Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, Vol. 76, No.
1, 2018
ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Scientia Socialis, Ltd. in cooperation with SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

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Editor-in-Chief
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Šiauliai University & SMC „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr., Prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Charles University, Czech Republic
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr., Prof. Marco Antonio Bueno Filho, Federal University of ABC, Brazil
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Dr. Muammer Calik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Dr., Harun Yilmaz, Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Turkey
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, University of Zilina, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czech Republic
Dr. Osman Pekel, Suleyman Demirel University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, National University of Water Management and Nature Resources Use,
Ukraine, Ukraine
Dr., Raffaele Pisano, Lille 3 University, France
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, National Institute for Research and Development in Informatics - ICI
Bucuresti, Romania
Dr. Agneta Simeonsdotter Svensson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
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Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific journal,
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PROBLEMS
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Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018
Contents 3
Editorial
TEACHER HEALTH LITERACY: WHY DOES IT MATTER?

Vincentas Lamanauskas ............................................................................................... 4
Articles
INTERGENERATIONAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION: OLDER ENTREPRENEURS

REDUCING YOUNGSTERS’ SOCIAL AND WORK DISENGAGEMENT
Barbara Baschiera, Sara Santini, Marco Socci .................................................................... 7
THE EFFECTS OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS AND THEORY OF MIND ON

SEMANTIC FLUENCY IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Inga Biscevic, Arnela Pasalic, Haris Memisevic ...................................................................21
THE IMPACT OF MOBILE TABLET USE ON STUDENTS' PERCEPTION

OF LEARNING PROCESSES
Nitza Davidovitch, Roman Yavich ................................................................................... 29
SCIENTISTS’ PERCEPTIONS ON THE NATURE OF NANOSCIENCE AND

ITS PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
Antti Laherto, Frederike Tirre, Ilka Parchmann, Lorenz Kampschulte, Stefan Schwarzer ...................43
THE LEVEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF CHILDREN IN KINDERGARTEN IN THE

LIGHT OF SELECTED INDIVIDUAL FACTORS
Stanisława Nazaruk, Joanna Waszczuk, Joanna Marchel, Helena Kowaluk-Nikitin,
Anna Klim-Klimaszewska ........................................................................................... 58
THE RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT TO MEASURE TEACHER KNOWLEDGE

FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF LEARNERS IN THE CONTEXT OF PIBID
Keysy S. C. Nogueira, Carmen Fernandez ......................................................................... 69
THE CONTRADICTORY NATURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE

PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN UNIVERSITY AND SCHOOL
André Machado Rodrigues, Cristiano Rodrigues de Mattos ..................................................... 87
CHOOSING TEACHING AS A PROFESSION: INFLUENCE OF BIG FIVE

PERSONALITY TRAITS ON FALLBACK CAREER
Robert Tomšik, Viktor Gatial ........................................................................................100
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 109
QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st CENTURY ..........................................111

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018
4
TEACHER HEALTH LITERACY:
WHY DOES IT MATTER?
Vincentas Lamanauskas
Šiauliai University, Lithuania
E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt
“Lack of activity destroys the good

condition of every human being, while
movement and methodical physical
exercise save it and preserve it”
Plato
It is obvious, that education is one of the main social factors having influence on health.
Health education is most effective at school, because it reaches a man at his most receptive
period of life - childhood and adolescence. A demand to live a healthy life is formed not only
by family, but also by school. Teachers’ role in health education process is very significant,
therefore, their health literacy and health competence are the main components realising health
education at school. During the studies at university pre-service teachers in one way or another
develop health competence, however hopefully not enough attention is paid to this, and study
process poorly contributes to health literacy improvement, health competence formation.
Research show (Zagurskienė, Misevičienė, 2008; Rapolienė, Eigėlytė, Gedrimė, Norkienė,
Sąlyga, 2017), that Lithuanian health literacy is quite low, there is lack of information both
concretely about diseases and in general, how to form healthy living habits, how to finally live
a healthy life. A similar situation is in teacher population as well. Research show, that good or
sufficient health literacy is typical for only 28.8% of teachers, while insufficient health literacy
is typical for 42 % of teachers, and for 29.2 % – doubtful health literacy (Kalinkevičienė,
Česnavičienė, Ustilaitė, 2016). The earlier research carried out in Lithuanian senior form
students’ population showed that students do not get enough information on health questions
at school, health events are also very rare. The students themselves think, that very little
attention is paid to healthy living questions at schools, very often the information they have is
controversial (Lamanauskas, Armonienė, 2012). It is obvious, that teacher health literacy and
health competence are two main factors directly influencing students’ health literacy, forming
healthy lifestyle habits.
In general, health literacy researches in Lithuania are poor, very spread out in
interdisciplinary scientific literature, not consecutive. There is lack of research, grounding pre-
service teacher health literacy level, discussing study improvement questions at university on
the aspect of health literacy promotion and so on. Teachers mostly work with children and
youth. As it is known, the behaviour of young people and their way of living dramatically
change in the process of growing up and going through various age periods. Some of them (e.g.,
adolescence) is a very risky life period, when negative aspects of living like smoking, alcohol
and drug use and other can occur. So, teachers are qualified health literacy education characters,
whose one of the functions is to provide the learners with the necessary self-expression devices,
to form possibilities for acquiring abilities and skills, necessary for continuous health literacy
improvement (Šveikauskas, 2005). On the other hand, in Lithuanian national health conception
it is stated, that education institutions are priority health strengthening places, in which the
efforts of pedagogues, parents and school, public health care specialists are unified, forming
proper children and youth attitude to health, improving their health literacy and promoting
healthy living. Health literacy, as a separate literacy form, becomes more important for social,
economic, and health development, and teachers get a special role promoting health literacy for
children and adolescents.

Vincentas LAMANAUSKAS. Teacher health literacy: Why does it matter?
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018
On the other hand, it is important to emphasize, that teacher works in the high-risk 5
environment. Teacher is not only special information (e.g., health knowledge and so on)
provider, but also an example of behaviour and attitude to health. Can a teacher encourage
students to live a healthy life, who himself is indifferent to this? It is incompatible. In various
countries and various amount of research carried out in this field show a common situation,
i.e., the teachers’, as a professional group, rather low physical and psychic (emotional)
health indicators. Moreover, these indicators tendentiously decrease, the teachers’ length of
service increasing. Thus, teachers’ health question is very relevant. Risk factor, having direct
influence on teachers’ health investigation and concrete preventive devices, are very important
not only for the institution employees themselves, but not less their role is important taking
care of and strengthening students’ health. It is known, that the obtained health information
does not have a direct influence itself. In the education process the teacher conveys health
information to students, seeks to cause behaviour changes of a concrete person or a group,
forming the conditions for the behaviour to change in the positive (useful) direction for health.
It is important to ascertain the obtained health information impact on students’ behaviour.
Exhaustive scientific researches are necessary for this. It is understandable, that both teachers
and students similarly use health information resources. As usual, general health information
resources are television, press, doctors and other health care specialists, and internet. It is
important to evaluate, that the obtained information is very often controversial, even wrong.
The ability to critically evaluate such information remains very actual. This directly determines
the ability to accept decisions, related to healthy living /behaviour. Besides, the obtained health
information influence on health behaviour is usually bigger for elderly people than for youth.
Thus, purposeful efforts to deepen knowledge about health in every possible way, methods of its
preservation and strengthening, positive attitude to health and healthy lifestyle implementation,
and health behaviour and healthy lifestyle skill formation form the essence of health education.
On the other hand, improper /insufficient teacher preparation becomes the main obstacle for the
realisation of education process of healthy living.
References
Kalinkevičienė, A., Česnavičienė, J., Ustilaitė, S. (2016). Iššūkiai vaikų sveikatos ugdymui XXI a.
mokykloje: mokytojų subjektyvus sveikatos raštingumas [Challenges for children's health
education in the 21st century at school: teachers' subjective health literacy]. Retrieved from
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jurate_Cesnaviciene/publication/318598282_Issukiai_
vaiku_sveikatos_ugdymui_XXI_a_mokykloje_mokytoju_subjektyvus_sveikatos_rastingumas/
links/5972367da6fdcc83488165ec/Issukiai-vaiku-sveikatos-ugdymui-XXI-a-mokykloje-
mokytoju-subjektyvus-sveikatos-rastingumas.pdf.
Lamanauskas, V., Armonienė, J. (2012). Healthy lifestyle in comprehensive school: Lithuanian upper
secondary school students’ position. European Journal of Health and Biology Education, 1 (1),
53-73.
Šveikauskas, V. (2005). Sveikatos raštingumo ugdymo sistemos ypatybės [Peculiarities of the health
literacy education system]. Medicina, 41 (12), 1061-1066.
Rapolienė, L., Eigėlytė, A., Gedrimė, L., Norkienė, S., Sąlyga, J. (2017). Gyventojų informuotumas apie
sveiką gyvenseną [Public awareness about healthy lifestyle]. Sveikatos mokslai / Health Sciences,
27 (6), 80-84.
Zagurskienė, D., Misevičienė, I. (2008). Pacientų sveikatos raštingumo ir slaugytojų jiems teikiamos informacijos
vertinimas [The evaluation of patients’ health literacy’ and the information provided to them by
nurses]. Sveikatos mokslai / Health Sciences, 3, 1594–1598.

