EXPERIMENT- 1

Aim: To establish a connection between a server and PC

Platform/ Tool used: PC installed with Cisco Packet Tracer Software (Student version 6.2sv)

Theory:
A computer is a machine that can be instructed to carry out sequences of arithmetic or logical operations
automatically. Modern computers have the ability to follow generalized sets of operations which enable
computers to perform an extremely wide range of tasks. Computers are used to store, retrieve, transmit and
manipulate data. A personal computer (PC) is a multi-purpose computer whose size, capabilities, and price
make it feasible for individual use.

A server is a computer that provides data and distributes work to other computers. It may serve data to systems
on a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN) over the Internet. A server is connected to a
network of other workstations called 'clients'. Client computers request information from the server over the
network. Servers tend to have more storage, memory and processing power than a normal workstation. A
single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client can use multiple servers.
Connection used: Copper crossover cable
A crossover cable connects two devices of the same type, for example DTE-DTE or DCE-DCE, usually
connected asymmetrically (DTE-DCE), by a modified cable called a crosslink. Such a distinction between
devices was introduced by IBM.

Observations:

Fig 1.1: Network designed

 Fig 1.2: Configuration Window of PC Fig 1.3: Configuration Window of Server

Fig 1.4: Log Table

 Data packet was sent successfully from PC to server.

 Data packet was sent successfully from server to PC.

Result: Successfully established a connection between server and PC.

Criteria Total Marks Marks Obtained Remarks

Concept (A) 2
Implementation (B) 2
Performance (C) 2
Total Marks 6
 EXPERIMENT- 2

Aim: To study the characteristics of the interfaces RJ-11, RJ-45, RS-232C, V.35 USB, RS-422 and
Firewire

Theory:

Network interfaces are computer hardware components that connect a computer to a network.

RJ 11 and RJ 45
A registered jack is standardised network interface used to connect voice and data communication equipment
to a service provided by a local or long distance exchange carrier. RJ 11 and RJ 45 are commonly used
registered jacks. "RJ" stands for registered jack and 11 and 45 are the numbers assigned to the interface
standard. The Registered Jack connectors – RJ45 and RJ11 are used with the UTP cables.

RJ-11 is the most widely implemented registered jack in telecommunications is a telephone interface that
uses a cable of twisted wire pairs and a modular jack. More commonly known as a modem port, phone
connector, phone jack or phone line, RJ-11 is used in conventional PSTN telephone networks and
modem connectors for plugging a telephone into the wall and the handset into the telephone. It uses 4 pin
connectors to terminate the telephone wires and establish a bridged connection for one line. The RJ11 uses
the center two contacts of six available positions and is termed 6P2C. It supports a bandwidth of 24 Mbps.

RJ-45 is used in networking and telecommunications to connect computers or other network elements to each
other. It is mostly used to attach the ethernet interfaces. The RJ-45 has 8 pins and 8 contacts and is known as
an 8P8C connector. RJ-45 supports 10 Gbps Bandwidth over ethernet.

Fig 2.1 RJ 11 and RJ 45 connectors

RS-232
RS-232 is defined as the "Interface between data terminal equipment (DTE) such as a computer terminal, and
data communications equipment (DCE) such as a modem, using serial binary data exchange." The term RS232
stands for Recommended Standard 232. The need for RS232 came from limitations raised by parallel data
exchange. RS232 uses serial communication protocol where data exchange is done bit by bit. RS232
connector used to have 25 pins, which later shrunk to 9 pins.

RS232 signals are represented by voltage levels with respect to a system common ground. The idle state
(mark) has the signal level negative with respect to common, and the active state (space) has the signal level
positive with respect to common. RS232 data is bi-polar. +5 TO +15 volts indicates an "ON" or logic 0-state
(SPACE) condition while -5 to -15 volts indicates an "OFF" or logic 1-state (MARK) condition.

RS-232 is an asynchronous serial protocol which implies that the data word is transmitted as single bits to the
receiver, who puts the word back together.

RS232 serial communication is used in old generation PCs for connecting the peripheral devices like mouse,
printers, modem etc. It was also used in PLC machines, CNC machines, and servo controllers. RS-232
interfaces are still used—particularly in industrial machines, networking equipment, and scientific instruments
where a short-range, point-to-point, low-speed wired data connection is fully adequate.

One of the advantages of the RS232 protocol is that it lends itself to transmission over telephone lines. The
serial digital data can be converted by modem, placed onto a standard voice-grade telephone line, and
converted back to serial digital data at the receiving end of the line by another modem. RS232 port easily
establishes a two pin full duplex communication. It is used in systems where clock sharing is difficult since it
is asynchronous and doesn’t require clock sharing between systems. RS232 can control a single unit
specifically without delay or errors and delivers data with more accuracy.

RS-232, when compared to later interfaces, has lower transmission speed (19kbps), short maximum cable
length (50 feet), large voltage swing, large standard connectors, no multipoint capability and limited multidrop
capability. This Protocol requires a common ground between the transmitter and receiver and wire resistance
and voltage drops start increasing exponentially. Hence, the cables are shorter. The large voltage swings and
requirement for positive and negative supplies increases power consumption of the interface and limits the
upper speed of a compatible interface. Switching voltages between +15v and -15v is difficult at higher speeds.
If there is an increase in baud rate and length of the cable, there is a chance of cross talk introduced by the
capacitance between the cables. Single-ended signaling referred to a common signal ground limits the noise
immunity and transmission distance.

