strength of masonry is
funct
re applied_ ~et n ~ -ti
nry units , surfa ce rough ness of units, wo~ ansh 1~ (such as the pr~
FIG~RE 24.2 Beca use a maso wind and hunudiry), and so 'lllir,
osed of maso nry units and ar the time of mortaring), curing condiuons (a1r temperature,
wall ,s comp between the mortar and the u . .Ori,l.
mortar, the compressive strength of rhe Another important factor that affects the bond .
f water m mortar muse be sufficienrl h· "(
OJts(!
wall is a function of the strength of the amount of water in mortar. The amount o h . te crevi•ces in. masonry un· Yrgli lo
units and rhe strength of the mortar. rhe mort ar can flow and be suck ed into r e mmu
char
units _and the m~rrar. Everything c~-~
develops and improves the bond between the
cement m mortar with respecc to lime in~ /Jg
the same, increasing the amount of pordand ~
the bond strength of masonry. · . .
The bond strength of masonry is pertinent p
onr y~in
an unreinforced masonry wall, such as mas ,en~
in an unreinforced mas on~ backup wall.
In a ven; ,or
NOTE
Flm,raJ Tensile Bond Strength
reinforced masonry wall, Figure 24.4, steel
resists ~exural tension. There(ore, from a purely
reinfor ~
m::
in a reinforctd
viewpomt, the bond strength JS not relevant
iences tensio n as well as
A waif subjected to bending (flexure) exper masonry wall (Figure 24.4).
n. These stress es are referred to as flexural tension and
comp ressio
flexural compression, respectively. Beca
use unreinforced masonry is Y
n, the flexural tensile REQUIRED STRENGTH OF MASONR
relatively stronger in compression than in tensio MOR TAR
strength of masonry is more critical than
the flexural compressive
strength. strength ofi
ed masonry wall) The foregoing discussion indicates that the
Because flexural tensile strength (of an unreinforc it is called masonry wall is directly related to the stren gth of the mor-
r,
is due to the bond between the units and the morta (Figure 24.3). tar. Ir also indicates that an incre ase in lime (with respccr
strength
flexural tensile bond strength, or simply bond the stren gth of morrar and,
As stated in the text, bond strength is not
relevant in a masonry wall co portland cement) decreases
(Figu re 24.4). nry wall, bur it increas es me
provided with steel reinforcing bars to resist bend
ing hence the strength of a maso
wall's waterrigh rness .

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

in Mortar
A Historical Note on Cementitious Materials
nry mortar con- dioxide in air. Because air contains only abou
t0
Before the discovery of portland cement, maso
ntitio us mater ial) and sand. After the dioxide, the settin g and hardening of lime are sf
sisted of lime (as the ceme o
nd ceme nt, maso ns disca rded the use of llme ting and harde11ing of portland cement, on the
discovery of portla
portla nd ceme nt and sand. The due to portland cement's reaction with water ,
and made the mortar using only
r to portla nd ceme nt morta r was instinc- is generally far greater than that needed for the
change from lime morta a much
tive and spontaneous because portland ceme nt gives reaction.
nd ceme nt sets and
stronger mortar than lime. Addi tiona lly, portla
lay more
A few decades later, however, It was disco
maso ns to
walls made with portland cement mortar leake
d
hardens far more rapidly than lime, allowing asing the
lime morta r, incre mort ar. The invest
masonry units per day than using than thO$e made with lime
masons' produ ctivity. walls' permeability to water has led to our
Remember from Chapter 21 that the settin
g and harden- the importance and benefits of using lime in
its carbo natio n react ion with carbon masonry mortar.
ing of lime are due to

552
 __. Maeonry erout

__. ~e-- V,rtl'-11 etul

__. relnforum,nt
__.
11'1'1 __.
IJ ~
~.., 11 __. f-----~ DETAIL OF
__. JOINT Ae eoonaeth,
mortar joint opene
__. Wall In fle,cunil
unelon
OPENING
up, the unelle etreee
In the wall I• reeleud
b,y et.el reinforcement
-+
-+
-+ \
• 11
l)RE 24 .3 A wall is subjected to flexural tension when it is subjected 10
flG al ioads (wind or earthquake). The flexural tension can lead to the wall 's FIGURE 24.4 Flexural tensile stress in a reinforced (a nd
~1er . Because the bond between the units and the mortar is much k
eking. h f h . h wea er grouted) masonry wall is resisted by the bond between
crJ
,,n h iensile strengt o. .t e units, t e wall generally cracks at them ort ar
te the masonry and mortar only until the mortar joints have
11• h t is the mortar 1oints open up.
· inls, ta ,_ h h . fh · opened. This is the case with relatively small lateral
~ This illustration s_ows t e opening up o onzontal mortar joints caused loads. As the load increases and a mortar joint opens, the
ihevertical bending of the wall. If the wall bends horizontally, vertical entire tensile stress is now borne by the steel reinforce-
by will tend to open. ment. The bond between the masonry and the mortar is
jo'nlS
now irrelevant. For a three-dimensional illustration of a
(vertically) reinforced masonry wall, see Figure 25.7.

Awall's watertightness is just as important as its strength. In face,

t,och wacerrighmess and strength_ are somewhat interrelated. Water
penetrating a wall c?rrodes stee_l remforcement, ties, and other embed-
ded accessories, which may ulnmarely reduce the wall's strength. The NOTE
111asonry industry, therefore, favors a relatively low-strength mortar for
11105r masonry walls.

t8
Anorher reason for choosing a low-strength mortar is to ensure that
if the cracking of a masonry wall occurs, it should occur in mortar • Workability of mortar
joints, not in the units, because it is much easier to repair a broken • Water retentivity of mortar
mortar bed than a broken masonry unit. Because a low-strength mortar • Watertightness of masonry wall
~ more workable, it provides better workmanship and full coverage of
joints and, hence, a more watertight wall. In fact, a general recommen-
dation for masonry walls is:
Specify the weakest mortar that will give the required performance.
• Strength of the mortar, and
However, there are structures in which the strength of masonry is hence, strength of the masonry
more important than its watertightness, such as the walls located in wall, particulary the wall's flexura

'
high-wind or seismic zones and heavily loaded interior walls. In these tensile bond strength
structures, a high-strength mortar is recommended. --
4.2 MORTAR MA TE RIALS AND SPECIFICATIONS
onar is prepared at the construction site in a small mixer (see Figure 21.19). Hand mixing
"th ashovel is appropriate only for a very small job. The amount of water needed in a mar-
mix is nor controlled by specifications but left to the discretion of the mason to obtain
required workability. Water for mortar must be clean, parable, and free of impurities.

ATERIALS FOR MASONRY MORTAR

onland cement used in mortar is the same as that used in making concrete (see Chapter 21).
Generally, Type 1/11 porrland cement is used. Lime for mortar is Type S lime (see
Chapter 2I).

553
 PART 2 The sand used in monar is referred co as masons sa11~ It may be manufactured s
MAn aw..s AND SYSTl!MS ( ulvcriicd scone) or mined from nacural sand ~epos_1ts. It _m~st conf?rm to AS ¾d
OP CoNsnucnoN / cificacions, which require specific grading (p~mcle size vananon). This gtadin '.~
pc • d ne•rl)' 30% voids within a given volume of sand. The voids g gives
l he mason s san • • d
spaces between individual sand panicles, which are filled by che bm er (pordand care thc
crncn
and lime). t

PROPORTION SPECIFICATIO N-PORTLAND CEMENT

AND LIME (PCL) MORTAR
Because the cementitious materials fill the voids between the sand particles, ch
amount of cementitious compounds in a masonry mortar is almost fixed. Mortar spc _total
a mortar to 1e berween zl4 to 3 times
.
tions require the amount of sand m 1· . ec1fica
the amoun ·
cementitious compounds-portland cement+ lime (PCL) . The sand: PCL ratio is av~ of
memc · rauo,
· not a we1g
· ht rauo.
· In oth er wo rds·. lu.