Vincentas LAMANAUSKAS. Teacher health literacy: Why does it matter?
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018
6
Received: January 15, 2018 Accepted: February 10, 2018
Vincentas Lamanauskas PhD, Professor, Senior Researcher, University of Šiauliai, Research Institute,
P. Visinskio Street 25-119, LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania.
E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.puslapiai.lt/
https://www.facebook.com/ScientiaEducologica
https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Vincentas_Lamanauskas

PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018
INTERGENERATIONAL 7
ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION:
OLDER ENTREPRENEURS REDUCING
YOUNGSTERS’ SOCIAL AND WORK
DISENGAGEMENT
Barbara Baschiera
Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Italy
E-mail: barbara-baschiera@unive.it
Sara Santini, Marco Socci

National Institute of Health and Science on Ageing, Italy
E-mail: s.santini2@inrca.it, m.socci@inrca.it
Abstract
The current generation of young Italians leaving education have never entered the labour market with
more years of schooling and higher levels of academic certifications as now. Nevertheless, they are
losing out in the struggle for employment. It is a paradox experienced not only across Europe and poses
questions about whether young people are being trained efficiently for twenty-first century employment.
Nowadays employers require that young people possess skills-oriented learning that emphasises
adaptability and preparedness for change.
Italian Education systems, however, have not been responsive in this way.
The intergenerational education approach may be an effective method for covering the mismatch between
provided education and competences required on the labour market. Experienced older entrepreneurs may
give young people Not in Employment, Education, or Training (NEETs) the confidence and intellectual
resources to deal with the problems they will encounter through professional life, creating new spaces of
autonomy and responsibility.
Two focus-groups and questionnaires with 15 NEETs and 15 qualitative interviews and questionnaires
to 50+ entrepreneurs were carried out in five European countries, Italy included, to understand how an
entrepreneur could help youth to start their own business. Results from Italy demonstrate that to spread a
culture of entrepreneurship, senior entrepreneurs are required to strengthen NEETs’ confidence, initiative
and courage, the ability to take risks and to invest in the future.
Considering Lev Vygotsky’s cognitive and social development theory as applied to intergenerational
learning seniors need to act as a trigger to promote NEETs’ entrepreneurial attitudes, capabilities and
aspirations for life.
Keywords: active participation, intergenerational entrepreneurship education, NEETs, senior
entrepreneurs, social inclusion.
Introduction

A rising phenomenon in industrialised countries having to do with the transition to
adulthood is that of NEETs, an acronym for Not in Employment, Education, or Training: in
brief, unemployed and inactive young people, aged between 15 and 24 years (Eurofound, 2016)
not enrolled in any formal or non-formal education and training.
Although the definition of NEETs can vary in relation to many factors such as: the
meaning that different cultures ascribe to “youth”, the diverse obligation to attend school, as

Barbara BASCHIERA, Sara SANTINI, Marco SOCCI. Intergenerational entrepreneurship education: Older entrepreneurs reducing
youngsters’ social and work disengagement
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Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018
8 well as the possibility of easily accessing educational opportunities, all definitions of NEETs
concur in identifying a heterogenic category particularly at risk for social exclusion from
mainstream adult life.
The results obtained by the EU Youth Report (European Commission, 2012) and by the
Survey of Adult Skills (OECD, 2013) showed that NEETs are the social group most exposed at
depletions of key skills that are important in enabling adults to fully participate in the labour
market and in social and civic life (Alfieri, Sironi, Marta, Rosina, Marzana, 2015; Di Francesco,
2013).
Problem of Research
According to the NEET population clusters across Europe, for people aged 15–24
(Eurofound, 2016), Italy has a large share of long-term unemployed people without work
experience (Eurofound, 2012, p. 41).
In Italy the NEETs aged 15-29 are 24.3% of the youth, the highest value among the
European Union (EU) member states (EU average: 15.9%) (ISTAT, 2017).
The Country is characterized by one of the most difficult school-to-work transitions, with
dramatic absolute and relative disadvantages in the labour market.
The evolution of labour market reforms from late 90s onwards, suggests that this may be
only partially due to the economic crisis the Country is facing. The recent crisis has intensified
the problem of young people’s labour market participation; but, it is important to understand
that this is not a new issue.
Unlike in the past, nowadays the largest group of Italian NEETs is composed of young
people with an upper secondary or a tertiary level of education.
Studies show how young people with lower education are three times more likely to
become a NEET compared to others (Eurofound, 2015), so the Italian NEETs seems to have an
obvious advantage since they are higher educated. In general, this should be a capable group
with a lot of potential, probably prepared and willing to start working, and society would have
a lot to acquire in both social and economic terms from integrating this youth into the labour
market. However, the transition between a University degree and a relevant job seems to be
hard.
In Italy, choosing a higher education career can be seen as an individual strategy in order
to avoid the lack of opportunities in the labour market. For different reasons, many young people
have fallen victim to credential inflation, lack of progression opportunities, and competition for
scarce jobs (Cefalo, Sergi, Giannelli, 2015).
Also, if Italian NEETs with a higher education in general have developed knowledge,
understanding and skills during their education, it seems like they still face important challenges
(such as attitudes and values in relation to society, work life and oneself) when it comes to
having a successful work life. The impression is that they don’t have the ability to be inspired
and develop creativity, and to deal with so-called change management (Elamson, Sonne &
Rendahl Stenersen, 2016).
The problem seems to be principally due to the fact that the national education system
is unable to close the youth experience gap (Pastore, 2012). Although the schools and the
Universities present throughout Italy offer a wide variety of programs of study, the education
system fails to deal with and overcome what appears to be the principal “lack ” of the young, the
one that sets them apart from adults, namely, their lack of both work experience (Pastore, 2011)
and of interpersonal skills needed to function well in the working environment: these include
attitude and willingness to work, a desire for responsibility, teamwork and problem-solving. It
is in these areas that the employability gap is becoming a real problem.
The new character of the twenty-first century labour market, fundamentally different to
that which existed a generation ago, drives a pressing need to close this mismatch between the
current needs of employers and the reality of today’s education system. To succeed in today’s