Fig 2.2 RS 232 connector and connection

V.35 USB
V.35 is the ITU interface standard used by most routers and DSUs that connect to T-1 carriers. It defines data
transmission at 48 kbps - 64 kbps, using 60 –108 KHz Group-Band Circuits. It gives specifications for
connector type, pin allocation and signal level used for synchronous communications interfaces.

V.35 is a high-speed serial interface designed by combining bandwidth of several telephone circuits to support
both higher data rates and connectivity between DTEs (data-terminal equipment) or DCEs (data-
communication equipment) over digital lines.

V.35 is a mixture of balanced (like RS422) and common earth (like RS232) signal interfaces. The signal
electrical characteristics used are a combination of V.11 (for clocks and data) and V.28 (control signals). The
control signals are common earth single wire interfaces because these signal levels are mostly constant or
vary at low frequencies. The unbalanced signals (single wire) incur a minimum of state changes. V.35 uses
differential interfaces for the clock and data signals which are the only signals requiring high switching speeds
for high-speed communications. Throughput is upto 10Mbps and depends on the equipment and cable used.
The high-frequency data and clock signals are carried by balanced lines. Separate clock lines are used for
receiving and transmitting data.

Fig 2.3 V.35 USB Interface pinout diagram

Fig 2.4 V.35 USB connector- male and female

RS 422
RS-422, also known as TIA/EIA-422, is a technical standard originated by the Electronic Industries
Alliance that specifies electrical characteristics of a digital signaling circuit. It was intended to replace the
older RS-232C standard with a standard that offered much higher speed, better immunity from noise, multiport
connections and longer cable lengths.

RS-422 specifies differential signaling, with every data line paired with a dedicated return line. It is the voltage
difference between these two lines that define the mark and space. Moving to dedicated return lines and always
defining ground in reference to the sender allowed RS-422 to use 0.4 V, allowing it to run at much higher
speeds. It also offers better noise immunity than RS232 by using a separate floating transmit and receive pair.

RS422 was introduced to enable higher data rates to be transferred over serial data lines than was possible
with RS232. RS422 is able to provide data rates of up to 10 Mbps at distances up to 50 feet (15.24 metres).
However using reduced data rates, RS422 is able to transmit data over distances of 4000 feet (~1220 metres):
the maximum is 100 kbps at this distance. RS422 uses both differential transmitters and receivers which means
that it is much more resilient to common mode interference.

Fig2.5 : RS422 Connector and pinout diagram

Fig2.6 : RS422 wire connections

Firewire
Firewire is an interface used for high-speed communications and isochronous real-time data transfer between
digital devices, especially audio and video equipment. It is also referred to as IEEE 1394. The standard
describes a serial bus or pathway between one or more peripheral devices and your computer's
microprocessor. It usually refer to the types of cables, ports, and connectors that are used to connect these
types of external devices to computers.

Apple Inc. led the initiative for adoption of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’ Standard
1394 (IEEE 1394) and trademarked FireWire for its own use.

Firewire is a popular connector for adding peripherals to your computer. It is used with digital audio/video,
camcorders, printers, scanners, external hard drives, and central processing units among other devices.

The IEEE 1394 interface offers data-transfer rates of up to 3,200 Mbps with a bandwidth of 400-800 Mbps.
FireWire also transmits up to 45 watts of electrical power, enough to independently support many small
attached devices.

A maximum of 63 devices can connect via daisy-chain or tree topology to a single FireWire bus with data
transfer speeds up to 400 Mbps . Each device has a unique self-ID which are assigned during the self-ID
process, which happens after each bus resets. The order in which the self-IDs are assigned is equivalent to
traversing the tree depth-first, post-order.

FireWire is designed to support plug-and-play, meaning that an operating system automatically finds the
device when it's plugged in and asks to install a driver if needed to make it work.

FireWire is fast and devices are hot pluggable, which means they can be connected and disconnected at any
time, even with the power on.

IEEE 1394 is hot-swappable, meaning that neither the computers that the FireWire devices are connected to
nor the devices themselves need to be shut down before they're connected or disconnected.

FireWire devices can create a peer-to-peer network for communicating. This ability means that a series of
devices can be chained together without the central control of a “master” computer and they won't use
up system resources.

Asynchronous is for traditional load-and-store applications where data transfer can be initiated and an
application interrupted as a given length of data arrives in a buffer. Isochronous data transfer ensures that data
flows at a pre-set rate so that an application can handle it in a timed way. This is used for devices that require
continuous, guaranteed bandwidth. For multimedia applications, this kind of data transfer reduces the need
for buffering and helps ensure a continuous presentation for the viewer. In IEEE 1394, 80% of the bus is
reserved for isochronous cycles, leaving asynchronous data with of 20% of the bus.

Firewire has the advantage of being able to transfer power to the device through the same cable that does the
data transfer. FireWire is capable of safely operating critical systems due to the way multiple devices interact
with the bus and how the bus allocates bandwidth to the devices.

Because of its fast and reliable transfer rate, IEEE 1394 is frequently used in professional video editing and
real-time video transmissions. It is also commonly used to connect electronic appliances in automobiles, such
as DVD players, stereo sound systems, and GPS navigators.
 Fig 2.7 Firewire port and adaptor

Result: The characteristics of the interfaces RJ-11, RJ-45, RS-232C, V.35 USB, RS-422 and Firewire have
been studied.