Volume of sand (ft-3) = 2 _25 to 3 _0

Volume of PCL (ft-3)

The range allows the masons to adjust the mix for workability and water retentiv•
lty Of
the mortar.
Varying the relative proportions of portland cement and lime in a mortar mix provides d"f.
ferent types of mortar-referred to as Types M, S, N, and 0 , Table 24.1. Different mo 1 •
types have different recommended applications. rtar
Mortar Type M has the maximum amount of portland cement and hence the I
. . easc
amount of lime. It gives the strongest mortar. Because of its 1ow 1•~e content, Type M
mortar is the least workable, is less elastic in its hardened state, exhibits more shrinkag
and, therefore, results in a wall with greater potential for leakage. It is not recommended 6e,
use in walls, except below-grade (foundation) walls. It may be used in interior masot
floors for its greater strength and abrasion resistance. (Exterior masonry paving is generallry
mortarless.) y
Type O mortar has the least amount of portland cement and the maximum amounr of
lime, and hence is the weakest mortar. Because of its low strength (and hence low durabi[.
iry), Type O mortar is not generally recommended for use in contemporary exterior walls.
The most common use for type O mortar is for tuck-pointing repairs of old historic
masonry.

TABLE 24.1 TYPES OF PORTLAND CEMENT PLUS LIME (PCL) MORTARS BASED
ON MATERIAL PROPORTIONS

Strongest M
•- e-r ,-,
1
As per ASTM specifications, Interior masonry floors, foundation walls, parapet
Mortar the amount of sand for all types walls, and so on
1--- - + - - - - - -0v
--1 of mortar is 2¼to 3 times the
s Load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls in~
1 • amount of cementitious materials
to ,-
1-----+-- ----..!.--- or high-wind regions, chimneys, and so on
i (PCL). Generally, however, the
N Over t amount of sand used is 3 times General-purpose mortar for exterior load-bealft
to 1¼ (PCL). Thus, in Type S mortar, and non-load-bearing walls r
1----+---- -....::..--- l if PC • 1 ft3 and L .. 0.5 ft3,
Weakest a Over 1¼ the amount of sand is 3(1 + 0.5) = Interior non-load-bearing walls in nonsei
Mortar to 2½ low-wind regions
4.5 ft3
'------'-- --------- l

' The amount of water should be as much as that required for workability by the mason.
This recommendation is unlike that in concrete, where, for strength reasons, the minimum
amount of water is recommended to produce the required workability and consistency.

554
 attON Srccu1cAttON u~1Nc M~\o~a,
f"'. rO l Oil MOI 141 Cl MOH
,~tN
• i.. 111
,, , ,
I m.-uo, u "dmntonh·· u~. ~ nricbk- , .•
-- ·J u nwnt11101t1 mn mf
•IQ{
r fttVlf J4. ~ A h J~ N m.114r ,ri11y r f ffl«'flt l'M14
- "" hlfi,l o, 1,·,111..Jhk h• .'-' "-,Id 1,, ....,,....,., ••n w11 , nd . ~. •·
ti ,.IY .ln.11111: .ti 1yru l'v1, .J ,
.I . L L
i i \Ill ,., ~ 1.. I ~
,...u11' H \ I nil\, 10 PUJU\kt ,1 f t'nl' \ motu, IL I
, I 'f'. h ,1 , · ,·- · •• nu.,nn umr r m1us ,.1·t v(
· ..1.,
, :111n· mmu.1 wit 24 tO J h of u.nJ f lkn u no _ _, 1. _ _1
~ lfll"' • 1,uu lo UH M:p,&l.llf JlOfli.rno
rn.tlinK' ~\,
t'fll. b
, u.c 11f 1,nc· i.g m.nonry lcmmt prn: luJn thr nca! 10 mr-.uurr ,rnd m11 1hc
fli ,,11®' maim.al, on •lit, thu, wmplif')•ing ,he: r•tJMm10n of mon;u. Ir .also rnuhs
fl1')tW 1ha1 " mort•. ~'On"'tcnt an qU.tluy .and .appt-..u.ancr dun .i PCl. monar. In
t . ,,.n, \.·cmcn1111uu, nu1cn.al, .a, .. , . .r,ory LI - .1.....1 _,. _ · 1·
I'' ,en , • . . • ~ •- utCnUQJ unuc:r .i nncrcr qua 11y-con-
tfl';1wnmcn1 than a " 'c•m.1~c-d ll(.l. .":'on.a,.
M:»t'"~' "'°ntcnt_nuy_~"O~L.ain ~cmrnuu~ m.11~ other 1h.an ponland ccmenr and
conr21n ,,ulvcriu-J lim~ tonc_1~ pl.aa of lim<. 1 o improve 1he workability of mortar,
manuta~'tul'\'rs US( :ur-cntratmng agenu in their nwonry cement. Th i-, reduces the
1,(-tW«n 1hc units and rhc morur. Coda rccogniu these faro by reducing the aJlow-
t,onJ stl'(ngth of masonry built with muonry cement monar.
Anorht'r P"'blcnded cemc~ritio~ m'. x for monar is called mortar cnnmt. Like masonry
c, i1is also a one-bag mix, bur It differs from masonry cement in that it gives the same
dsrrtngth as PCL mortar. Masonry codes treat mortars made with mortar cement or
as being equivalent. Like masonry cement, mortar cement bags are available in Types
I S and N.
I

NOTE
OPERTY SPECIFICATION OF MORTAR
alrcmarive way to specify mortar is by its properties, similar to the way concrete is
•ficd. The most distinguishing mortar property is its compressive strength, determined
crushing 2-in. X 2-in. cubes after 28 days.
By tcSting the cubes, the amounts of cementitious materials can be established in the
ratory co give the required mortar strength. The proportions so established are used in
ucing the mortar at the construction site. The sand content in a mix obtained from
specification is generally greater than that used in the proportion specification
to 3 times the cemencitious materials).
onar produced in the laboratory using the property specification is referred to
Type M mortar if its 28-day compressive strength is at least 2,500 psi, as Type
orcar if its compressive strength is at least 1,800 psi, and so on, as shown in
le 24.2.

PAN D YOUR KNOWLEDGE

M, S, N, and O are the al ord substitute for Type O mortar) to simu
rk: only lime rnortars we"' ~ .
Type K
c;ement and 2½ to 4 parts lime.
SoNwOrK Types M, S, N, and O have been
ough the letter Kdoes not:tep~ ~~ ASl'M_ arid IV (or Types 1, 2, 3, and 4) becau
type, it is used in preservation wotk (f&;f1'00ru ppropnate ottier. Each ty · •

555
 MA·, 11"'~••AMr, 11v, 111 ... , f AUi I 14.:l \ fl(I N(, I fl', Of MOIO /\J( I Yl'I \
UA ',f IJ C>N l'J(( Jf'J fl I Y i,pf ( 11-I( Af I< JN',
IWU1r. ,11w1 fJl iJoi

M
I
N
0

PROPEMTY SP EC IFI CATION VERSUS PKOPOR"rlON

SPECIFI CATION OF MORTAR
The u,c of the property s1m:ificution in place of rhe proportion 11pccifica1ion lead
economy i11 the U#c of ccmcntlriou# materials. In other word11, a mortar type: l~'ktca1t,
portion 1pccificatio11 gcnernlly has greater mength than that given in Table 24.2 b 0~ Pr1J.
u1c:11 n greater amount of cc:mentitious material#. ' · Ut" il~1
Hecau8C the properry 1pecification rec1uires laboratory prcconmuction tt:Ating, ..
cumbc:rwmc co. follow and cnfo~ce .. Th~refore, the use ~f property spcci~cation i,':~; ~t
uncommon. It 11generally u,ed ,n muar1on8 where a unique mortar type 1s needed ai,1/dy
the available materials do not meet the required specifications (e.g., sand docs not Ill or ~t
don requircmcnu). cetg,ada.
The 1pc:cifier must use only one type: of spccificatio .
•t:', • • •t:', • n, c,iL.
property spec1r1cac1on or proportion spec1r1ca11on, not bo h •icr
project. If neither is specified, the proportion specificati;n fora
erns by default. SOI'·

WHITE AND COLORED MORTARS

In a typical brick masonry wall (in running bond, sccScc .
24.7), mortar occupies nearly 20% of the wall's facade areat:
remaining 80% is occupied by the bricks, Figure 24.6. Thercf:,c
the color of mortar and the profile of mortar joints conirib '
greatly ro the: aesthetics of a masonry wall. Ult
Half mortar Half mortar White mortar joints against dark-colored masonry uniti pr
Joint thlc:kneee Joint thlokneee vide hands.om~ contrast. White mortar a~ainst white or ligh:
colored units gives pleasant harmony. Whtte mortar is ob1ainl'l!
61n, by using white pordand cement and white: sand. White masonry
7-e/6 In. cement is also available:, Figure 24.7.
Color pigments can also be added to a mortar mix 10 produce
a colored mortar. In colored mortar, white pordand cement (or
white masonry cement) and white sand are generally used 10 pro-
vide greater control of mortar color.
Clay matonlf unr. (J,rfok)