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labour market, Italian NEETs need qualifications that match with their emerging aspirations. 9
They need to better develop their ability to be personally effective in applying knowledge in
unfamiliar contexts as is required by contemporary jobs with greatest chances of success.
Research Focus
How should youth respond to the demands of the twenty first century labour market?
How can they learn to be adaptable to the changes being experienced and be prepared to
succeed in today’s labour market?
How to combine the employability with the promotion of young people competences and
skills such as critical thinking, problem solving, creativity, openness to innovation, effective
communication, team building?
In the era of portfolio careers, zero hour contracts, part-time and self-employment,
employment growth in small, rather than large employers, these are all trends which require
adaptability and confidence.
Who can teach young people the art of being enterprising – solution-focused dispositions,
spotting opportunities and managing with uncertainties? The great goal of such teaching is not
in ensuring deep conceptual understanding as an end in itself, but in fostering the ability of
NEETs to apply the knowledge they have accumulated in new situations. In this way, they
can develop confidence and intellectual resource to embrace and deal with the innumerable
unfamiliar problems they will run into their lives.
The “Be the Change”1 is a two years project (November 2017-October 2018) funded
by the Erasmus Plus Programme of the European Commission (Key Action 2: Cooperation
for innovation and the exchange of good practices) and carried out in five European countries
(Germany, Hungary, Italy, Malta and Slovenia).
It aims at answering all these questions by equipping NEETs with the skills and
competences needed in going from education to find employment through the development
of a methodology based on an intergenerational learning paradigm, capable of promoting
entrepreneurship.
Methodology of Research
General Background of Research
The “Be the Change” project foresaw the analysis of the context (or analysis of the
framework) in five European countries in order to know the already existing initiatives of
intergenerational education to entrepreneurship at national level, getting inspired and defining
older entrepreneurs (hereafter also “seniors”) and NEETs (hereafter also “youngsters”) profiles,
useful for setting up an educational offer meeting learners’ needs and expectations.
In Italy the Ca’ Foscari University of Venice (i.e. the Italian organizations involved in the
“Be the Change” project) carried out 15 interviews and questionnaires to older entrepreneurs
and the National Institute of Health & Science on Ageing (INRCA) dealt with 2 focus-groups
and questionnaires with 15 NEETs.
Sample of Research
Seniors and youngsters were selected through a non-probability technique, because the
research follows a qualitative methodology mainly. Informants were therefore intentionally
selected having some characteristics that could represent in part the condition of Italian seniors
and youngsters, i.e. entrepreneurs more than 50 years old, working or active in any business
1 For further information: https://bethechange-project.eu/.

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10 sector (social sector included) and young people aged between 18 and 29, and being out of any
working and educational pathway.
Entrepreneurs were recruited in the Veneto (Northern Italy) and Umbria (Central Italy)
regions through researchers’ personal contacts established during previous studies involving
entrepreneurs, word-of-mouth and the Artisan Confederation of the Veneto region. Youngsters
were recruited in the urban area of Ancona, the Marche region (Central Italy) capital, through
social network (i.e. Facebook), snowballing and word-of-mouth techniques mainly.
Instrument and Procedures
The topic-guide developed for gathering qualitative data from youngsters was introduced
by a brief questionnaire for collecting information on socio-demographic characteristics (e.g.
gender, age, level of qualification, etc.), perceived entrepreneurial competences, their interest
in running a business and in receiving support and knowledge from an experienced older
entrepreneur/business person. Youngsters were also asked to identify the entrepreneurial skills
they thought to have, among the 25 skills listed by Tessaro and Baschiera (2016).
The 7 qualitative open questions of the topic-guide for the focus groups were aimed at
gathering youngsters’ opinions about their willingness and motivations for starting a business,
what being a business person mean, and about how might an experienced entrepreneur/mentor
help them to start a business. The two focus-groups took place in the headquarters of INRCA:
8 persons attended the first discussion and 7 the second. Each focus-group was about 2 hours
long and was moderated by a researcher, while a second researcher played the role of observer.
As done for the focus-groups with the youngsters, even the topic-guide of the semi-
structured interview to seniors was introduced by a brief questionnaire. It was mainly focused on
professional experiences of entrepreneurs/business people 50+ and on their availability to pass
on their experiences and entrepreneurial skills to young people. The last quantitative question
was based on the list of 25 entrepreneurial skills developed by Tessaro and Baschiera (2016):
seniors were asked to list, in order of importance, key entrepreneurial skills and to choose the
abilities they felt confident with teaching others. The interview topic-guide was articulated in
12 qualitative open questions focusing on professional experience of seniors, their opinions
about motivations, entrepreneurial competences and characteristics (e.g. personal, relational,
technical) important for being a good entrepreneur; their availability to support the youngsters
and potential ways for motivating young people to start a business and acquire entrepreneurial
skills.
Interviews with seniors were administered face to face by researchers of the Ca’ Foscari
University. Each interview lasted 1 hour and half and took place at the interviewees’ home or in
the offices of the company they own, or by phone.
All individuals involved in the research were informed about the aim of the project and
the modality of interviews and they signed a consent letter where all rights for the safeguard
of the privacy were guaranteed according with the National Law (Legislative Decree n. 196 of
30th June 2003 - Personal data protection code). Furthermore, the procedure for data collection,
storing and protection adopted in the research were compliant with what required by the Ethic
Committee of the Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, that was asked for advice and approval even
on behalf of INRCA.
Data Analysis
Qualitative data from both interviews to seniors and focus-groups with youngsters were
digitally recorded and transcribed verbatim. Textual data were analyzed through the Thematic
Analysis technique (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 79; Vaismoradi, Turunen, & Bondas, 2013),
because it is recommended for studies approaching under explored phenomena for which there
are still no many established theories, as in this case.

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Through this method, patterns in the data were identified, analyzed and interpreted 11
and common threads along the textual material were found (De Santis & Ugarriza, 2000).
Researchers familiarized with interviews texts, identified repeated themes through the dataset
and gave them a code. In a second phase codes were combined, and different codes were sorted
into potential themes and sub-themes. Finally, researchers identified the “essence” of each
theme for the final interpretation and themes and sub-themes were systematized in a matrix.
Data from 15 interviews to seniors were analyzed with the support of a software for the
management of textual data, i.e. Max Qda11. Data from focus-group did not need the use of the
software due to the small amount of data, thus data were systematized in tables treated using
paste and copy system of chunks of text.
Given the prevalent qualitative nature of the research and the consequent limited number
of participants to the survey, quantitative data were analyzed mainly for the description of
demographic characteristics of the targets, without any ambition of statistical power.
Results of Research
As mentioned, the research adopted a qualitative methodology. Nevertheless, first several

quantitative data were reported emerged from the answers to the questionnaire filled in by the
Italian youngsters before the focus-group discussion and by the older entrepreneurs before the
face to face interview, in order to provide a general picture of participants’ socio-demographic
profile.
Afterwards, qualitative data are reported even through quotations extracted by the
textual data recorded during the focus-group discussions and the interviews, in order to show
the thoughts of the two target groups about education, entrepreneurship and mentoring.
Italian Young People: When the Real “Enterprise” is Finding a Job in an

Unfriendly Labor Market
Even though a total of 15 Italian young people (eight women and six men) have attended
the 2 focus groups, only 14 have filled in the questionnaire, so quantitative data reported below
are related to the latter.
The youngsters had a medium-high level of qualification: 7 respondents were graduated
(6 of them obtained the first degree and 1 a master degree); 2 respondents completed the
secondary school, and 5 had a post-secondary school education.
Eight people reported to be unemployed from less than 1 year, 6 from at least 1 year,
and 3 of them from 2 years or more, so the latter can be considered as long-term unemployed.
Eleven young people declared to be interested in starting a business, considered as a way
to change the unemployment condition and to (re-)enter the labour market.
Among those young people open to the possibility of starting a business, the job aspects
more appreciated and viewed as positive by them are the following: “to do what interests me”,
“to utilize my abilities and talent in my work” and the “possibility to create new things” (6
preferences each).
Twelve young people declared in the questionnaires to be willing to attend a course about
starting a business and 13 of them would welcome an experienced entrepreneur to help them
in starting their own business. Furthermore, 11 youngsters also declared that would be able to
maintain regular contact with a mentor in order to learn from him/her about starting a business.
The youngsters were also asked to answer “yes” or “no” or “I don’t know” to a list
of 25 sentences related to entrepreneurial skills for capturing the level of awareness and the
self-perception of those owned. Among the interviewees, 10 thought to have the capability of
overcoming challenges, to recognize their strengths and weakness, to set challenging goals and
to take decisions. However, several young people felt unconfident and uncertain in getting the
best out of people, in leading others to their projects and in recognizing potential projects.