Criteria Total Marks Marks Obtained Remarks

Concept (A) 2
Implementation (B) 2
Performance (C) 2
Total Marks 6
 EXPERIMENT- 3

Aim: To establish a star connection using hub in packet server

Platform/ Tool used: PC installed with Cisco Packet Tracer Software (Student version 6.2sv)

Theory:

Topology is used to describe the layout of a computer network. Physical topology describes the arrangement
of the elements of the network, including the location of the devices, the intersecting points and the layout of
the lines connecting the various network elements. There are five types of topology – Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring
and Hybrid.

A star network is an implementation of a spoke–hub distribution paradigm in computer networks. In a star

network, every device on the network is connected to a central hub which acts as a conduit to transmit
messages. Through the hub, each workstation is indirectly connected to all the others. All traffic emanates
from the hub of the star. The central site is in control of all the nodes attached to it.

All traffic emanates from the hub of the star. The central site is in control of all the nodes attached to it. The
central hub is usually a fast, self-contained computer and is responsible for routing all traffic to other nodes.

Fig 3.1: Devices connected in Star Topology

Star topology doesn’t allow direct communication between devices, they have to communicate through hub.
If one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and then the hub transmits
that data to the designated device. The central core passes the message to either all other systems or the specific
destination system depending on the network design.

Star topology is for Local Area Network (LAN). Star network topologies are common in home networks,
where the central connection point may be a router, switch, or network hub.
Advantages of Star topology

 One malfunctioning node doesn’t affect rest of the network.

 New nodes can be added or existing nodes can removed without affecting rest of the network.
 Centralized management helps in monitoring the network.
 No data collisions can occur

Disadvantages of Star topology

 The network fully depends on central device. If hub goes down everything goes down and none of the
devices can communicate.
 Hub requires more resources and regular maintenance
 Performance of the central hub dictates the performance of the connection

Observations:

Fig 3.2: Network designed

Fig 3.3: Configuration Window of PC0 Fig 3.4: Configuration Window of PC1
 Fig 3.5: Configuration Window of Laptop Fig 3.6: Configuration Window of Printer

Fig 3.7: Static Log Table

 Data packet was sent successfully from laptop to PC1, PC0 and printer.
 Data packet was sent successfully from PC1 to PC0, printer and laptop.
 Data packet was sent successfully from PC0 to printer, laptop and PC0.
 Data packet was sent successfully from printer to laptop, PC0 and PC1.

Result: Successfully established a star connection using hub in packet server

Criteria Total Marks Marks Obtained Remarks

Concept (A) 2
Implementation (B) 2
Performance (C) 2
Total Marks 6
 EXPERIMENT- 4

Aim: (a) To establish a LAN in star connection using layer 2 switch

(b) To establish a VLAN using layer 2 switch

Platform/ Tool used: PC installed with Cisco Packet Tracer Software (Student version 6.2sv)

Theory:

A hub is a physical layer networking device which is used to connect multiple devices in a network. Hub
works as a common connection point for devices in a network. When a data frame arrives at a port, it is
broadcast to every other port so that all segments of the LAN can see all packets, without considering whether
it is destined for a particular destination or not. Hubs have no ability to choose the best path of the network or
prevent collision. Hubs can connect upto 12 devices.

Switches are more intelligent versions of hub. A switch is a data link layer networking device which connects
devices in a network and uses packet switching to send and receive data over the network. It supports both
unicast and multicast communications. Like a hub, a switch also has many ports, to which devices are plugged
in. However, when a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the destination address
and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s), not to the entire network.

Hub and Switch are both network connecting devices but Switches greatly improve network performance
compared to hubs. A dedicated bandwidth is provided to ports by a switch frames are processed at an increased
rate. Switches eliminate the collision domain and can separate the broadcast domain. They can transmit data
in full duplex mode and perform error checking before forwarding data to the destined port. Switches also
offer a higher number of ports -- 24/48.

Fig 4.1: Switches

Topology is used to describe the layout of a computer network. In a star network, every device on the network
is connected to a central device which acts as a conduit to transmit messages. Through the central device, each
workstation is indirectly connected to all the others. The central site is in control of all the nodes attached to
it. One malfunctioning node doesn’t affect rest of the network and new nodes can be added or existing nodes
can removed without affecting rest of the network.
A local area network (LAN) is a private network that interconnects computer and peripheral devices within
a specific geographical area. Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers.
Each node (individual computer) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs, but it also is
able to access data and devices anywhere on the LAN. A LAN can be confined to a single room, building or
group of buildings. Regardless of size, a LAN's defining characteristic is that it connects devices that are in a
single, limited area. LANs operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other systems, but the distances
are limited and there is also a limit on the number of computers that can be attached to a single LAN.

Fig 4.2: Devices connected in Star Topology Fig 4.3 : Local area network

A virtual local area network (VLAN) is a broadcast domain that is partitioned and isolated in a computer
network at the data link layer. Virtual refers to a physical object recreated and altered by additional logic. It is
a subnetwork which can group together collections of devices on separate physical local area networks.

VLANs provide network segmentation into logical groups and establish rules about how systems in the
separate groups are allowed to communicate with each other. VLANs create the appearance and functionality
of network traffic that is physically on a single network but acts as if it is split between separate networks. In
this way, VLANs can keep network applications separate despite being connected to the same physical
network, and without requiring multiple sets of networking devices to be deployed. Traffic cannot pass directly
to another VLAN within the switch. Advantages to VLAN include reduced broadcast traffic, security, ease of
administration and broadcast domain confinement. Through VLAN, different small size sub networks are
created which reduces the amount of broadcast traffic each network device and network segment has to bear.
VLANs also provide security on larger networks by allowing a higher degree of control over which devices
have access to each other. VLANs tend to be flexible because they are based on logical connections, rather
than physical.

