Dynamic Models-

Motor dynamic models are required for dynamic motor starting, transient stability, and generator
starting studies. Generator dynamic models and the associated control units (exciters, governors,
and Power System Stabilizer [PSS]) are only needed for Transient Stability Studies. In addition,
load torque characteristics for different types of models are required for both motor starting and
Transient Stability Studies. Wind turbine generator dynamic models and the associated controls
are required to do dynamic simulation studies involving the wind turbine generators.  Lumped
load dynamic models are needed if the dynamics for a lumped load in a study is desired.  ETAP
provides a variety of induction and synchronous machine models, wind turbine generator
models, lumped load dynamic models, plus extensive libraries for exciters, governors, and PSS
for you to select from to perform your studies. 52,56

 When performing dynamic Motor Acceleration Studies using the Motor Starting Module, only
the motors that are accelerated must have a dynamic model, i.e., generators, exciters, and
governors are not dynamically modeled. For transient stability studies, all generators, exciters,
and governors are dynamically modeled. Motors, which have dynamic models and are
designated to be dynamically modeled from the Study Case, will be dynamically modeled. For
generator starting and frequency dependent Transient Stability Studies, all generators, exciters,
governors, and motors have to use frequency dependent models.

 This chapter describes the different types of machine models, machine control unit models, load
models, and explains their applications in motor starting and Transient Stability Studies. It also
describes tools that assist you in selecting those models and specifying model parameters.

 The induction machine models section describes five different types of induction machine
models and the frequency dependent forms of these models. These are Circuit Models (Single1,
Single2, DBL1, and DBL2) and Characteristic Curve Models, Descriptions of five different
types of synchronous machine models and the frequency dependent forms of these models are
provided in the synchronous machine models section. These consist of an Equivalent Model,
Transient Model for round-rotor machines, Subtransient Model for round-rotor machines,
Transient Model for salient-pole machines, and Subtransient Model for salient-pole machines.
Motor starting and Transient Stability Studies also require the utility tie system to be modeled as
an equivalent machine. A description of the modeling of power grid systems is found in the
section Power Grid. Different types of exciter and automatic voltage regulator (AVR) models,
including standard IEEE models and vendor special models, are defined in the Exciter and AVR
Models section. Governor-turbine models that are also based on both IEEE standards and
vendors’ product manuals are listed in the Governor-turbine Models section. PSS models that are
also based on both IEEE Standards and vendors’ product manuals are listed in the PSS Models
section. Finally, the types of load models are described in the Mechanical Load section.
Dynamics of lumped load is described in the Dynamic Lumped Motor Load Model section.
Please contact OTI for wind turbine generator models.

Model Type Description

Equivalent A model that uses an internal voltage source behind the armature resistance and
quadrature-axis reactance.
Transient A more comprehensive model than the Equivalent model, including the
machine’s saliency.
Sub transient A comprehensive representation of general type synchronous machine,
including both transient and sub transient parameters.

Xd
This is the direct-axis synchronous reactance in percent (saturated value, machine base)

Xdu
This is the direct-axis synchronous reactance in percent (machine base, unsaturated value).

Xd’
This is the direct-axis transient synchronous reactance in percent (machine base, saturated value).
This is used for both motor starting and Transient Stability Studies and It is used for 30-cycle
fault analysis and Motor Starting Studies.

XL
This is the armature leakage reactance in percent (machine base).

Xq
This is the quadrature-axis synchronous reactance in percent (saturated value, machine base).

Xqu
This is the quadrature-axis synchronous reactance in percent (machine base, unsaturated value).

Xq’
This is the quadrature-axis transient synchronous reactance in percent (saturated value, machine
base).

Xq”
This is the quadrature-axis subtransient synchronous reactance in percent (saturated value,
machine base).

Tdo’
This is the direct-axis transient open-circuit time constant in seconds.

Tdo”
This is the direct-axis subtransient open circuit-time constant in seconds.
Note: The Tdo” time constant from displayed values in Dynamic Model - Subtransient option is
used for plotting of the generator decrement curve even when it is hidden due to selection of
Transient or Equivalent options.
Tqo’
This is the quadrature-axis transient open-circuit time constant in seconds.
Tqo”
This is the quadrature-axis subtransient open-circuit time constant in seconds.

Sbreak
This is the per unit of terminal voltage at which the generator saturation curve skews from the
air-gap line.

S100
This is the saturation factor at 100% terminal voltage.

S120
This is the saturation factor at 120% terminal voltage.Saturation factors S100 and S120 are
calculated from the following equations: 

S100 = I /I
f100 f

S120 = I /1.2I
f120 f

where:
 I = Field current corresponding to 100% terminal voltage on the air gap line (no saturation)
f

I = Field current corresponding to 100% terminal voltage on the open circuit saturation curve
f100

I = Field current corresponding to 120% terminal voltage on the open circuit saturation curve
f120

Damping
This is the shaft mechanical damping term in percent MW change due to 1 Hz deviation in speed
(% MW/Hz).  Typical values range from 2% (short shaft) to 10% (long shaft).

As per - 1110TM
IEEE Guide for Synchronous Generator Modeling Practices and
Applications in Power System Stability Analyses

SATURATED AND UNSATURATED REACTANCE.