Arca of brick surface = 7-5/8 X 2-1/4 = 17 .2 in ~

Arca of brick and mortar surface = 8 X 2-2/3 = 21.3 in ~
Area of mortar = Difference between ubovc areas= 4.1 in .2
Percentage mortar area = (4.1/21.3) 100 = 19.2%, or say 20%

FIGURE 24.6 In o1 typit:,il (modulo1r) l,ri! k w<1 II, mortar ocrupics

nearly :L O'½, c,( th1 • WiJ II'~ (•l1•vo1tiun, " ~ ~hown hy th e 1.1ku lari '.,n~.
·1he red d.i~hed line~ repH•~1·nt lhl' 11·nt1·r l11w~ of 1h1· mort.ir )Ulllh FIGURE 24.7 A rypc N wh ite masonry
;iround one 1,riLk unit. I ( 'llU'lll bJ !{,

556
 -- PRACT IC E Q I uz
. 1¢ Oflly one correct answer. 5elect choice
the that
~~ best c. the quality d woi\mafflhip.
ti~ ti! (]JU is generally used as an acronym for d. the curing of 11101W.
'- anof the above.
r ..
tJl1' .-nnrv unit
I-~cJ1f fllP"" • undefbed.
b. Concrete mason
d. COocrete ry unit 9. For a masonry wall, the compressive strength of mortar should be as
> c1'f ~ undefbed. ll\asauy Undeibed. high as economically feasible.
: ~ rnaterial(sl in contemporary masonry mo.tar ~ True b. Fake
10. Masonry mortar types are classified as
r-
J. ~Al rJ ......-nt
---wid =·-·
P"':::...4 ee,necii and sand.
b. 1·
1me.
d. port! nd
~ Types M, S, N, and 0 .
c. Types 1, 2, 3, and 4.
b. Types I, II, Ill, and IV.
d. Types P, Q, R, and S.
: ~ (t!l1ll!lll lime, and sand. a cement and lime. ,. either (b) or (c).
e, ~ following materials increases the mo.tar's 11. The mortar with the highest compressive strength is
J. 1~:·~ ? ~ Type M. b. Type I.
,:·-...,r joint profile b. Portland cement c. Type 1. d. Type P.
• ':: d. lime 12. The mortar~ commonly used in an exterior masonry veneer
c- ,'II of die at,ove wall is
r- -1 ...., following materials increases the mortar' . ~ Type S. b. Type N.
~ (JI u... s compress1Ve
~~ .....ml C. Type I. d. Type II.
;II"~ joint profile b. Portland cement '- Type P.
• sand d. lime 13. ~ mortar commonly recommended for use in masonry walls in
c- ~)I of die above seismic regions is
r, ~rJdie_following materials increases the mortar's workabil' ? ~ Type I. b. Type II.
,. I~ ~ r joint profile b. Portland cement rty c. Type P. d. Type S.
, . Type N.
• sand cl. lime
c- ,'II of die above 14. Mortar may be specified either by proportion specification or by
r,
wall made of portland cement mortar (without lime) is more property specification. Which of these two is more commonly used?
'-~than a wall made of portland cement and lime mortar. ~ Proportion specification b. Property specification
1 True b. False 15. When mortar is specified using proportion specification, various
a.
n,e fteXUral tensile bond strength of a _masonry wall is relevant in solid materials that constitute masonry mortar are proportioned
7, an unreinforced masonry wall sub1ected to gravity loads. based on their
~ wet weights.
~ an unreinforced masonry wall ~bjected to lateral loads. b. dry weights.
c. a reinforced masonry wall subJected to gravity loads. c. wet volumes. d. dry volumes.
._ e. none of the above .
a reinforced masonry wall subjected to lateral loads.
e. all of die above. 1&. A preblended cementitious mix for masonry mortar is available as
~ PCL cement b. masonry cement.
L11ie flexural tensile bond strength of a masonry wall is a function of
c. mortar cement. d. (a) and (b).
a. lhe ~ slrength of mortar. ,. (b) and (c).
l lhe type of masonry units.

24.3 MORTAR JOINT THICKNESS AND PROFILES

Amasonry wall consists of horizontal and venical mortar joints, referred to asbed joints and
bwi joints, respectively (Figure 24.6). For aesthetic and practical reasons, both joints are NOTE
gmerallyof the same thickness. The diameter of wire used as
1
The most commonly used mortar joint thickness is in. This thickness has been estab- i.- joint reinforcement is limited
lished after considering several facrors, including the embedment of joint reinforcement in to a maximum of half the mor-
morcar._ The mortar's ability to provide a cushion between the units and to absorb their tar joint thickness, that is, to a
dimensional variations implies that the mortar joints cannot be too thin. diameter of f6 in. in a i-in.-
thick mortar joint See Section
25.4 for a description of joint
MORTAR JOINT PROFILES reinforcement
The monar joint profile affects not only the aesthetics of the wall, but also the water
rt1 1stance of che wall. Some commonly used mortar joint profiles, as shown in Fig-
ure 24.8, are

' Concave joint

' Raked joinc
' Flush joinc
: Weathered joint
St ruck joint

557
 )

CONCAVE JOINT ,calla" JolnU ,r11 wmmonly uffd In ,.,~

l~rlor ti,~k will• C•• •hown llm-11), In Uilt
hoWgr,,ph, u,, d11p$h ot
~,,,,..uJ ve~,, Yilnt.
ji,,&MUH Ula lff ht le falling 1 Ppt,,,
w,11 •t: • low (gr,,tlll(:I) ang'41, °" ~

CONCAVE AND RAKED JOINTS Rfaui1:c

SPECIAi. TOOL.6; SEE FIGURE 24,28,
FLUSH, WEATHERED, AND STRUCK JOftrre
ARE MADE WITH A TROWEi..
RAKEDJOINf

STRUCK JOINT
FLUSH JOINT WEATHERED JOINT

FIGURE 24,8 Commonly used mortar joint profiles.

The most watenight joint profile is the concave joint. It is obiaintd br

FIGURE 24.9 Spalling of bricks due 1.0 freeze-thaw
action. In freeze-rhaw action, the waler absorbed by a
wall expands on freezing, producing compressive
stresses in the wall. Over repeated freeze-thaw cycles, a
wall (made of a low-strength material) spalls, that is,
crumbles and falls off.
cooling the joint with a cylindrical tool that compresses the monar ag.i~
itself and the units (Figure 24.28). Because most water penetrates aIIUir.i! ·
wall through the unit-co-monar interface (relatively little penecratts du:},
the units or the morcar), compressing che mortar improves the seal~~
the units and the mortar. A concave joint is also more resistant co frctzt-din
damage, Figure 24.9.
The compression and the resulting seal provided by a concave joiniz:t
not provided by other joint profiles. That is why a cooled concave joint J'lf}
file is generally recommended for all exterior masonry.
For interior masonry, raked joints and flush joints are common. W
joints highlight the units by providing deeper shadows within che morw.
This effect is dramatized if the light falls at a low angle co the wall. The dis-
advantage of raked joints is that they collect dust. Flush joints are Wtd fur
interior masonry where dust is a concern. Between weathered and mud:
joints, the weathered joint gives greater water resistance by directing mt
water away from the joint.