Fig 4.4 Virtual Local Area Network

 Observations

Fig 4.5: Configuration Window of PC0 Fig 4.6: Configuration Window of PC1 Fig 4.7: Configuration Window of PC2

Fig 4.8: Configuration Window of PC3 Fig 4.9: Configuration Window of PC4 Fig 4.10: Configuration Window of PC5

Fig 4.11: Configuration Window of Laptop5 Fig 4.12: Configuration Window of Laptop 4 Fig 4.13: Configuration Window of Laptop 3
 Fig 4.14 Network layout For LAN

Fig 4.15 Log window for Lan connection using layer 2 switch

Every member of the network was able to successfully transmit data packets to all the members of the
network.
 Fig 4.16 Network layout for VLAN connections using Layer 2 switch

In this network, three VLANs were created- abc, pqr and xyz.
 Laptop3, PC0 and PC1 are part of VLAN abc.
 Laptop5, PC2 and PC3 are part of VLAN pqr
 Laptop4, PC4 and PC5 are part of VLAN xyz

Fig 4.17 Log window for VLAN connection using layer 2 switch

We observe that attempt at packet delivery between devices from separate VLANs failed

Result: (a) LAN has been established successfully in star connection using layer 2 switch
(b) Three VLANs have been established successfully using layer 2 switch

Criteria Total Marks Marks Obtained Remarks

Concept (A) 2
Implementation (B) 2
Performance (C) 2
Total Marks 6
 EXPERIMENT- 5

Aim: To establish a WAN using layer 2 switches and router

Platform/ Tool used: PC installed with Cisco Packet Tracer Software (Student version 6.2sv)

Theory:

A local area network (LAN) is a private network that interconnects computer and peripheral devices within
a specific geographical area. LANs operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other systems, but the
distances are limited and there is also a limit on the number of computers that can be attached to a single LAN.

A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network that extends over a large geographic area for
the primary purpose of computer networking. WANs can be used to connect cities, states, or even countries.
A WAN is essentially a collection of network of networks, it interconnects multiple LANs and MANs.
A router or other multifunction device is used to connect a LAN to a WAN. Internet is the world's largest
WAN.

WANs have their own interfaces with the global Internet as a whole, working with addressing and other
conventions to make geographically dispersed LAN clusters consistently universal. it supports global markets
and businesses. Since WANs are not constrained to one specific location, they allow localized networks to
communicate with one another across great distances. They also facilitate communication and the sharing of
regional resources between devices from anywhere in the world. WANs also give remote offices access to a
central office's other data communications services, including the Internet. WANs have a large capacity,
connecting a large number of computers over a large area, and are inherently scalable. They also offer high
bandwidth for data transmissions.

However, WANs have a low data transfer rate, higher bit error rate and high propagation delay. WAN has
more security problem as compare to MAN and LAN. WAN has many technologies combined with each other
which can create a security gap and the network in itself is difficult to maintain. It also needs firewall and
antivirus software. The setup cost is high too.

Fig 5.1: Wide Area Networks

Switch is an intelligent data link layer networking device which uses packet switching to send and receive
data over the network. It supports both unicast and multicast communications. Like a hub, a switch also has
many ports, to which devices are plugged in. However, when a data frame arrives at any port of a network
switch, it examines the destination address and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s), not to the entire
network. A dedicated bandwidth is provided to ports by a switch frames are processed at an increased rate.

Switches eliminate the collision domain and can separate the broadcast domain. They can transmit data in full
duplex mode and perform error checking before forwarding data to the destined port. Switches also offer a
higher number of ports -- 24/48.

Fig 5.2: Switches

A router is network layer device that connects two or more packet-switched networks and serves as
intermediate destinations for network traffic. It is designed to receive and analyze the data, change how it is
packaged (if required), find the most suitable (usually the shortest) path for packets, and move incoming
packets between networks. They create and maintain a local area network and routes data moving inside of
the network.

A router is connected to data lines from different IP networks. When a data packet comes in on one of the
lines, the router reads the network address information in the packet header to determine the ultimate
destination. Then, using information in its routing table , it directs the packet to the next network on its
journey. When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers can exchange information
about destination addresses.

It enhances the performance within the individual network by dividing it into two sub-networks and reducing
traffic. Routers provide reliability. If one network gets down, other networks will not be affected. Many routers
also perform network address translation (NAT), which allows all devices on a to share the same public IP
address. It shields the private IP addresses of a local area network (LAN) by readdressing all outgoing traffic
with a single shared public IP address. NAT helps both conserve globally valid IP addresses and improve
network security.

Fig 5.3: Router

Observations

Fig 5.4: Network Created

Laptop 1, PC 1 and PC3 are connected to the router through switch 1 and Laptop 0, PC 0 and Laptop 3 are
connected to the router through switch 0.
Device IP Address Default Gateway
Laptop 1 192.168.0.1 192.168.0.4
PC 1 192.168.0.2 192.168.0.4
PC 3 192.168.0.3 192.168.0.4
Laptop 0 172.16.0.1 172.16.0.4
PC 0 172.16.0.2 172.16.0.4
Laptop 3 172.16.0.3 172.16.0.4

Fig 5.5: Router Configuration for Network 1 Fig 5.6: Router Configuration for Network 2
 Fig 5.7: Log Window

Result: WAN has been established successfully using layer 2 switches and router. Every member of the wide
area network was able to successfully transmit data packets to all the members of the network.