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12 The Thematic Analysis of the contents arisen during the focus-group discussions,
identified drivers and barriers for starting a business among young people and underlined some
weaknesses of the Italian formal educational system in providing competences useful and
expendable in the labour market.
Concerning drivers, the youngsters were shaped to start a business by the desire of being
successful and autonomous in the workplace, as reported in the following quotations extracted
by the textual data of one focus-group:
“In my opinion, starting a business may be an opportunity for realizing myself. If you have a good
idea and you can identify a market niche, thus you can have a chance of success”. (Male, Graduated in
Economics).
“I would like to start a business for being autonomous and independent”. (Female, High School
degree).
For many young people participating in the focus groups, becoming an entrepreneur is
perceived as a chance for doing a job they like and for following their dreams:
“I would like to start a business in the field of social counseling, because it might be a way for
doing what I like and for doing it at my better.” (Female, Graduated in Social work).
“In my opinion the idea is a key aspect, the motivation that pushes you in realizing your dream.
Thus the courage, a mix of passion and action!” (Female, High School degree).
“You need someone who trust you and available to fund your idea.” (Female, Graduated in Social
work).
Youngsters thought that technical and personal/relational capabilities are needed for
starting a business. Part of the technical requirements, achieved through training, are economic
competences, such as the ability to organize the work, to carry out a market analysis and a
business plan:
“The first step is the organization of funds, of production, of how you want to be on the market”.
(Male, Graduated in Economics).
“Once you identify your business, you must train, because training is important for the realization
of your dream”. (Female, High School degree).
In the opinion of the interviewees, the greater barriers preventing Italian young people
from starting a business were the lack of funding and the fear of the economic risk:
“I have no idea of where I could find money for starting a business. Who can help me start a
business? I am 28 and I have nothing in my hands, I have not savings” (Female, Graduated in Nutrition
and Food Science Technologies).
“The problem is that under 30... who would ever want to borrow for life with a bank, after
asking for a mortgage? If the business is unsuccessful, what happens? I am concerned about it!”. (Male,
Graduated in Philosophy).
Another difficulty for starting a business identified by the interviewees is finding

collaborators and persons sharing the same business idea and having motivation for carrying
out it. The lack of grit could be the consequence of a spread discourage characterizing Italian
young persons, even due to the consequences of the international economic crisis:

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“Italian young people are blocked to start a business perhaps because they do not fully believe in 13
it” (Female, High School degree).
“We hear and see that so many activities close, so now, I wonder... why should I do it in a moment
like this?” (Male, High School degree).
Such a discouragement, even concerning the idea of starting a business, may depend also
on the interviewees’ fear of personal failure. The Italian youngsters indeed, were finishing their
formal education (secondary school or University) or were trying to enter the labour market
when the national consequences of the international economic crisis, started in 2008, were
particularly negative. The following quotation summarizes the feeling of the interviewees and
proves how much the bad economic condition hit both the national labor market and the social
context:
“(I do not want to start a business because) I am concerned that things can go to end badly: for
example, in Italy, during the economic crisis, there were people who hanged themselves at 60-70 years
for the debts they have with the bank and because they are shamed to the family.” (Male, High school
degree).
During the discussion with the youngsters some weaknesses of the Italian formal
educational system emerged spontaneously, even if there was not a specific question about it.
Indeed, in the youngsters’ opinion, the Italian formal education system is too much
focused on theoretical aspects and does not provide the chance for translating “theory in
practice”:
“There is discrepancy between what is being studied and what is required in the work. I did
an internship, but just for not examining. It was a little useful experience. University does not provide
knowledge useful for the workplace.” (Female, Graduated in Foreign Languages).
They also thought that such a gap between theory and practice would be the first reason
for their unemployment, because companies prefer hiring people with experience:
“Many companies require experience, especially in the field of research or in science, but where
can we begin to do an experience if no one takes/hires us?” (Female, Graduated in Nutrition and Food
Science Technologies).
Thus, young people would like to receive practical advice by older entrepreneurs who
may transfer their experience and knowledge by hosting them in the company for a stage and
by working side by side, for acquiring business’ attitude by helping them identify their value
and “light their stars”:
“In my opinion, entrepreneurs should tell us step by step how they move during the day, what they
do, how they move in business... what are their actions... know what they are doing... and then, based
on what they do, help us understand if we are able to do the same things... they have to tell us...” (Male,
High School degree).
Young people also thought that older entrepreneurs may help them by giving courage to
start a business:
“An entrepreneur with experience could encourage young persons like us by trusting and making
us feel important. This could be useful because we are unconfident, because there is resignation among
young people in Italy.” (Female, High School degree).

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14 Older Entrepreneurs: When Grit and Self-Esteem were

Key Elements for Starting a Business
The seniors of the sample were men only and 2/3 of them aged between 50 and 64 years.
About half of the interviewees had a post-secondary degree and 4 had a master degree. Ten out
of 15 were still active in their micro and small enterprises.
When the seniors were asked to list in order of importance the entrepreneurial skills
they own(ed), they mainly answered to have the capacity of having a positive vision of the
future. It seems extremely important, indeed, to have an inspiring entrepreneurial vision before
beginning launching a business. To be effective, this vision must provide a greater sense of
purpose.
The second entrepreneurial skill identified by the seniors in order of importance was
the ability of transforming an idea into a project by analyzing its feasibility and obstacles. This
means being able to project into the future and build a plan to accomplish some objectives.
The third ability of an entrepreneur is generating alternatives and opportunities, that
means bringing problem-solving and decision-making strategies to generate new solutions to
overcome difficulties.
The interviews to seniors focused on their characteristics and on their opinion about
entrepreneurial skills and competences required to an entrepreneur, in order to contribute
to draw up a profile of Italian entrepreneurs and capture common aspects characterizing an
entrepreneur.
Seniors were first asked to identify the key steps for starting a business on the basis of
their experience. In the interviewees’ opinion, the main prerequisites for starting a business are
having a good idea, being creative and having money for funding your idea, as the following
quotation highlights:
“A lot of people think that starting a business is hard. Too many would-be-entrepreneurs get
stuck early in the process because they think only a certain type of person has what it takes to make
it as a successful business owner. The reality is that most people have what it takes: a good idea, the
right amount of capital and the creativity.” (Male, age bracket 50-54, small Limited liability company,
publishing industry).
Moreover, seniors thought that, before starting a business, it is necessary to make a

business plan and a market analysis:
“The most important thing is to have a business plan that ensures the sustainability, because you
cannot be successful in your business only because you have a good idea!” (Male, age bracket 70-74,
small Limited liability company, IT sector).
Also, technical competencies were considered important for running a business:
“It is important you know your work and you can do it, you need to have technical competencies,
the knowledge and the will to do.” (Male, 65-69, small Limited liability company, industry sector).
One of the motivations that drove the interviewed seniors to open their business is the
passion for their job:
“My job is the dream I wanted to accomplish”; “I was passionate about this work, passion is
the first thing on the path to entrepreneurship.” (Male, age bracket 65-69, small Limited liability company,
handicraft sector).
Others were pushed to become entrepreneurs because of the need of a job:

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“I was unemployed, I come back from Turkmenistan, everyone told me that I was too skilled ... 15
the only alternative I had was to create my own business.” (Male, 50-54, small Limited liability company,
publishing industry).
“At the beginning I was working in a big company, but at some point it was dismembered and we
decided to open ours.” (Male, age bracket 70-74, micro Limited liability company, industry sector).
In Italy the enterprise is often a family tradition and some of the interviewees decided to
continue this tradition because family and business in some cases are the indivisible two faces
of the same coin:
I've always seen my dad having this business and coming home tired but satisfied. I continued his
tradition”. (Male, age bracket 65-69, micro Limited liability company, handicraft sector).
Some other entrepreneurs started their business for the need of autonomy:
“I had had enough of being managed by incompetent people, so I said, ‘I am better than them
and I can create my own company’.” (Male, age bracket 70-74, micro Limited liability company, handicraft
sector).
In the seniors’ opinion, entrepreneurs are self-confident people and able to recognize
their own capabilities; they have passion for their job and are keen to sacrifice:
“I call it passion, but it really is endless energy. You have to get up early, work late. It takes a
lot of passion, a lot of energy; it takes a lot of yourself.” (Male, age bracket 65-69, micro Limited liability
company, handicraft sector).
In order to be successful, an entrepreneur has to be correct and respectful of human

values:
“An entrepreneur has got interpersonal and relational competences. Certain skills, such as
communication, delegating and respecting others can only be acquired through practice and by developing
habits of character.” (Male, age bracket 60-64, small social enterprise, transport sector).
In the seniors’ opinion, an entrepreneur has to play multiple roles in the company, have
social skills e.g. communication, engagement, charisma, economic and technical competences:
“Have a clear understanding of industry evolution, knowledge of the effects of globalization, techniques
for developing markets, etc.” (Male, age bracket 50-54, micro Limited liability company, industry sector).
The interviewees thought that an entrepreneur or an ex-entrepreneur could help a young

man/woman to start a business through coaching about both hard (i.e. economic and technical
knowledge) and soft skills (i.e. self-confidence, perseverance, relational capabilities), as showed
by the following quotations:
“I would teach him/her (a young person) to make goals specific and realistic with target dates;
monitor progress and adapt plans when necessary. (Male, age bracket 70-74, micro Limited liability
company, industry sector).
“I would teach him/her to be persevering in dealing with situations: if there are obstacles it
is necessary to overcome them.” (Male, age bracket 65-69, micro Limited liability company, handicraft
sector).

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16 The majority answered to be available to help young people start their own business, for
a sense of reciprocity, for continuing learning through the intergenerational exchange, for a sort
of social responsibility:
“Yes, I would like to help a young person start a business to grow together with others […]I was
helped when I was young; Now it is my turn to help.” (Male, age bracket age bracket 70-74, micro Limited
liability company, industry sector).
“A company is a social good and running a company brings wealth to everyone”. (Male, age
bracket 50-54, micro Limited liability company, social sector).
When the seniors were asked how they would have gone about helping young people,
they told that formal education should be brought to life through practical experiential learning
models and the experience of real-world entrepreneurs.
Discussion
The research results are compliant with those of the previous research (Alfieri,
Sironi, Marta, Rosina, Marzana, 2015; Cefalo, Sergi, Giannelli, 2015; Pastore, 2011) but they
provide further insights about the reason of the difficulties encountered by Italian young people
when they seek for a job, albeit the university degree. The results indeed, show that Italian
young people are discouraged because they have not practical knowledge that can be spent on
a work place.
The research also demonstrates that senior entrepreneurs are available to help young
people for a sort of social conscientiousness, to give back what they received during their lives.
As entrepreneurs they criticize that young people lack practical experiential learning models.
Indeed, a consistently repeated concern through the contents of focus-groups and
interviews relates to the mismatch between the supply of the skills young people bring with
them as they come out of formal education and what the labour market actually demands.
Senior entrepreneurs consider the role of entrepreneurship as an instrument to improve
employability levels as it has been stressed by the European Union: “young people who benefit
from entrepreneurial learning, develop business knowledge and essential skills and attitudes
including creativity, initiative, tenacity, teamwork, understanding of risk and a sense of
responsibility. This is the entrepreneurial mind-set that helps entrepreneurs transform ideas
into action and also significantly increases employability” (European Commission, 2013).
The research, however, demonstrates that entrepreneurship education is not considered
part of the traditional Italian learning experience.
Promoting NEETs’ entrepreneurship is seen by the senior entrepreneurs as an essential
instrument to empower the youth active participation in social and civic life, as it allows
the individuals to leverage on their own professional retraining project, a project of their
own initiative, on their ability to re-read the events of their own life, on their autonomy and
responsibility and innovation, mainly in the workplace, but also in private and social life.
According to the socio-constructivist approach, social interactions play a key role
in the cognitive development process. To support the learners to explore and to achieve
a further transformative capacity, senior entrepreneurs are ready to act as scaffolders of the
intergenerational learning. Building common zones of proximal development, defined as “the
distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving
and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult
guidance”, (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86) seniors indeed can encounter the other generations and
provide assistance and support tailored to suit the NEETs’ needs.
The intergenerational entrepreneurship education should become a means to ensure real
access on the individual’s part to learning opportunities, making possible to connect his/her
personal projects with entrepreneurship and innovation, in a dialogue with the socio-economic
system.

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In light of the findings, it is absolutely apparent that if we want to do anything to make 17

transitions into an increasingly complex working world easier for NEETs, it is essential that
intergenerational entrepreneurship education become a more structured learning pattern aimed
at promoting autonomy, personal growth and that high-quality careers information advice and
guidance are available.
In this way it could be possible to overcome the human capital definition (i.e. the idea that
people learn to become more productive, or learning to “fit for purpose” in a socio-economic
system) to embrace the perspective of an economy based on the opportunity to intervene and to
transform the reality on the basis of the own agency, i.e. the power of express the own identity
along a project of life (Margiotta, 2013; Sen, 1999).
At the heart of an effective preparation for today’s working world is the concept of
personal resiliency. How can it be developed among young people? Seniors who have already
passed through difficult experiences need to teach NEETs, that failure happens and how to
respond it. They need to be honest about just how hard the labour market now is and start
preparing young people to compete successfully in a job environment which will present many
setbacks and disappointments as well as enormous opportunities. Senior entrepreneurs or ex-
entrepreneurs have precious know-how and experience that can make it easier for unexperienced
entrepreneurs contemplating a start-up to go through the process of starting up and running the
business than they might otherwise do without such help. This knowledge represents valuable
European intellectual capital.
Intergenerational entrepreneurship education, in conclusion, constitutes the
key for redirecting learning paths through the design of new training architectures capable
of integrating the different generations and of defining new pedagogical models based on
multidisciplinary, competent and generative actions (Costa, 2013). This educational approach
should be sustained by specific policies addressing both the educational sector and the labour
market, through a systematic interaction between the two systems, in order to help the transition
from the first to the second and vice versa, favouring also the long-life learning and according
to a perspective of intergenerational solidarity, especially in Italy, where social and economic
inequalities between older and young people are increasing in the last years (OECD, 2017).
The research has some limitations. First, it focused on young people and older
entrepreneurs living in the Central and Northern Italy, where the Small and Medium Enterprise
model (often family-run business) is predominant, especially in the handicraft sector. This may
be a limit of the research, because, as known, there are relevant differences between Northern
and Southern Italy in educational level and early school leaving rate; in employment and
unemployment rates and about economic and business development.
Second, the research did not consider gender differences in entrepreneurial attitudes of
NEETs because of the restricted number of participants, nor among entrepreneurs, because any
woman was in the group of the interviewed entrepreneurs. Future studies involving young and
older people living in the Southern Italy and taking into consideration the gender perspective
may contribute to draw up a more exhaustive and complete image of Italian NEETs and older
entrepreneurs. They could also give additional insights for understanding the improvements
needed by the formal education system in Italy for being more effective in helping young people
discover their own value and find more job opportunities in an unfriendly labour market. Future
studies could address the above issues, even adding further knowledge through developing
cross-national comparisons, integrating quantitative and qualitative research methods.
Conclusions
In a youth labour market characterised by increasing complexity, growing fractured

transitions and employers requiring new skills, there is a call on schools and Universities to
react, embracing approaches which improve personal adaptability and the ability to apply
knowledge efficiently in unfamiliar situations. In all of this, there is a very simple proposition:

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18 that for young people to go into the labour market with better prospects, the distance between
the classroom and the workplace needs to be reduced.
If schools are not able to respond to changes in the labour market by extending and
adapting what, and how, they teach, limiting the distance between the classroom and the
workplace, there is a real need to think about how more coherent pathways can be put in place
for young people entering the labour market after attending formal education trainings (i.e. high
school and University).
This research gives the evidence that senior entrepreneurs may give the youngster what
they are missing and needing: awareness of their value, risk-taking and grit.
In order to encourage a pro-active attitude in young people, it seems important to
strengthen the link between education/training through intergenerational entrepreneurship
education, which becomes more effective the more we are able to provide youth with skills that
are directly useful in the job market and consistent with its evolution.
As European Union is not fully developing its entrepreneurial potential and it is failing
to encourage enough people to become an entrepreneur, the idea of fostering intergenerational
entrepreneurship should be seriously considered.
The older entrepreneurs’ contribution to the local economy should start from the
educational sector and should be supported and promoted by the policy agenda through the
addition of a specific subject on entrepreneurship into the curricula of students.
Seniors who complain that young people lack work readiness have it in their hands to
help address the problem, through providing work experience and careers provision, in helping
them to get to grips with modern recruitment practices, demonstrating the relevance of learning
and providing real-world learning examples and ultimately in closing the growing gap between
classroom and workplace.
Intergenerational entrepreneurship education, then, represents a privileged learning
paradigm to support dialogue between the world of education and the world of work, enhancing
networking and cooperation.
More than any other form of entrepreneurship, an intergenerational approach will create
not only jobs and economic growth, but (above all) social cohesion, generational comprehension
and wellbeing for individuals.
Acknowledgements
The “Be the Change” project, whose findings this article is based, was co-funded by
the Erasmus+ Programme- Key Action 2: Cooperation for Innovation and The Exchange of
Good Practices. Strategic Partnership for Adult Education of the European Union (Contract no.
2016-1-IT02-KA204-024326; project website: https://bethechange-project.eu/).
Notes
The authors carried out the research and drafted the article in a coordinated way. Barbara
Baschiera is responsible for the Abstract, the Introduction, the Discussion and the Conclusions.
Sara Santini and Marco Socci are responsible for the Methodology and the Results of Research.
This study targeted NEETs aged between 18 and 29 years in order to focalize on the
unemployed young population with a at least Secondary School degree, since the unemployment
of young people with high human capital is a specific challenge of the Italian labor market.
The analysis of the framework foresaw even the collection of 3 Good Practices whose
findings are reported into the “Be the Change” Italian National Report (2017), available at this
link: https://bethechange-project.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Italian-National-Report.pdf.

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20 Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press.
Received: November 15, 2017 Accepted: January 15, 2018
Barbara Baschiera PhD, Researcher, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Palazzo

Malcanton Marcorà. Dorsoduro 3484/D, Calle Contarini, 30123 Venezia, Italy.
E-mail: barbara-baschiera@unive.it
Sara Santini Researcher, National Institute of Health and Science on Ageing, Via
S.Margherita, 5, 60124, Italy.
E-mail: s.santini2@inrca.it
Marco Socci Researcher, National Institute of Health and Science on Ageing (INRCA),
Ancona, Italy.
E-mail: m.socci@inrca.it

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THE EFFECTS OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS 21
AND THEORY OF MIND ON SEMANTIC

FLUENCY IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN
Inga Biscevic
Herzegovina University, Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: ibralic.inga@gmail.com
Arnela Pasalic
Centar Vladimir Nazor, Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: arnelaskopljak@gmail.com
Haris Memisevic
University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
E-mail: hmemisevic@gmail.com
Abstract
Semantic fluency (SF) is a suitable indicator of preschool verbal abilities and can be used as a predic-
tor of later school success. This research examined the effects of executive functions (EF) and theory of
mind (TOM) on semantic fluency in preschool children. Dimensional Card Sorting test was used as an
instrument of executive functions and the Sally-Anne test was used as a measure of theory of mind. The
sample for this research comprised 116 preschool children, 60 boys, 56 girls, aged 38-72 months. The
results of this research revealed a statistically significant effect of EF on SF (p=.03). The effect of TOM
on SF was statistically non-significant, although approaching statistical significance (p=.06). There were
no interaction effects of EF and TOM on SF. Findings of this research strongly suggest the need for EF
training activities in preschool children. Preschool institutions of 21st century need to have curricula
aimed at fostering EF skills.
Keywords: semantic fluency, executive functions, theory of mind, preschool children.
Introduction
Preschool period is very important for child’s development as the rapid growth in many
developmental areas including language, cognitive skills, motor skills, emotional skills etc.
take place in this period. Language skills at preschool age are a very good predictor of later aca-
demic achievement (Duncan et al., 2007; Rohde & Thompson, 2007; Young et al., 2002). Thus,
the assessment and treatment of early language skills is of paramount importance at preschool
age. There are numerous studies showing what are the predictors of good language skills at
preschool age. Most research in this area have identified the importance of family factors such
as socio-economic status, parent’s level of education and family history as factors of crucial
importance in child’s language development (Heath et al., 2014). In addition to this, a plethora
of studies pointed to cognitive and emotional factors within the child that are identified as being
related to the language acquisition (Bohlmann & Downer, 2016; Inoue et al., 2017). Given its
importance and predictive validity in relation to academic achievement, assessment of certain
aspects of language, such as verbal fluency provides a useful insight into the cognitive function-
ing of the individual (Memisevic, Biscevic, & Pasalic, 2017).