24.4 MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS

In North America, brick (clay) masonry is generally used either as an exterior or an int~
wall cladding material , for example, brick veneer (see Chapter 28). The high screngui_a1
bricks makes chem durable against freezing and thawing and against slow erosion bycw-
water and wind-important requirements for an exterior fin ish. Several brick manufaaui·
ers make their bricks with a compressive strength of 6,000 co I0,000 psi. Clay _masolllY~
also suitable as an exterior cladding due co its mass, which provides high fire res!Slanct
so und-insulating properties (see Chapter 8). Finally, constructing a brick wall reqUlfe! 1
558
 . -r.if1. This gives brick facades h .
cl oI•.t;Is sue
• 1c1'
I1 as .
suc:-cast concrete: pran nest c:ttc characrcr not availabIc in or her (HAP'l'llR 24
r1r Jc111• . 111•cc of. a Im.ek 1:tc-Jdc:
~-~" ,1cn,1 • c:cast concrc:t
c:, or msuIatcd metal panels.
r:
conveys . . MASONI\Y MATtlR IAI.S-1
,.,, 1'P'·1r. I
~ ·t'hC ~ . .1 frequent y .111 s1gm. 'fi cant
civic hlan
•i-•·image of pc:rmanence ancI srab1ltry;
. . bnc .k ( M OI\TAI\ AND 8111CK)
Id_·'
re ,1scu . k . b fu I II
,crial, bnc 1s y , rt 1c: most widd ___ umgs. schools . d II f.
1 ' an co cgc campuses. In ,let,
1.-1" le n1a
ir 1
·
:1,~11 . I -ircng1h of 1,nc
L • k
s sI1ould make tiYll;\\:U 111atc:rial
I . • 1·11 contemporary
. bu,·1dmgs.
·
; J,rJtc t,1~ 1 sHowever, tIus . 1.s not tI1c: case The: icm a og1cal ·I1 . r I 11 .
. . • c.: 01cc 1or Oal - >carmg wa II
·,,,,~.
111 . . . I . reason is that it i. l'ffi I . I
,Ji,- II r reinforce 1t wit I steel bars than a . ' s more c 1 1m t to msu ate
11'I 11"1 n ,
•ri,k • 1,v construct1on, tI1e load-be·uing•• concrete
c II •
·1
• ,ry wa , ·11cre10rc,
nnsm r , I
m oad-
11111s1H .'
..,,~11~. ·k .,s :i facade matena I (sec: Chapter• 28). omponcnt is g.cncra II y concrete masonry,
1'' ,
1r, hJ,nL
JI
• ~ MANUFACTURING
d~tC '. I·s for ma k'mg bricks
. , r·iw matcn.1 ' •ir~ cl,
p
· · rt1) • d I I
• ~ ..y an s 1a c Th
,1,e pri 11 ·1 1 le -ire the oxides of silicon and •I , · · . c two main · ·
,,,·. lL s ,a . • .. ummum Som consmuents
1('1:1)' :11 ,1ct·1l oxides, which are particularly resp :bl c e m_m_or components are iron
ill I 1,r 1 • • ons1 e mr g1 b· k· db
l~,I ,,1,,~/I11·1·l' ·ind light-colored bricks arc made by u . I h. v1_ng
• ·
J d1· . 1 . . I removing whatever metal
sing c ay t ·1t 1s nc IIitsdre,., •· rown
·
I 1x1< c~ ,\Ill 'd . . '. natura Y enc1ent 111
• ox1 cs are present Ill tt Wh't b . ks
,r.1 l , • •xpensive than the normal (red-brown) bricks . I c nc are gener-
~i,
Jl'At1111111>0~ 1r- 1110dcrnII technology
· I d has substantially chang~d the d .1 f b . k
• eta1 so rte manuractur-
r:

•, 0 1
...
111l·onceptua y s11np e an conststs of the following six · operattons:
. NOTE
1•'0'
, Mining d:1y fro_m _the ground Difference Between Clay
, Grinding and s1~vm? clay to a fine powder and Shale
, Mixing water with sieved clay Clay Is available at lhe surface
1 for111ing wet clar into the desired brick shape (green bricks) of the earth. Therefore, clay
, Drying green bricks and surface clay are synony-
, Firing dried bricks in a kiln mous terms. Shale Is also clay,
but it is available deep in the
Brick shapes can be formed by one of the following two methods: ground. Because of the pres-
sure of the overlying material,
, Extrusion of wet clay through a die--txtruded bricks shale has hardened to a high
, Molding wet day-molded bricks compressive strength, almost
equaling that of stone.
XTRUDED BRICKS
eextrusion of wet clay is done by forcing it through a die, which yields a column of clay that
· es over a moving belt, Figure 24.10. The process is similar to the extrusion of toothpaste
ugh acube. The die consists of conical rods, which create core holes in the clay column. The
-sectional dimensions of the clay column determine the length and width of the brick.
As the clay column moves foiward, a wire cutter, consisting of a number of parallel
· s, cuts it into individual bricks, Figure 24.11. The spacing between wires is the brick

(a)
RE . k ( ) A wet clay column emerging from the
2 M,111utacture of extruded (clay) bnc s. fa
·(bl o·ie4,10 8 •ck Company, Fort Worth Texas)
niuuth with conica l rods. (Photos courtes}, o Acme n '
559
~IGURE 24.11 /\ I,11,u y wii,• l'llllt•r llll, llw 11'1'1, l.1y , 011111111 FIGUKE 24.12 Srni1e 111,111uf.iclurcr~ rnak1J bri ck~ wi1h IJJ~t ial I
11 ~10 ~\'Vl'r,11111 irJ.., in 111w 11.1,,. \1 1hol11 rnur11•, y 11f /\t 111,• llrit , urf,l<'t' ll'Xlllrl'S1h,11,1rt' applict.l lo lhe wel d ay tolumn Wilh
k 1t
( n111p,111y, I \lrl Worlh, I1•,,1,) rol ,iin11 li•xlurccl drum~. (l'holo courlc~y of Acme Brilk Cc,rn
' r,
forl Worth, Tcx,1s)
rany
,
height. If any surf:Kc texture is to be applic~ to b_ricks, it is. applied before the cutting
operation, hgurc 24. 12. If no surface texture 1s applied, the brick has a smooth surface fin.
ish resulting from the pressure applied by the steel die as the clay passes through it. Thai ii
why the smooth texture is referred to as die skin texture. A few other commonly used surfaq
finishes arc shown in Figure 24.13.
Afrer the bricks have been cut, they are transported to a drying chamber, in which the
temperature ranges from \QQ°F (38°C) to 400°F ( I 50°C). Bricks must be dried before
being fired in the kiln to prevent cracking of green bricks. The heat used in the drying
chamber is the exhaust heat from the kiln where the bricks are fired .
The kiln used in modern brick manufacturing plants is a long, tunnel kiln, Figure 24.14.
Cars of dried bricks move slowly through the kiln on a rail. The kiln temperature varies from
nearly 400°F at the entry point of the dried bricks to a maximum of about 2,000°F (I, Ioo•q.
At nearly 2,000°F (I, I00°C) , clay particles soften (virtually melt) and fuse together, creating
a hard, strong brick. Fired bricks are removed from the kiln, sorted, strapped in cubes, and
stored in the yard until delivery to the construction site, Figure 24.15.

(ORE HOLES IN EXTRUDED BRICKS

Extruded bricks have through-and-through core holes. The primary reason for core holes is
that they lead to more uniform drying and firing of bricks. Although the core holes reduce

(a) 5mooth-teKtured brick (b) Wire-cut te><ture

FIGURE 24.13 A fpw uf il ll' (c) Tumbled-brick te><ture (d) Rock-face te><ture
sl•ver,,1 textu re, ,tvJi l,,ble 0 11
,•xtrudcrl bri, k, .

560
 CHAPTER 24
MASONRY MATIJ RIA L.S-1
(MO RTAR AND BRICK)

URE 24,14 A tyµic,11tunnel kiln . (Photo rnurtesy of Acme Brick Company, Fort Worth, Texas)

URE 24.15 A typica l storage yard at a brick manufacturing plant.

bearing area of a brick and, hence, the compressive strength of masonry, the improved
·t strength resulting from uniform firing compensates for the bearing area reduction.
re holes also improve the bond between the bricks and the mortar. The number and
of core holes are manufacturer specific, depending on the size of the brick.

lded bricks are made by force dropping individual lumps of wet day into brick molds,
e 24.1 6. The excess clay is scraped off the molds, and green bricks are removed from
mold immediately thereafter. Modern brick manufacturing is highly mechanized, and
ral bricks can be molded in one single pass rather than by the historic molding of indi-
ual bricks, Figure 24.17. In both extruded and molded-brick manufacturing, there is Core holes in an
extruded brick
e, if any, manual handling.

RE 24.16 Individual lumps of wet FIGURE 24.1 7 Several hundred bricks are molded in
are used in forming molded bricks. one single pass in the moldi ng machine. (Photo courtesy
courtesy of Acme Brick Company, of Acme Brick Company, Elgin, Texas)
, Texas)

561
~Jff 2

FIGURE 24.18 Two of the sc-veral shapes of frogs used in molded bricks.