Criteria Total Marks Marks Obtained Remarks

Concept (A) 2
Implementation (B) 2
Performance (C) 2
Total Marks 6
 EXPERIMENT- 6

Aim: To study different types connecting devices

Theory:

Network devices are physical devices that are required for communication and interaction between
hardware on a computer network. In a computer network, network devices are mainly used for
transmitting and receiving the data quickly and securely in between computers, fax machines,
printers, etc. These devices transfer data in a fast, secure and correct way over same or different
networks.

Each network device plays a key role based on their functionality, and works for different purposes
at different segments.

Some common network devices are:

Hub
Bridge
Switch
Router
Gateway
Repeater

Fig 6.1: Network devices connected together

Hubs

A hub is the simplest in the family of network connecting devices. It is a centralized device used
for connecting multiple computers or segments of a LAN that operate with identical protocols. It
works as a common connection point for devices in a network. Hubs can connect upto 12 devices.

Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions. Collision domain of all hosts connected
through Hub remains one. When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every other port so
that all segments of the LAN can see all packets, without considering whether it is destined for a
particular destination or not. Because of this, a network hub cannot be much secure. Also, they do
not have the intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to inefficiencies and
wastage. In addition, copying the data packets on all the ports will make the hub slower which leads
to the utilize of the network switch.

Hubs operate at the Physical layer.

Active hubs are central connecting device in a networking that strengthen the signal, prior to sending
them to the destination devices. These are the hubs which have their own power supply and can
clean, boost, and relay the signal along with the network. The active Hub is thus, also known as the
multiport repeater. It can extend maximum media distance over a network.

Passive Hub relay signals onto the network without cleaning and boosting them and can’t be used
to extend the distance between nodes. Passive hubs simply maintain physical connection and
received the frames, then rebroadcast them across all over the network in the same format in which
it receives them.

Intelligent Hub work like active hubs and include remote management capabilities. They also
provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables an administrator to monitor the traffic
passing through the hub and to configure each port in the hub. Intelligent hub contains a program of
network management and intelligent path selection. Intelligent Hubs work on Physical as well as
Data Link Layer.

Fig 6.2: Hubs

Bridges

Bridges are used to connect hosts or network segments with identical protocols into a larger logical LAN.
Bridges can also divide larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network
segments and managing the flow of data between the two. The basic role of bridges in network
architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different segments that the bridge connects.

When a bridge receives data through one of its ports, it checks the data for a MAC address. If this address
matches that of the node connected to other port, the bridge sends this data through this port. This action
is called forwarding. If the address does not match with any node connected to other port, the bridge
discards it. This action is called filtering. Bridges have buffers to store and forward packets in the event
that the destination link is congested with traffic.

Bridges filter incoming data packets before they are forwarded but makes no modifications to the format
or content of the incoming data. The bridge filters and forwards with the help of a dynamic bridge table.
The bridge table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses for each device and the addresses
of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to other LANs.

Bridges work at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. As a physical layer device, they
regenerate the received signal. As a data link layer device, the bridge checks the physical (MAC) address
of the source and the destination contained in the frame.

Bridges reduce collisions by creating a separate collision domain on either side of the bridge and increase
the available bandwidth to individual nodes because fewer network nodes share a collision domain. They
also prevents a single faulty node from bringing down the entire network and reduce network traffic.
These are very useful in data load filtering of the network traffic by separating it into packets or segments.

However, they are unable to read specific IP addresses and cannot help while building the network
between the different architectures of networks.

Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely unaware of the bridge’s
existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted from the network, reconfiguration of the stations
is unnecessary. These bridges make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.

Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by source station and the
frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover frame by sending a special frame called
discovery frame, which spreads through the entire network using all possible paths to destination.

Fig 6.3: Bridge

Switches

Switches are more intelligent versions of hub. A switch is a multiport device which connects devices or
strands of LANs in a network and uses packet switching to receive, process/ filter and forward data over the
network. It supports both unicast and multicast communications.

Switch maintains limited routing information about nodes in the network to maintain system configuration as
well as memory. When a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the destination’s
hardware address and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s), not to the entire network. Before
forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and other network errors. The data is transmitted in full
duplex mode.

Switches greatly improve network performance compared to hubs. A dedicated bandwidth is provided to
ports by a switch frames are processed at an increased rate. It increases the speed of the network. Switch
divides collision domain of hosts, but broadcast domain remains same. Segmentation involves the use of a
switch to split a larger collision domain into smaller ones in order to reduce collision probability and to
improve overall network throughput. Switches also offer a higher number of ports -- 24/48.

A switch can work at either the Data Link layer or the Network layer of the OSI model. A multilayer switch
is one that can operate at both layers. The layer-two switch performs at data link layer. It behaves like a
bridge with many ports and design allows faster performs. This switch can make a filtering decision bases on
the MAC address of the received frame. However, it has a buffer which holds the frame for processing. Layer-
three Switch forward data at the network layer by additionally incorporating routing functionality. The
switching fabric in a three-layer allows a faster table lookup and forwarding mechanism.

Fig 6.4: Switches

Routers

A router is network layer device that connects two or more packet-switched networks and route the packets
based on their logical addresses (host-to-host addressing). It is designed to receive and analyze the data,
change how it is packaged (if required), find the most suitable (usually the shortest) path for packets, and
move incoming packets between networks. They constantly monitor the condition of the network to adapt
to changes in the condition of the network. Routers can be configured to operate as packet-filtering firewalls
and use access control lists. They also support filtering and encapsulation.