Inga BISCEVIC, Arnela PASALIC, Haris MEMISEVIC. The effects of executive functions and theory of mind on semantic fluency in
preschool children
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22 Verbal fluency, consisting of semantic and phonological fluency, is often regarded as

a measure of language as well as a measure of executive functions. Some recent studies have
shown that verbal fluency tasks are, to a larger extent correlated with language than they are
with executive functions (Whiteside et al., 2015). Verbal fluency is usually assessed with two
types of tasks: tasks of phonological fluency and tasks of semantic fluency. Phonological flu-
ency tasks involve production of words starting with a particular letter (for example, words
starting with letter “M”) and semantic fluency tasks involve a production of words that belong
to a certain category (e.g. “animals”). Semantic fluency is a measure of both, verbal fluency
and cognitive flexibility, and it is more appropriate to use semantic fluency tests with younger
children than phonological fluency tests (Welsh, Pennington, & Groisser, 1991). It would be
very useful to examine what are the factors that have an influence on development of semantic
fluency in preschool children, as this can be very informative for creation of new curricula that
would foster this segment of language development. Current studies dealt with demographic
predictors of semantic fluency, such as age and gender (Memisevic, Biscevic, & Pasalic), but
did not consider the effects of cognitive processes, such as executive functions and theory of
mind on the semantic fluency.
Thus, the aim of this research was to examine the effects of executive functions and
theory of mind development on semantic fluency.
Executive functions (EF) are a complex cognitive construct composed of several com-
ponents such as working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibitory control. EFs are one of
the most researched topics in child neuropsychology, given their importance in explaining the
typical and atypical child development. Especially prominent have been the studies connecting
the concept of EF with certain developmental psychopathologies such as Attention Deficit Hy-
peractivity Disorder, autism, Tourette syndrome, and conduct disorder (Pennington & Ozonoff,
1996). EFs have been studied widely in children with developmental disabilities (Costanzo et
al., 2013; Griffith et al., 1999; Memisevic & Sinanovic, 2014). In comparison to the vast inter-
est in the development of EFs in children with developmental disabilities, development of EF
in typically developing children, especially at a younger age, has received much less attention
(Hughes, 1998). According to Hughes (1998), a possible reason for this is that most EF tasks
are too difficult for use with younger children. Thus, as the measure of executive functions we
used a Dimensional Card Sorting Test, as this test is easily administered, widely used and can
be reliably used with preschool children. This particular test assesses the flexible use of rules to
govern behavior, which is a crucial aspect of executive functions (Zelazo, 2006).
Besides EF, another construct that has a rapid development at preschool age is the con-
cept of Theory of Mind (TOM). TOM can be defined as the ability to impute mental states to
oneself and others and these mental states include thoughts, feelings, intentions and beliefs
(Premack & Woodroof, 1978). TOM is very important for the development of social skills and
can help in creating meaningful social relations (Baron-Cohen, Leslie, & Frith, 1985; Wich-
strom, Belsky, & Berg-Nielsen, 2013). As the measure of TOM we used Sally Anne test (Baron-
Cohen et al., 1985).
Within the scope of the research aim, the specific goals of the research were to examine
the main effects of EFs and TOM as well as their interaction effect on semantic fluency.
General Background
This research was implemented between September 2016 and March 2017. It was part
of the larger project entitled Executive Functions in Preschool Children in Canton Sarajevo.
Some findings from this project, regarding the effects of age and gender on semantic fluency
and finger tapping speed have already been published (Memisevic et al., 2017a; Memisevic et
al., 2017b). An observational (correlational) design was used as a research method.

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Research Sample 23
The sample for this research consisted of 116 preschool children aged 3 to 6 years (mean
age=58.8 months, SD= 9.5 months). There were 56 girls (48.3%) and 60 boys (51.7%) in the
sample. There were no statistically significant differences in the mean age between boys and
girls (t=0.36; p=.72). Children were attending public preschool institutions in Canton Sarajevo,
Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to their educational records, all children were free of any
known neurological and/or psychiatric condition or developmental disability.
Research Procedure
Children were recruited from 8 small-sized public kindergartens in Canton Sarajevo.

The goals of the research were explained to the preschool teachers and parent consent forms
were distributed. Consent forms contained all the information regarding the research. After the
consent forms were returned (out of 200 consent forms, 158 were signed and returned, 79% re-
sponse rate), children were tested on a number of tests (see Measures). Children were tested by
trained data collectors with advanced degrees in psychology, speech and language therapy and
special education. All children were tested individually, in the morning hours, in the convenient
space (separate office) at the kindergartens. The complete testing session lasted approximately
20 to 25 minutes for each child. Some children were sick at the time of testing (n=15) or did
not want to do the tests (n=10), or the testing data were incomplete (n=17). The final sample
consisted of 116 children from these 8 kindergartens for who the complete data were obtained
for the measures needed for this research. The approval for this research was obtained from
the Canton Sarajevo Ministry of Education and the Ethical Committee Board at the Faculty
of Educational Sciences at the University of Sarajevo. Only children with the written parental
consent were tested.
Instruments
Semantic Fluency tasks. In this task children were asked to name as many words in 60
seconds belonging to a category of animals, as the animals were the most researched category
in these tasks. The number of retrieved words was used as an outcome variable in this study.
Dimensional Card Sorting Test was used as a measure of Executive Functions. The
protocol for this test has been described in great detail in a paper by Zelazo (2006). The border
version of the task was used in this research. Children are asked to sort the cards according to a
predefined rule (color or shape). On each trial children are told what to do. The outcome of the
test is categorical: pass or fail.
Sally-Anne false – belief test is a widely used test for assessing the theory of mind. It is
explained in numerous studies (Wimmer & Perner, 1983; Baron-Cohen et al., 1985). In this re-
search the dolls named “Emina” and “Maja” who were playing with the ball and two boxes (red
and blue) were used for this task. The researchers explained to the child how the dolls played
together and placed a ball under the red box. After they placed the ball under the red box, Emina
exited the room. In the meantime, Maja switched the position of the ball from under the red box
to the blue box. Emina returned to the room and the child was asked where will Emina look for
the ball, under which box? The outcome of this test was also categorical: “pass” or “fail”, and
this result was used as an explanatory variable. The correct answer was recorded only if the
child was able to explain why Emina will look for the ball under the red box. The original task
did not ask children to justify their response. However, in this research, the justification was

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24 asked of children because without explanation 50% of children might have guessed the correct
answer by chance alone.
Data Analysis
The dependent variable in this research was the result on semantic fluency test and inde-
pendent variables were the categorical outcomes on Dimensional Card Sorting Test and Sally-
Anne test (pass/fail). A two-way ANOVA was performed to examine the effects of independent
measures of EF and TOM on semantic fluency. Data were analyzed with the computer program
SPSS for Windows (v.13). For all tests, an alpha level (the probability of rejecting a null hy-
pothesis when it is in fact true) of statistical significance was set at p<.05.
Results of the Research
First the mean values are presented on semantic fluency test in relation to the results of
EF and TOM tests. These results are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Means and standard deviations of semantic fluency task as a function

of EF and TOM outcomes.
Task Pass Fail

M SD M SD
Executive functions 8.6 3.5 6.9 3.0
Theory of mind 8.7 3.7 7.1 3.1
As can be seen from the table 1. higher mean scores on semantic fluency were achieved
by children who were successful (pass) on tests of executive functions and theory of mind.
The results of two-way ANOVA are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of two-way ANOVA for Executive Functions and Theory of

Mind.
Source df MS F p
Executive Functions 1 50.2 4.87 .03
Theory of mind 1 37.5 3.64 .06
EF * TOM 1 0.21 0.21 .88
Residual 112 10.3
According to the two-way ANOVA test, there was a significant effect of EF on semantic
fluency test. TOM was not statistically significant, but this value needs to be interpreted cau-
tiously as it almost reached statistical significance. The table also shows lack of interaction
effects of EF and TOM on semantic fluency.
To gain a better insight into the associations between EF and TOM, and semantic flu-
ency, the sample was divided into four categories depending on their result on EF and TOM
tests (shown below):
1st category- Card Sort: Failure; TOM: Failure

2nd category- Card Sort: Failure; TOM: Pass
3rd category- Card Sort: Pass; TOM: Failure

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4th category- Card Sort: Pass; TOM: Pass 25
The mean Semantic fluency scores in relation to the category are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Mean scores on semantic fluency test in relation to the category.
Category N Mean Std Error Lower 95% Upper 95%

1 57 6.58 0.42 5.73 7.42
2 16 8.0 0.80 6.41 9.59
3 29 8.21 0.60 7.02 9.39
4 14 9.42 0.85 7.73 11.13
It is obvious that children who passed both EF test and TOM test achieved the best re-
sults on semantic fluency test. An ANOVA test was performed to see if there are statistically
significant differences in relation to these four categories (Table 4).
Table 4. One-way analysis of variance for semantic fluency.
Source DF Sum of Mean Square F p