Saturated reactance is calculated on the basis of (1) actual open circuit characteristics i.e., the one showing some
degree of saturation (2) short circuit characteristics which is a straight line. The reactance so calculated (saturated
reactance) is therefore not constant but decreases with field excitation.
On the other hand, unsaturated reactance is calculated on the basis of (1) airline i.e. OCC if there were no saturation,
hence it turns out to be a straight line (2) short circuit characteristics which is already a straight line. As, now, both
OCC and SCC are straight lines, the unsaturated reactance becomes a constant value, irrespective of excitation level.

6.1 General
The various implications of synchronous generator saturation have been discussed extensively in the
literature for many years. In general, the initial values of the synchronous generator rotor angles and
excitations, on which the synchronous generator stability performance greatly depends, are significantly
affected by saturation. In addition, saturation has an impact on the extent to which high-initial-response
excitation could improve transient stability. In any system planning or operating policy/decision, if power
system stability plays an important role, satisfactory representation of generator saturation is highly
desirable.

6.2 Representation of synchronous generator saturation in the steady state

6.2.1 Use of one saturation factor (or increment)

The use of one saturation factor or increment has been applied to both the salient-pole and the cylindricalrotor
synchronous machines using different assumptions. In the case of salient-pole machines, saturation is
assumed to occur only in the direct axis and a saturation increment IFS (or Ep) corresponding to the voltage
behind the Potier (or leakage) reactance is obtained from the generator open-circuit saturation curve (Figure
4). The excitation, including the effect of saturation, will be equal to the sum of this saturation increment
plus the excitation from the air-gap line of the open-circuit saturation curve corresponding to the internal
voltage “EGU” calculated using the unsaturated d- and q-axis synchronous reactances (Figure 5). EGU and EI
are used for the same internal voltage in Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6, and Figure 7.
In the case of cylindrical-rotor synchronous generators, saturation can be significant in both the direct and
quadrature axes. However, the use of one saturation factor (or increment) is applied assuming that the
magnetic path is homogeneous around the rotor periphery, i.e., the open-circuit saturation curve represents
the magnetic relationship in any axis around the rotor periphery. Thus the open-circuit curve can be used to
find the saturation correction corresponding to the total air-gap flux (corresponding to the voltage behind the
leakage or Potier reactance). Adding this saturation increment in phase with the voltage behind the leakage
or Potier reactance to the voltage behind the unsaturated synchronous reactance, the total excitation
including saturation is obtained (Figure 6). The algebraic sum of this saturation increment and the voltage
behind the unsaturated synchronous reactance is sometimes considered to be the total excitation including
saturation (IEEE Std 115-199). However, such representation will result in considerable error in calculating
the internal load angles especially in large turbine generators. In a second approach, the unsaturated
synchronous reactance is broken into two components, and the larger component (Xsu – Xp) or (Xsu – Xl) is
adjusted by the saturation factor to give, together with the addition of Xp or Xl, the saturated synchronous
reactance. Kp or Kl is a number greater than unity.

An internal voltage EQD is then determined using this saturated reactance as shown in Figure 7. The total
excitation is then obtained by multiplying this internal voltage by the saturation factor. By comparing Figure
6 and Figure 7, it is evident that both approaches are similar. The saturated synchronous reactance method is
used mostly with round-rotor machines.

6.2.2 Use of two saturation factors

In this approach, both the direct-axis and quadrature-axis saturation effects are represented by specifically
adjusting the unsaturated synchronous reactances Xdu and Xqu by corresponding saturation factors Kd and Kq
to obtain saturated d- and q-axis synchronous reactances in the same way as discussed in 6.2.1. In this case,
Kd is calculated from a direct-axis saturation function to give Xdsat and Kq is calculated from a quadratureaxis
saturation function to give Xqsat. The internal voltage behind the leakage or Potier reactance is used to
define the operating point on both saturation curves. Using these saturated reactances Xdsat and Xqsat instead
of the unsaturated reactance Xdu and Xqu in Figure 5, an internal voltage (≡EGU in Figure 5) is obtained. The
total excitation is then obtained by multiplying this internal voltage by the saturation factor Kd. Empirically,
the use of the two saturation factors seems to give, in at least some cases, an accurate representation of the
effect of saturation in the intermediate axis of the total ampere-turns, i.e., the effect of both the saturation
factor due to the total resultant ampere-turns using the saturation curve in the intermediate axis of the total
resultant ampere-turns and the phase angle between the resultant flux and the resultant ampere-turns.
Annex D describes in some detail the theoretical aspects of developing Kd and Kq saturation factors. In addition,
a practical method is shown for determining equivalent d- and q-axis saturation curves. This method
requires measured information for field current and internal angle of a synchronous machine under various
operating conditions. Values of power, reactive power, and terminal voltage should also be measured.
DOUBT FROM OTI-GENERATOR
1. R0 AND R2 FROM WHERE?
2. UNSATURATED IMPEDANCE WRONG VALUE ENTERED?
3. GROUNDING DATA
4. INERTIA DATA FOR GENERATOR GIVEN PRIMEMOVER NEEDED.
5. Prime mover: B35/40 V20AG