Routers can be connected internally to other routers, creating zones that operate independently which divides
internal networks into subnetworks.

A router is connected to data lines from different IP networks. When a data packet comes in on one of the
lines, the router reads the network address information in the packet header to determine the ultimate
destination. Then, using information in its routing table , it directs the packet to the next network on its
journey. When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers can exchange information
about destination addresses. Routers are protocol sensitive and self-learning. They can support multiple
protocols and large and varying packet sizes and communicate their existence to other devices and can learn
of the existence of new routers, nodes and LAN segments.

It enhances the performance within the individual network by dividing it into two sub-networks and reducing
traffic. Routers provide reliability. If one network gets down, other networks will not be affected. Many
routers also perform network address translation (NAT), which allows all devices on a to share the same
public IP address. It shields the private IP addresses of a local area network (LAN) by readdressing all
outgoing traffic with a single shared public IP address. NAT helps both conserve globally valid IP addresses
and improve network security.

Fig 6.5: Router

Gateway

Gateways connect autonomous networks, each with its own routing algorithms, protocols, topology, domain
name service, and network administration procedures and policies. They work as the messenger agents that
take data from one system, interpret it, adjust the data rate, size and format, and transfer it to another system.
Gateways can operate at any network layer. Gateways are hosts or end points of the network- located at
its boundary. All traffic, except the internal traffic between the nodes of a LAN, that flows across the networks
should pass through the gateway. A gateway provides access to a host network via a remote network. If a
data packet does not find its destination address in the local network then it takes the help of the gateway
device to find the destination address in the remote network. A gateway device knows the path of the remote
destination address. If required, it also changes the encapsulation of the packet so it can travel through the
other networks to get its destination address.

Gateway provides interoperability between two different networks operating with different transmission
protocols. A network gateway requires the establishment of mutually acceptable administrative procedures
between the networks using the gateway. Network gateways can perform protocol conversions to connect
networks with different network protocol technologies.

Fig 6.6: Gateway

Repeater

When an information-bearing signal passes through a communication channel, it is progressively degraded

due to loss of power. The farther from sender the receiver is, the weaker the signal, and the poorer the
reception. A repeater is an electronic device that retransmits the signal it receives with a higher power so that
the signal can cover longer distances or be received on the other side of an obstruction. Repeater works on
the Physical layer

Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted.
Repeaters do not amplify the signal, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength.
It is used to extend the physical distance of LAN. A repeater cannot connect two LANs, but it connects two
segments of the same LAN.

Fig 6.7: Repeaters

Result: Different connecting devices- Hubs, Switches, Routers, Bridges, Gateways and Repeaters-
have been studied.

Criteria Total Marks

Remarks
Marks Obtained
Concept (A) 2
Implementation
2
(B)
Performance
2
(C)
Total Marks 6
 EXPERIMENT- 7

Aim: To establish a wireless network on Packet Tracer

Platform/ Tool used: PC installed with Cisco Packet Tracer Software (Student version 6.2sv)

Theory:

Wireless networks are computer networks that are not connected by physical links of any kind but uses
wireless data connections between network nodes. The use of a wireless network enables enterprises to avoid
the costly process of introducing cables into buildings or as a connection between different equipment
locations. They allow devices to be connected to the network while roaming around within the network
coverage.
Advantages of Wireless Networks
 Increases the mobility of network devices connected to the system
 Provides access to network devices from any location within the network coverage
 Reduces the equipment and setup costs.

Fig 7.1: wireless network

A router is network layer device that connects two or more packet-switched networks and serves as
intermediate destinations for network traffic. It is designed to receive and analyze the data, change how it is
packaged (if required), find the most suitable (usually the shortest) path for packets, and move incoming
packets between networks. They create and maintain a local area network and routes data moving inside of
the network. Router is connected to data lines from different IP networks. When a data packet comes in on
one of the lines, the router reads the network address information in the packet header to determine the
ultimate destination. Then, using information in its routing table , it directs the packet to the next network on
its journey. When multiple routers are used in interconnected networks, the routers can exchange information
about destination addresses.

It enhances the performance within the individual network by dividing it into two sub-networks and reducing
traffic. Routers provide reliability. If one network gets down, other networks will not be affected. Many routers
also perform network address translation (NAT), which allows all devices on a to share the same public IP
address. It shields the private IP addresses of a local area network (LAN) by readdressing all outgoing traffic
with a single shared public IP address. NAT helps both conserve globally valid IP addresses and improve
network security.
A wireless router is a device that performs the functions of a router and also includes the functions of
a wireless access point. It is used to provide access to the Internet or a private computer network. It can
function in a wired local area network, in a wireless-only LAN, or in a mixed wired and wireless network.
We have used WRT300N router in this experiment. It is a Wireless-N Broadband Router that uses Multiple
Input Multiple Output (MIMO) technology. This technology uses multiple radios to create a robust signal that
travels up to four times farther and reduces dead spots.