Bccawc the day-wua mix is pushed under prmute ~ a die f o r ~ bricis, . .

A typical molded brick.
fairly soff mix. By conuaa, the day-w.ucr mix for molded bods IDUS[ ~~ fllOrt ~ll i
the water evapoara, ic leaves voids in bricb. Conscqucndy, a molded brick JS ~ .\
and tofta man an auudcd brid. However, molded bods ar_e prcfcmd by some~~
ownm because they do not h2ve the macbinc~ (more prcase) appear.ma o f ~ ~
Whereas an extruded bride has through-and-through core holes, a mo!dcd bride ~ 1
depression, referred co as a fo,g. The frog C2Jl take ID211Y _shapes, dq,cn~ on ~ lllanllfc.
turcr. Two such frogs are shown in Figure 24.18. In bymg the molded bods ma wall, die
frog faces downward, so that any water entering the wall will not be hdd by the frog~

24.5 DIMENSIONS OF MASONRY UNITS

A masonry unit (both clay bride and concrete blodc) has three cypcs of dimensions:

• Specified dimensions
• Nominal dimensions
• Actual dimensions
Half mortar The specified dimension of a masonry unit is the finished dimension that the
jolm thlckneee
specifier has requested and the manufuaurer desires to achieve. However, bo::wsc
Nominal dlmenelon the manufacturing pr~ is not perfect, the IICflllli dimmsions ofa unit are dilfoatt
from the specified dimensions. The difference between the specified and aaual

-
5pealfled dlmenelon
dimensions of a masonry unit muse lie within the dimmsiona/ toltranaesabfuhed
by the induscry for char product.
----------------~
I
I
I
I
The nominal dimension of a unit is the specified dimension plus one momr
joint thickness. The nominal dimensions of a unit refers co the space occupied

-
I

-
I
I
I
I
I
by one unit (and the associated mortar) in the wall. Thus,
•----------------- Nominal dimension = specified dimension + one mortar joint dimension
Difference between the specified and nominal i
Because the standard mortar joint thickness is in., the nominal dimension
i
dimensions of a masonry unit. The red dashed lines of a masonry unit is in. greater than the specified dimension. Thus, if the
represent the center lines of mortar joints. ?i
specified length of a masonry unit is in., its nominal length is 8 in.
In practice, the nominal din:iensions of units are generally given, and the inch labels are nor
used. Inch marks are used with the specified dimensions. Thus, if
A unit's nominal dimensions = 4 X 2j X 8
. = 385 ID.
Ics spect'fi1ed d'1mens1ons . X 241 ID.
• X 7s5 ID.
•

SEQUENCING MASONRY UNIT DIMENSIONS

Observe che sequence in which the unit's dimensions have been stared. The width (W, i.e.,
through-the-wall dimension) is scared first, followed by the face dimensions-height (H) X
length (L). Specifying the unit's dimensions using a sequence ocher than W X H XL may
confuse the subcontractor, manufacturer, or supplier.

HOLLOW VERSUS SOLID MASONRY UNITS

Boch bricks and concrete blocks generally contain voids. In the masonry industry, a solid
masonry unit is less than 25% hollow (2::75% solid cross-sectional bearing area). A hollow
masonry unit is 25% or more hollow.
Masonry unit dimensions must be
Mose bricks are solid units because their total core area is less than 25%. A brick without
stated in the following sequence:
cores must be specified as 100% solid. A l 00% solid brick is generally used for paving or as
W X H X L.
coping at the cop of walls. Because brick-manufacturing machinery is set up to make cored
or frogged bricks, I 00% solid bricks are special bricks.
562
 PRACTICEQUIZ
·------ -----··-·-····-
. t,as only one correct answer. Select the choice that best 22. Thi, nominal dimension of a masonry unit whose actual dimension
~
jOll - equals 71 l,i. Is
tile commonly used mortar joint thickness Is L 71n. b. 7¼ in.
mos' b. l 1n. c. 7i In, d, 7iIn.
fi"' d. lln. •· none al the above.
}in- 23, A masonry unit that has no voids (e.g., no core holes) is referred to as a
L 101ld unit. b. 100% solid unit.
1in~ the following mortar joint profiles should be specified for c, (a) or (b).
•or walll
~tefl ve inint b. Raked joint 24. A masonry unit t~at hliS 20% voids (e.g., 20¾ core hole area) is
coocah wnt•- d• wea thered joint referred to as a
flUS 1-·
-. IC)lld unit. b. hollow unit.
SIJU'k joint c, partially l\ollow unit. d. none of the above.
that t,ave core holes are
eXll"ded bricks. b. molded bricks. 25. In specifying the dimensions of a masonry unit, which dimension is
(al and (b).
stated first?
a. Length, L, of the unit b. Height, H, of the unit
that have frogs are c. Width, W, of the unit
eX(ruded bricks. b. molded bricks.
26. In specifying the dimensions of a masonry unit, which dimension is
(al and (b).
stated lastl
primary reason for providing core holes in bricks is to a. Length, L, of the unit b. Height, H, of the unit
,educe the weight ~ bricks. . .
c. Width, W, of the unit
vide uniform drying and firing of bricks.
:rease the shear resistance of masonry walls. '
of the above.

,6 TYPES OF CLAY BRICKS

are available in various sizes. The most commonly used brick is the (extruded) modu-
3i
. k,which measures in. X 2¼ in. X ?i
in. Its nominal dimensions are 4 X 2¾ X 8.
of the other commonly used brick sizes are shown in Figure 24.19.

ES OF (LAY BRICKS BASED ON USE

used in different applications must obviously be different. The bricks used as face veneer
have lower dimensional tolerances and be more weather resistant than the bricks used in

.}518\n }~/8\n,

MODULAR BRICK UTILl1Y BRICK 61N.JUM50

4x2-2/3 x 8 4x4x 12 6x 4x 12

}~/8\n.

NORMAN &RICK KING SIZE BRICK

4 x 2-2/3,c 12
3•3/8 ,c 3 x 10

Commonly used brick types. 563

r PART 2
MATERIALS AND SYST6MS
OP C O NSTRUCTION
.
l'CSISl:llllt tlrnn fitc:11111 ,r11.~ U ... ~
k «d ;,. p,,lni ooO flnn,ln~ m"" i,, m, --- ,
backup brick w•.Jls. SimilMly, ihckhn1' ~ ·'k". s,,mc of rhc ~1111111111nly Hp~dfictl
• , e, I • .,.. r ,, .. , 111l 11r1~ ,. • • hrl• ikrt 11lir,,i11
~ ry i lc11 jl(•1
• Fud ng brkks---sulid or hollow
• Building brkks- rnlid ur hollow
• Pnving bricks- I00% sulid
. II , scd In fiu:e veneer~. d11: IIHC of,fi1c111~
,
hri ·k.,
BCllluse duy 111usu111)1 un its ore i;cnclll > 11• I I
.I II
the must cu111111011, u uwc, )
I
J b , 1111 vill" 111· ~· <H 1111t •t,,,ilclinu
fl
brickH
•
Wt •Ii
' • ~ rl" '" "ll11 '''k
•C.: IINH
"' .. I I I dncd from npplicnhlc• A S'f'M lcic rh
types here. l11fur111uriu11 ,,uulll u1her iypc~ 11111>' IC (I l I
• Ma1111 ijrcl,,
trc

FACING BRI CKS

• .
I•:1c111g bm. : kS lll'e useu. 1 Ill
, • I cxi crlor or in1 crlo1· wnllNund lll'e d
CKj)USCl -
,m ificd OH r, 1II
ftWi:
• Type FBS, in whld 1 the: dimensionul wlcrnnces, d ~ippn.ge, ur~t.1 worpage
nrc st,1111
fur the inclusrry (hem:e rhe lener S in die iypc ,tes ignuuon). ,1ypc ~'IIS
iHthe dc/'11/
spedficntion for fod ng bricks. In od1er words, whi: rc no Iype is spcc,ric:
d, 'l'ypc l'Basl'!' ' It
provided. ,
• Type FBX, in which rhe lowest dimensionnl rolernn~e~_.,ch,p1~ :,gc, and warpagc arc le
mitred. In orher words, rhe dimensionul rolernnccs 11~ 1Yl~e I BX are smalltr
NOTE than11111 1•
Pennirte d in Type FBS. The lem:r X in rlu: rype desig_mwon, .sta nd8
• Tvhe d .I I . forI' cxtmsnc·c·
,. ia1'1t
ASTM and Facing Brick ✓r FBA• which is sp.ecially mnnu focturc wi t '. I arge variatio ns 'uncnsi on ·
rural effects, and warpug e co produce nrchirec runi f:ac111
. I . k (h in
! , lex
, , ) g m e s cncc the letter ,1 .·
'O\e most frequently referenced h d IO
Mndard for facing bricks Is t e type es1gn:1t1on .
ASTM C2 16, "Standard All fudng bricks must meet rhe durability requirements of the loca tion.
. . . . .I .. h b The durabil'
Specification for Facing Brick! fucmg bricks 1s represented by che1r grade, wh1c , may e1t . rty of
er c
• Grade SW or Grade MW
Thus, an FBS (or FBX or FBA) brick can either be of Grade SW or MW.
Grade SWbr· k
can withstand severe weathering conditions, and Grade MW
bricks can withstand medi'; 1
weathering conditions. Table 24.3 gives the ~urability r~qu!rem ents _for
brick grades, ·/:
durability of a brick refers to its free-Le-thaw res1srance, which 1s a function
of the comprcssiv
strength of brick and the amount of (cold and boiling) water absorbed
by the brick. c
The selection of a particular grade is based on the ability of the brick
to resist damag
caused by freeze-thaw cycling when it is wet. One method used to assess
the frcC',.c-iha;
exposure chat a brick will experience is co use the weathering index (WI)
of the location and
the position of the brick in che building, Figure 24.20. WI is an estimat
e of the freC',.c-thaw
potential of the geographic location.
If WI 2: 500, the location has a severe freeze-chaw potential. If WI lies between
50 and
NOTE 500, che location l~as medium '.reeze-thaw potential. If WI < 50, t~e location
has negligibk
freeze-chaw pocenual. Most bnck manufacturers make only SW bricks
co give their produci
ASTM and Building Bricks the versatility of use in any climate and any position in a building.
The most frequently
referenced standard for build- BUILD ING BRICKS
ing bricks is ASTM C62,
"Standard Specification for Building bricks are similar to facing bricks except that they do not have
any limitationson
Building Brick." dimensional variations, warpag c, or chippag e. Thus, building bricks
are rated for durability

TABLE 24.3 PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS GRADE

S
OF BRICKS

SW 3,000 2,500 17.0 20.0 0.78 o.ao

MW 2,500 2,200 22.0 25.0 0.88 o.90
NW 1,500 1,250 Nollmil Nollmil No llmlt NollRIR

Note: All three grades are used for building bricks. Faci ng bricks
are made in SW and MW grades only.
S_ourc".: Bnck Industry Associati on (BIA), Technica l Notes on Brick
Construction (9A ), "Manufa cturing,
Class1flca11on and Selecti on of Bri ck."

564
 WI < 500 but .t 50
WI .t500

NDA110N5 FOR THE

OF FACING BRICKS
Wl<500
element 8riGk ..... but.t50

wall MW
wall 5W
t1rth c:ontaGt 5W

\ \'e-ithering index \\VI) map oi the United States.

[XPAN D YOU R KNOWLEDGE

~ Water Absorption, Saturation Coeffic:ient (SC), and meze.lhaw Resistance·..- ,·....-,w
T (!elenlline the saturation coefficient of a bride, we first S h and weighed thereafter.,J!I
~ it in cold, that is, room-temperature, water for 24 h. 0.7 lb.~ SC of brick is
The amount of water absorbed by the brick in 24 h is measured.
\\'t then boil the same brick for 5 h and determine the amount SC
,_,,, absorbed by il The ratio of cold-water absorption (Q to
~ t e r absorption (B) is defined as the saturation coeffi- The.greater the d i ~
~ (SQ of the brick; that is, SC= C/B. Because the brick gener- the smaller the SO; the'~(e;
., aorbs more water on boiling, Bc!:: C, that is, SC s 1.0. absorbed water to;~ withi
Fu ~le, assume that a dry brick weighs 4.5 lb, which after Although not perfetfihe boiling-water
M,h mnersion in cold water weighs 5.0 lb. Therefore, C = 5.0- and the comprsiw s&ength of a brick•re the.~ ~
Ci=O.S lb. Assume further that when the same brick is boiled for ures at the present time of a brick's freeze-thaw ·

fXPAN D YOU R KNOWLEDGE

~ - - - - · - - - - - - - -.~J','..,_"7'..,7,;--:-.-----,,en
I Wlahring Index of a Location
lheweathering index (WI) of a location is a measure of the
, -.ihaw severity of a location and is defined as:
WI = (average annual freezing-cycle days)
X (average annual winter rainfalU
. ~us, if the number of annual freezing-cycle days for a loca-
~ IS 24 and the total annual winter rainfall for that location Is 32°F
1~ • W, ~ 24\20) = 480. (0°C)
~ ;;.zmg-cyc/e da y is defined as a day on which flwtllng
""'1
~
u:m~ occur. In other words, a freezing-cycle
air temperature passes through 32°F t
'/

Ii sary to examine the maximum and mirl~i

C)'c~ch day of the year to determine the nunltarll
~ da}-5 of a location. Instead, the number ,J.
- : ' be obtained by (number of days wheat ta,.
Pera ature !>J2°F) - (number of da)'$ when lhe
lure S3 2°Fl. .~ the adjacent.__
"'~nu~l_winter rainfall is the• ..... 1'11
~ killing frost in the fall and the last kiUial floit:ladM1illb-
Each bar repre_sents the air temperature range of one
day. The freezmg cycle days are highlighted.
In this sketch, the number of days when the
minimum temperature s 32°F (0°C) = 6. The
number of days when the maximum temperature s
32°F (0°C) = 2. Thus, the freezing cycle days= 6- 2
=4.

565
 PART 2 .
MAi'tllll,\l.11 AND SVS'l'IIMS
CJII CONSTIIUC't'ION
NOTE
ASTM and Paving Bricks
Tht most fraq1,1ently refnnced
standard for paving bricks la
ASTM C902, NSpcclflcatlon for
Pedestrian and Llght Trame
Paving Bricks/ or ASTM Cl 272,
"Speclflcatlon for Heavy Vehlc•
ular Pavlna Bricks.•
The staggering of masonry units and gravity
load distribution. Also see Expand Your
Knowledge in Section 25. l.
ade-Grade SW, MW, or NW. The ' J>ccifi .
and mcngch only; rhar 1s, they carry ~ gr . r.. d building bricks are identical ~
for Grade SW and MW in borh facing briciu an · ~
brick., luave an additional grade NW (Table 24 .3), _.1 • h
• b · k alls that arc coverw wit anodic
Building brick& are generally use d. 111 rte w if their warpage, chip e, a t ~
material. However, they may be used in face veneers pag nd d1lllti
sional variations are acceptable.
PAVING BRICKS
•
Paving •
bricks i:.
are graded for rreezc-t haw Cl SX, MX. or NX-from most fr
· as ass _.1 i:. b . . CCze..l._
h ·
resistant to lease free-t.e-1 aw resistant. Thcy are also gradw. ror a .ras1on rcs1Stance as TYJ>ca- "lilrr
and Ill-from highest abrasion rcsiscancc co lowest abrasion rcs15cancc.
LIf
•
24.7 BOND PATTERNS IN MASONRY WALLS
Bricks can be assembled in a wall in several patterns, referred t.0 as bontf patterns or siJl!pty
as bonds. The purpose of a bond is functional as well as aesth~ic .. Functionally, t~e bonci ii
meant to stagger the units so that the load on one unit 15 shared by an inc_rcas;ng
number of underlying units. A one-wythe masonry wall (a wall. whose th1~
equals the width, W, of one unit), built from whole (uncut) units, can have n,,,0
types of bonds, Figure 24 .21 :
• Running bond
• Stack bond
A stack bond is commonly used at a sharply curved corner, Figure 24.22(a). It is
also used for aesthetic reasons, Figure 24.22(b). The (horizontal) bending strength
of a stack-bond wall is lower than that of a running-bond wall. Therefore, a stack-
bond wall must be provided with horirontal reinforcement.
The bricks used in a stack-bond wall should have as much dimensional uni-
formity as possible so that the mortar joints have the least variation in width,
Figure 24.23.