Fig 7.2: WRT300N Router

Observations

Fig 7.3: Network Created

Device IP Address Default Gateway

Smartphone 192.168.0.1 192.168.1.1
Server 192.168.0.2 192.168.1.1
Printer 192.168.0.3 192.168.1.1
Tablet 192.168.0.4 192.168.1.1
PC 192.168.0.5 192.168.1.1
Laptop 192.168.0.6 192.168.1.1
Fig 7.4: Configuration Window of Router Fig 7.5: Configuration Window of Smartphone

Fig 7.6: Configuration Window of Tablet Fig 7.7: Configuration Window of PC

Fig 7.8 Physical view of PC Fig 7.9 Physical view of Laptop

 Fig 7.10 Physical view of Server Fig 7.11 Physical view of Printer

Fig 7.12: Log Window

Result: Wireless network has been established successfully. Every member of the network was able to
successfully transmit data packets to all other members of the network.

Criteria Total Marks Marks Obtained Remarks

Concept (A) 2
Implementation (B) 2
Performance (C) 2
Total Marks 6
 EXPERIMENT- 8

Aim: To establish a connection between wireless and wired network on Packet Tracer Software

Platform/ Tool used: PC installed with Cisco Packet Tracer Software (Student version 6.2sv)

Theory:

Wireless networks are computer networks that are not connected by physical links of any kind but uses
wireless data connections between network nodes. The use of a wireless network enables enterprises to avoid
the costly process of introducing cables into buildings or as a connection between different equipment
locations. They allow devices to be connected to the network while roaming around within the network
coverage.

Advantages of Wireless Networks

Increases the mobility of network devices connected to the system

Provides access to network devices from any location within the network coverage
Reduces the equipment and setup costs.
Not limited by a specific number of connection ports.

Disadvantages of Wireless Networks

It is less secure as data can be intercepted by unauthorised users.

Data signals can suffer from electromagnetic interference from other devices and other signals.
They can also be blocked by physical structures, leading to dead spots.
Connection is less reliable and stable than wired network
Less Transmission speed.

Fig 8.1: wireless network

A wired network is a configuration in which physical cables establish a connection between devices on the
network. Cables such as copper wires, fiber optic cable, flexible cables and twisted pair can be used for
connectivity and data transmission. Most wired networks use Ethernet cables.
Advantages of wired network
Much less likely to suffer from interference
More difficult for unauthorised users to intercept data
Relatively impervious to adverse weather conditions
Bandwidth available to each connected device is much larger.
Higher data rate and fast transfer of information.
Higher reliability and better quality of service (QoS).

Disadvantages of wired network

Wired connection does not provide mobility during usage.
Installation and troubleshooting of wired network is difficult.

Fig 8.2: wired network

Many organisations run both a wired and wireless network, allowing flexibility on the types of device used
depending on the need of the user.

Observations

Fig 8.3: Network Created

In this experiment, we have used WRT300N (wireless) and 1841 (wired) routers and 2950-24 switch.
The devices in wireless network have been configured as WEP authentication which is a security protocol for
wireless networks whereas the devices in wired network have been configured as Fast Ethernet which is a local area
network (LAN) transmission standard.
Gateway has been used as it is a passage to connect two networks that may work upon different networking models
(one is wired and other is wireless).
 Fig 8.4: IP Configuration of PC0 Fig 8.5: IP Configuration of PC1 Fig 8.6: IP Configuration of PC2

Fig 8.7: IP Configuration of PC3 Fig 8.8: IP Configuration of Laptop 0 Fig 8.9: IP Configuration of Laptop 1

Fig 8.10: Configuration of PC3 in wireless network Fig 8.11: Configuration of Laptop 1 in wireless network

Fig 8.12: Configuration of Laptop 0 in wireless network

 Fig 8.13: Wireless Router Configuration

Fig 8.14: Wired Router Configuration

Fig 8.15: Log Window

Result: Wireless and wired networks have been established and connected successfully. Every member of the network
was able to successfully transmit data packets to all other members of the network.

Criteria Total Marks Marks Obtained Remarks

Concept (A) 2
Implementation (B) 2
Performance (C) 2
Total Marks 6
 EXPERIMENT- 9

Aim: To configure DNS server on Packet Tracer Software

Platform/ Tool used: PC installed with Cisco Packet Tracer Software (Student version 6.2sv)

Theory:

A server is a piece of computer that provides various functionalities (such as sharing data or resources among multiple
clients, or performing computation for a client) for other programs or devices, called "clients". The role of a server is to
share data as well as to share resources and distribute work. A single server can serve multiple clients, and a single client
can use multiple servers. A regular desktop computers can be turned into a server by adding the appropriate software,
provided that the hardware is sufficient to support the demands of the server. Many types of servers exist, including web
servers, mail servers, and file servers. Each type runs software specific to the purpose of the server. Almost the entire
structure of the Internet is based upon a client–server model. There are millions of servers connected to the Internet,
running continuously throughout the world and virtually every action taken by an ordinary Internet user requires one or
more interactions with one or more servers.

Fig 9.1: Servers

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical and decentralized naming system for computers, services, or other
resources connected to the Internet or a private network. The DNS server sits in the space between humans and
computers to help facilitate their communication. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each
of the participating entities. It translates memorized domain names to the numerical IP addresses needed for locating
and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying network protocols. 9The Domain Name System is a
directory of names of the Internet that works at application layer. DNS servers run special software and communicate
with each other using special protocols. When users type domain names such as ‘google.com’ into web browsers, DNS
is responsible for finding the correct IP address for those sites that is proximal to the user. Users
can simultaneously receive different translations for the same domain name. Browsers then use those addresses to
communicate with origin servers or CDN edge servers to access website information.

Fig 9.2: DNS Server

Observations

Fig 9.3: Network Created

Fig 9.4: IP Configuration of PC0 Fig 9.5: IP Configuration of PC1 Fig 9.6: IP Configuration of PC2

Fig 9.7: IP Configuration of google.com server Fig 9.8: IP Configuration of yahoo.com server Fig 9.9: IP Configuration of youtube.com server

Fig 9.10: IP Configuration of facebook.com server Fig 9.11: IP Configuration of amazon.com server Fig 9.12: IP Configuration of DNS server
Fig 9.13: Configuration of PC0 in network Fig 9.14: Configuration of PC1 in network

Fig 9.15: Configuration of PC2 in network

Fig 9.16: Router Configuration

 Fig 9.17: DNS Configuration

(a) yahoo.com on PC1 (b) youtube.com on PC0 (c) google.com on PC0

(d) amazon.com on PC0 (e) facebook.com on PC1

Fig 9.18: Pinging servers using web browser of PC’s

Fig 9.19: Pinging servers using command prompt of PC’s
Result: DNS server has been configured on Packet Tracer Software successfully.
amazon.com, facebook.com, google.com, yahoo.com and youtube.com Servers were configured on the
software and pinged successfully using web browser and command prompt of PC’s

Criteria Total Marks Marks Obtained Remarks

Concept (A) 2
Implementation (B) 2
Performance (C) 2
Total Marks 6
 EXPERIMENT- 10

Aim: To configure DHCP and email server on Packet Tracer Software

Platform/ Tool used: PC installed with Cisco Packet Tracer Software (Student version 6.2sv)

Theory:

A server is a computer that provides various functionalities (such as sharing data or resources among
multiple clients, or performing computation for a client) for other programs or devices, called "clients". The
role of a server is to share data and resources and distribute work. Many types of servers exist, including web
servers, mail servers, and file servers. Each type runs software specific to the purpose of the server.

The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical and decentralized naming system connected to
the Internet or a private network. The DNS server sits in the space between humans and computers to help
facilitate their communication. It translates memorized domain names to the numerical IP addresses needed
for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying network protocols. The
Domain Name System is a directory of names of the Internet that works at application layer. When users
type domain names such as ‘google.com’ into web browsers, DNS is responsible for finding the correct IP
address for those sites that is proximal to the user.

A Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) Server is a network server that automatically provides
and assigns IP addresses, default gateways and other network parameters to client devices. It relies on the
standard protocol known as Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol or DHCP to respond to broadcast queries
by clients. The Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a network management protocol used on
Internet Protocol (IP) local area networks. A device connected to the network requests an IP address from the
DHCP server using the DHCP protocol; the server assigns a unique address to the device.

A DHCP server automatically sends the required network parameters for clients to properly communicate on
the network. Without it, the network administrator has to manually set up every client that joins the network,
which can be cumbersome, especially in large networks. DHCP servers usually assign each client with a
unique dynamic IP address, which changes when the client’s lease for that IP address has expired.

Fig 10.1: DNS Server and DHCP Server

Electronic mail (email) is a method of exchanging messages between people using electronic devices. Email
operates across computer networks, primarily the Internet. Today's email systems are based on a store-and-
forward model. Email servers accept, forward, deliver, and store messages. Neither the users nor their
computers are required to be online simultaneously; they need to connect, typically to a mail server or
a webmail interface to send or receive messages or download it.

A mail server is a server that receives incoming emails from the local users (people within same domain) as
well as remote senders and forwards outgoing email for delivery. The mail servers which are used for outgoing
emails are called as MTAs, mail transfer agents and the servers used for incoming, are called as MDAs, the
mail delivery agents. SMTP is a protocol that is used when e-mails are delivered from clients to servers and
from servers to other servers. POP3 is used to connect to a server on the net to download e-mails to your e-
mail program

Fig 10.2: Email procedure

Observations

Fig 10.3: Network Created

In this network, two accounts are created for two mail servers. Gmail has two accounts- radhika@gmail.com
and raghav@gmail.com. Similarly, yahoo has accounts- radhika@yahoo.com and raghav@yahoo.com
Fig 10.4: IP Configuration of PC with radhika@gmail.com Fig 10.5: IP Configuration of PC with raghav@gmail.com

Fig 10.6: IP Configuration of PC with radhika@yahoo.com Fig 10.7: IP Configuration of PC with raghav@yahoo.com

Fig 10.8: IP Configuration of gmail.com server Fig 10.9: IP Configuration of yahoo.com server
 Fig 10.10: IP Configuration of DHCP server Fig 10.11: IP Configuration of DNS server

Fig 10.12: DHCP Server Configuration Fig 10.13: DNS Configuration

Fig 10.14: gmail.com Server Configuration Fig 10.15: yahoo.com Configuration

Fig 10.16: gmail accounts configuration

Fig 10.17: yahoo accounts configuration

Fig 10.18 Sending mail to self - success

 Fig 10.19: mail sent from yahoo to yahoo Fig 10.20: mail sent from yahoo to gmail

Fig 10.21: mail sent from gmail to gmail Fig 10.22: mail sent from gmail to yahoo

Result: DHCP and mail servers have been configured on Packet Tracer Software successfully.

Teo mail server- gmail.com and yahoo.com had two accounts each- radhika@gmail.com and raghav@gmail.com for
gmail and radhika@yahoo.com and raghav@yahoo.com for yahoo. Each account was able to send mails to every account,
including itself.

Criteria Total Marks Marks Obtained Remarks

Concept (A) 2
Implementation (B) 2
Performance (C) 2
Total Marks 6