BRICK ORIENTAT IONS ON WALL ELEVATION

In Figure 24.21, the bricks have only one orientation. The orientation refers to the exposed
face of the brick. The exposed face of the brick in Figure 24.21 is called the stretcherface or
simply the stretcher. Being a six-faced figure, a brick can have six different face orientations
on a wall elevation, Figure 24.24:
• Stretcher
• Header
• Rowlock
• Soldier
• Shiner
• Sailor

If c;ut t,rtc;ke are not ueed, only two typee of t,onde

(running t,ond and etac:k t,ond) are poeelt,le In a eln9le·
wythe wall. If the c:uttlng of t,rtc;ke (highly lat,or-lnteneiw
and c:oetly) le ac:c:eptat,le, eeveral other t,ond pattern6,
euc;h ae Englleh t,ond, Flemleh t,ond, et<;. c:an aleo 11e
created In a elngle·wythe wall.

(a) Running t,ond

(t,) 5tac;k t,ond

FIGURE 24.21 Single-wythe walls in (a) running bond and (b) stack bond.

566
 I,,,!
I
• 11
·1·: •~Wllllalil!U
·~
,I / I / 'ma-l!lfflrn"'
I j ~'
. IIj I .C
I

•
Jj j

I I I I Ii

I 'I

I ,1

, I .
,',,
I I'
• ..-,·'.' I

.r .I I jI•,,
I! I .

!II
; •
I 'I
,,,__ I \

I '

,,af 24 ,22 A s1,1ck-bundcd brk:k wa ll US<i! d (a) to achiev, . 5h . (17)

11cv~ e a arp curve and (b) for aesthetic reasons.

Mortar
( - Unit
--

I I
FIGURE 24.23 A stack-bonded wa ll with FIGURE 24.24 Terms used to distinguish between the six orientations of a
1,,rgc varialions in masonry unit sizes is vis- brick unit in a wa ll elevation.
uallyunacceptable.
NOTE
When acourse of masonry consists of stretchers only (as in the running-bond and stack-
liond walls of Figure 24.21), it is called a stretcher course. If it consists of headers only, it is
called a header course, and so on. Single-wythe walls are generally made of all stretcher
courses (Figure 24 .21) and are often terminated at the top with one or more soldier courses
1ocovcr the core holes, Figure 24.25.

ihle end 17rlc;k muet 17e a 100'X.

eolld 17rlok (I.e., without oore holee)

;__.....- &1;retcher
c;ouree

~~o~: 24,25 A ~inglc-wythe wall ls often terminated with a soldier course at the top to cover
hCJl(•s 111 Mrctcher courses.
567
 USE OF HEADERS
A wall made of more t han one wyth a re(;\ulree haa dare to tie the ""Ythes
togather, ae e how n In t he followlnn" t wo-wytha,.walle. CMU walls (see
Chapter 25) do not re(;\ul re haa dare '111cauea, vii Ing ma dII of larger units,
they are genera lly on e-wythe walls.

ENGLISH 50ND
Altamata c;oureee of
etratc;hare and headere

Header
Half header (also
called (;\Ullan c;loHr)

FLEMISH 50ND
Altamate stratc;hare and
haadare In tlYllry c;ouree
COMMON (AMERICAN) 60ND
5 c;ou1'9119 of etratc;here followed
by 1 c;ouree of headers

FIGURE 24.26 Two-wyth e brick wa lls-in Engl ish, Flemish, and Common bonds.

ENGLIS H, FLEMISH, AND COMMO N (AMERI CAN) BONDS

As stated previously, contemporary brick masonry is used mainly as cladding. Thcrefurt,
most brick walls are one-wyche walls in running bond. However , fence walls
are generally
cwo-wyche walls or sometimes three-wyche walls. In two- or multiple-wyche
walls, several
bond panerns are possible.
Three commonl y used bonds are the English bond, Fkmish bond, and Amtrica11
bo11d,
Figure 24.26. An English bond consists of alternate courses of headers and
stretchers. In
Flemish bond, there are alternate headers and stretchers in each course. In common
(American)
bond, there is a header course after every five courses of stretchers.
Just as a single-wyche wall is terminate d with a soldier course to cover the
core holes, a
cwo-wyche wall is terminated with a rowlock course, Figure 24.27. Alternativ
d y, a p~asr
concrete or stone coping may be used as terminati on.
The bonds shown in Figure 24.26 use headers co tie the two wythes of masonry. 3
If
header-ti ed masonry wall is used in a heated or cooled building where the
inrerior and
exterior faces of the wall have a large temperat ure difference, the headers c-.i.n
break. There-
fore, in contempo rary mason ry, English, Flemish, or An1er ican bonds, are
normally used
in fence walls in which rhe opposite faces are nor e.xposed co cemperacure differentia
ls.

Rowloc;k
c;ourea

Two- or thl'l!ll· wythe walls are often

terminate d at the top with a rowloc;k
c;ou1"611 in order to cowr the c;ore holes
in header and stratc;her courHS.

Rowlock course as the termi nal course in multiwythe brick walls.

FIGURE 24.27

568
 CHAPTER 24
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE INITIAL RATE MASONRY MATERIALS-I
'i~ssORPTION (IRA) OF BRICKS (MORTAR AND BRICK)

. too much water out of thc mortar, Icaving

. can suck
. "5 are t0 0 porous, they · ·msu ffi1-
b,1cwater cror che hydration reamon (berw I d
. een port an cement and water) . This · can
n1, 0 the rnorrar and ,_hence, t~e wa_ll. _Bricks chat are highly absorptive must, therefore,
e((ed with water pn~r co_ bcm? lard m the wall. The wetting of bricks should be such
1\he interior of the bnck_rs mo1St b~t the ~xterior surfaces of the brick are dry.

fhe preferred way of wemng absor~uve bricks is to let water run on the pile of bricks so
he bricks become wet. Depe nd '.ng on the weather, this may be done the evening
11 (or a few hours bef~re) the bricks are laid. This ensures that the interiors of the

ks arc wet but the exteriors are dry · Bricks th at are wet on the sunace
.ore c ten d co float on
c r bed and may also bleed water out of the mortar
morta h' hi b . .
Bricks chat are not rg Y a sorpuve do n~t ~~ed wetting and can be laid dry. Brick
ificacions use a mea_sure re~erred to as the m1t1al rate ofabsorption (IRA) to determine
,cher che bricks_ require we~tmg or not. If IRA> 30 g/min/30 in. 2, the bricks should be
cced prior co_laymg; 0therwise, not. (Note that in colder regions, wetting the bricks may
cbe appropriate.)

4 9 THE CRAFT AND ART OF BRICK

,4SONRY CONSTRUCTION
e construction of a brick wall can appear deceptively simple to a lay obser:ver, parcicu-
ly in the hands of a~ expert i:nason. Comp~red t<;> wood framing or concrete placing,
wever, che construcno~ of b~ick walls requires much greater skill and craft. Addition-
y, it is slow ~n~ labor mtensiv~. To speed construction, several masons work simulta- NOTE
eously on bu1ldmg_a wall. This requires coordination and quality control to ensure
iform workmanship.
The first step in constructing a brick wall is to lay the corners. The string line is then
ecched between the corners and the bricks are laid to the string line, maintaining a
terto u
d and plumb wall. In addition to the string line, the primary tools used by a mason
e a crowd and a level. Some masons use a story pole to give uniformity in course
eights.
The mortar joints are tooled after the mortar has become sufficiently hard but is still pli-
le (referred co as thumbprint hard). Figure 24.28 shows a typical sequence of steps
volved in constructing a brick wall.

REPOINTING OF MORTAR JOINTS ·c

Ri
Moccar may deteriorate due to freeze-thaw action and/or erode from water. This leads to stren
receding joint depth, resulting in a leaky wall. The recessed joints need to be refilled with done
mortar-a process referred to as repainting. prepar
Repointing of mortar joints used to be far more common when lime mortar was used. It accep
is relatively rare in contemporary masonry because of the use of some pordand cement in prepa
(depen
moccar. However, there are situations, particularly with Type O mortar, in which the joints prior t
in some masonry walls may need repointing. Repointing involves raking the existing joints carded
and filling them with mortar. mortar
able co

EXPAND YOUR KNOWLEDGE

--:--.-- --:----- -------~ ~--7
· I Rate of Absorption (IRA) and 111 Measurement
If IRA> 30 g/min/30 in. 2 of the brick's immersed sunace area,
IRA i, obtai ned by immersing a dry brick in water to a depth the bricks should be wetted; otherwise, not. A ~ ~ o f 30 iul
In_. The immersion is done for only 1 min, after whi~h the has been chosen because it gives a convenient figure cr t g of water
is removed. The brick isweighed before and after 1mmer_- absorption per square inch of a brick's swface.
lf the weight of the dry brick IsWdand that of the wet brick
w, then IRA is given by

w"' A- wd (30 ln.3) whete ~ - .. )lllmersed

n area of the brick

569
 The mason spreads the
over a previously laid bric~ 0 ttar
course. In the case of a b .
veneer wall (shown here) tic~
mason ensures that littl the
mortar falls in the air sp: 0 r Mo
behind the veneer., Ce

The mason pickups up ab .

be laid and mortars ("but~~ to
a term used by the nia 5011 rs\,
mortaring) the head joit,t 5 for
brick before laying It in th Of the
Some masons will fully bu~ 11ta11,
head joint of the brick to b:r .t he
Other masons will fully but~a 1d,
head joint of the already la·d rthe
and butter the brick to be i' ,bHc~
with just two stripes. In an aid
all joints must be fully lllorty caSe,
ared,

Using the trowel handle, the

mason presses the freshly laid
brick against the adjacent
bricks to give a better bond and
a more watertight mortar joint,

Using the trowel, the mason

removes the extra mortar that
has been squeezed out of the
joint. Because the mortar ha 5
good water retentivity, very
little mortar sticks to the brick
face. However, the brick face
is cleaned with a brush after
the mortar has somewhat
dried.

A~er the mortar has stiffened

(referred to as "thumb-print
hard" in the industl)'), the
mason tools the joints. In this
photograph, the tooling _!~ being
done to obtain concave Joints.

FIGURE 24.28 Steps involved in constructi ng a si ngle-wyth e brick wull.

570
 The left-5ide image shows a
concave joint tool and the
right-5ide image shOW5 a raked
joint tool.

fl(iVllf 74.28 /Continued) Stt-ps in volved in constructing a single-wyt he brick wall .

Juicing inv~lves grinding i~to the_j~int t_o obtain adequate depth (typically, twice the
11_,,w/>int ch1~k~essJ and filling _the Jomt with the new mon.ar, Fi~~e 24.29. Before filling
Jd,e joint, rhe JOmt IS wetted to improve the bond between the existing and new mortar.

24,10 EFFLORESCENCE IN BRICK WALLS

Fff/P'(J(mce is the deposit of a _white subscan~ o~ a masonry wall. This sub~cance_consists
of warer-soluble sal~, present m masonry units, m rhe mortar, or both, which migrate co
dJe outside of rhe units as the water evaporates, Figure 24.30. Efflorescence does nor gener-
ally ere.tee any srrucrural or sanitation problem, but it is unsighrly.
Afrhough efflorescence may occur in both concrete and clay masonry, ir is more com-
a,on and more obviou.s in brick masonry walls because of rhe dark color of bricks. The
Jikdihood of efflorescence can be reduced by selecting masonry units that have been tested
for die absence of soluble salts (per ASTM C67).
Efflorescence may also originate from mortar due to soluble salts in water or sand. Minor
,Blorescencc can be removed by wash ing the wall, allowing it co dry, and then brushing off

•.
I

- •• White spots due

to efflorescence
;

I
~

'
-- l •1
,1
~L
ll
t'
I Qi
'
,I
4t

flCilll E24.:.l'J
for rep"lr ,11111:
, ,, 11 ,d11 ,1: u ( ,,,,,11,11 1111 1,r •, 111 1,n •p,1 r,111u11
~--- '
FIGURE :.!4. :J0 l·fflrm.!'>< l ' rlll! (white ~pob) on a hri ck w.t ll.

571
~RT2 chc (i ·mes should le-~ oul :i.lJ the sails. Efflo
MATttNIAl.~ AND Sl't'l12Ns d,y i.al1. Rq,c-.umg mu qck ia '°"'
u . buih could be due ro undc:m w:ucr fl:scc~
01• CoNsnwc,lOH dut.appears~ JfflS :after dx w.U w.u lc.abgc from a roof i>Crltt~t-
i.ng mt Wi1ll. such a\ from a lawn ,prinkkr sysidll, or ·

=
24.11 EXPANSION CONTROL IN BRICK WALLS
A.I dac.ribnl in Oiapccr 9, brick walb cap;and imviersibly due ro the absorption of mo~
-n.-. mo nt111C1 dut io .tcmpcrawrc changies and foundation
iure • ~--di a . • or co""' ls W¥1ckd inro scgmcnu. with continuous vtni~ ~t.tlt,.
mntlL I llCJ ore, . m&IO,u r ·- •1 . d . )011\ll
L - -- __ L . n-w,r csn:an.sion of brick Wlll .s 11 more ominant than c .
~ Inc: xgmmlL uo.a ,-- . . . Ontt.l(.
tion, ~ vmkal joints arc ckt:a.ilcd u cxparuion 1om~5 • . . .
~.. b :. L · wed ~ veneer in the oucrior cladding of bu1ld1n~. cov d.
m ost nc.a flUM>nry LS • d. h h trc in
Chapin 28. f.spamion conuol of brick vcn«r 1s covcre m l at c apter.

PRACTI CE QUIZ
Each qUC)lion has ontyono conea www. Sifect nchoblhll bell n. 1n a Frernw.-bond wall,
IOSWffl t h e ~. a. tKh a,u,se consists r:J hacfets.
~ each coune conslsb r:J stretchers.
27. Per ASTM ""nd,nk, f,cl"I bricks.,. ct.ifled as Type FBS, FIX, c. each course consists of alternate headers and stretchers.
for di~ilonal tolet1nee, chlppaee, and
a. FBS b. FBX
w.,,,.,
and FSA. Which oi tl,ese !)'Pel has lhe m o t ( ~ requnrnen11 cl. the c.ou,ses alternate between headers and stretcher's.
~. none rJ the above.
c. fBA 33. IRA is a measure d the tenSlle' strength of a brick.
a. True Ir. False
2&. The frecie-thaw resistance of brk:b hu been found 1o be a function
dthe 34, Bricks that are highly absorptive may need to be wetted before being
L compressive strength of briclcJ. laid in the wall.
la. bolling-water obsorption or bricks. a. True b. False
c. s.at1.1ration coefficient (SC) or bricks, 35. Retempering of rno,tar means
d. all cl the abo\ie, a. adding portland cement to mortar.
,e. (al and (b).
b. adding lime to rno,tar.
29. The weathering index CWI) of ,a location It a fuodion r:J the c. adding ~nd to mQttar.
a. average annual freezing-cycle days. d. adding water to mortar.
b. average annual winter rainfall o( the locatioo. 36. Retempering of mortar, if needed, should be generally done within
c. average annual air temperature of the locati911. a. s½ h of the initial preparation of mortar.
d. all of the above. b, 4 h r:J the initial preparation of mortar.
e. (a) and (b).
(. z½ h r:J the initial preparation of mortar.
30. In a running-bond wall cl 1 h of the initial prepa~tion of mortar.
a. each course consists of headers. e. none of the~-
b. each course consists of stretchers.
37. Efflorescence in masonry refers io
c. each course consists of alternate headers and stretchers.
a. excessive chippage of masonry units.
d. the courses alternate between headers and stretchers.
b. excessive warpage of masonry un'its.
e. none of the above. c. white spots in masonry walls.
31. In an English-bond wall, d. yellow spots in masonry walls.
a. each course consists of headers. e. none of the above.
b. each course consists of stretchers.
c. each course consists of alternate headers and stretchers.
d. the courses alternate between headers and stretchers.
e. none of the above.

lriiiiiii•ji4i•tii~i -
1. Describe the importance of lime in mortar.
2. Describe the importance of portland cement in mortar.
3. Give the ASTM classification of mortar types and their respective applications.
4. Explain why the masonry industry recommends the use of the weakest mortar that will give the required perform·
ance.
5. Using sketches and notes, describe various commonly used mortar joint profiles. Which profile gives the mo5t water·
tight wall and why?
6. Explain the difference between the actual, nominal, and specified dimensions of masonry units.
7. Bricks may carry a grade of SW, MW, or NW. Which factors determine the grade?
8, Explain what the weathering index (WI) means, and how it relates to building construction.
9. Explain what efflorescence is and how it can be mitigated.
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