Squares
Between groups 3 118.84 39.6 3.84 .012*
Within group 112 1156.08 10.3
Total 115 1274.92
As can be seen from Table 4. there were statistically significant differences in relation to
the category. A post hoc test was performed to examine what categories are different from each
other. As the assumption of homogeneity of variance was not violated (Levene p= .25), but the
groups were unequal in size, we used Hochberg’s GT2 post hoc test (Field, 2005). According to
the test, the only significant difference was between the 1st and 4th category (p=.021). Children
who passed both, EF and TOM test achieved statistically higher mean scores on semantic flu-
ency than children who failed both these tests.
Discussion
The aim of the present research was to examine the effects of EF and TOM on semantic
fluency. The results indicate that both constructs have the effects on semantic fluency, although
the EF was statistically significant, and TOM was slightly outside the margins of statistical
significance. These results indicate that EF has a stronger effect on semantic fluency than TOM.
There were no interaction effects of EF and TOM on semantic fluency. This research confirms
earlier research that showed the impact of EF and TOM on certain language components. In
a study by Sesma et al. (2009), the authors found that EF makes a significant contribution to
reading comprehension but not to word recognition skills. EFs seem to affect the optimal use
of processing capacity in language tasks (Im-Bolter, Johnson, & Pascual-Leaone, 2006). As
for the studies regarding the effects of TOM on language development, there are many studies
examining this link. However, the exact nature of this link has been hotly debated (Milligan,
Astington, & Dack, 2007). The main question in this field has been, is it language that predicts
TOM performance or vice versa. Current findings have established a stronger link for language
skills predicting TOM than vice versa (Astington & Jenkins, 1999; Milligan, Astington, &

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26 Dack, 2007), which is in line with a claim that language is fundamental to TOM development.
It is safe to say that children who have developed TOM have better semantic fluency skills than
children who do not have developed TOM.
The findings of this research have important implications for the preschool practice. As
one of the main goals of preschool education is language development, we can see that EF and
TOM training could foster language development. Thus, it is of utmost importance to offer dif-
ferent curricula in preschool institutions that would take into consideration the importance of
EF and TOM. There are numerous studies showing the potential of EF and TOM improvement
through training at an early age. For example, specific curricula such as the Tools of the Mind
have been shown to improve EF (Diamond et al., 2007), which in turn has a positive impact for
the overall academic success. Another type of training called Reflection Training has also been
shown to improve EF in preschool children (Espinet, Anderson, & Zelazo, 2013). As for the
TOM, it has been shown, that training on the concept of belief led to better TOM performance
in preschool children (Slaughter & Gopnik, 1996). However, there are some studies that inves-
tigated whether the effects of trainings on TOM tasks can be generalized to improve language
skills. One such study by Hale and Tager-Flusberg (2003) showed that false-belief training
contributes to better TOM scores but has no effect on language skills.
Most studies that examined the relationship between EF, TOM and language skills in-
volved clinical samples such as people with schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease etc. (Greene,
Hodges, & Baddeley, 1995; Joyce, Collinson, & Crichton, 1996). Literature is scant examining
the effects of EF and TOM on language development in preschool children. This is the first
study, to the best of author’s knowledge, to examine the effects of EF, TOM and their interaction
on semantic fluency in preschool children. Several limitations need to be noted. Both, EF and
TOM are dimensional in nature, they are not categorical in the sense that the child either has
them or not. However, in this study we regarded them as categorical variables, the child either
passed or failed these tests. Future studies should take into consideration continuous measures
of EF and TOM and their relationship to semantic fluency. Next, we did not account for age
effects. It is likely the case that children who passed both tests (EF and TOM) were older than
children who failed both tests. However, as the goal was to explore the relative influence of EF
and TOM on semantic fluency this was of secondary importance.
Conclusions
Preschool period is very important for the development of language, executive functions
and theory of mind. This research has shown that there are strong effects of executive functions
and theory of mind on semantic fluency. This research provided more details about the nature of
this link, in particular the effects of executive functions and theory of mind on development of
semantic fluency in children. It is important to point that preschool institutions need to modern-
ize their curricula taking into account the results of scientific research in this area. A particular
attention should be given to executive functions training at preschool age as it is shown to have
many positive benefits for later academic success including the development of semantic flu-
ency. Given the significance of semantic fluency for children’s academic skills, this improve-
ment in semantic fluency will lead to better academic outcomes in children.
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28 Whiteside, D. M., Kealey, T., Semla, M., Luu, H., Rice, L., Basso, M. R., & Roper, B. (2016). Verbal flu-
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Inga Biscevic PhD, Lecturer, Department of Special Education, Herzegovina University,

Blajburških žrtava 100, 88000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
E-mail: ibralic.inga@gmail.com
Arnela Pasalic Early Interventionist, Centar Vladimir Nazor, Azize Šaćirbegović br.80,
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Haris Memisevic PhD, Assistant Professor, University of Sarajevo, Skenderija 72, 71000
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
E-mail: hmemisevic@gmail.com

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THE IMPACT OF MOBILE TABLET USE ON 29
STUDENTS' PERCEPTION OF LEARNING

PROCESSES
Nitza Davidovitch, Roman Yavich
Ariel University, Israel
E-mail: d.nitza@ariel.ac.il, romany@ariel.ac.il
Abstract
The purpose of the current research was to explore the impact of tablet use for various subjects in Israeli
schools on students' perception of learning processes in the cognitive and affective dimensions. For this
purpose, 122 ninth and tenth grade students from the Boyar School in Jerusalem completed an online
questionnaire. The main hypotheses were that a difference would be found between STEM (science,
technology, engineering, and mathematics) and non-STEM subjects in the weight attributed to the
cognitive dimension of tablet use, as well as in the weight attributed to the affective dimension of tablet
use. These hypotheses were not confirmed. In contrast, the hypothesis concerning gender differences in
the weight attributed to cognitive and affective dimensions was partially confirmed. Males attributed
more weight than female adolescents to both the cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet use. A
possible explanation of the findings is the male inclination towards STEM subjects that include more
cognitive use of learning. In future studies, it is advisable to utilize a larger sample and to thoroughly
explore gender differences regarding this topic.
Keywords: STEM, tablet, learning processes, educational pedagogy.
Introduction
The technological changes witnessed in recent years are generating endless new
opportunities for learning, as well as additional pedagogical challenges. Many study programs,
from kindergarten to university, have embraced the advanced technological instruments as new
study tools facilitating new and varied ways of achieving traditional study goals. Use of mobile
technologies, such as tablets, laptops, digital books, smartphones, and more, are making it
possible to consume, process, and store information everywhere, anytime, by anyone. Everyday
use of these technologies is becoming gradually more available and popular for diverse needs,
such as study, work, as well as forming and maintaining social relationships (Sofer, Kahn, &
Livne, 2014). The current research will deal with the use of tablets for different subjects in
Israeli schools and its impact on students' perception of learning processes on the cognitive and
affective dimension. Use of tablets in Israeli schools is still in its experimental stages, as part
of the change that the school system is undergoing with regard to increasing access to different
forms of learning, and the implications of tablet use for learning are still under investigation.
The researchers would like to examine this practice, particularly regarding the differences
between STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) and non-STEM subjects.
Usages of the Tablet
There is still no formal and set definition of the tablet, in light of the wide array and
technological upgrades evident in constantly emerging new models. The basic principles of
the mobile tablet can be found in a large variety of devices, with different sizes and operation

Nitza DAVIDOVITCH, Roman YAVICH. The impact of mobile tablet use on students' perception of learning processes
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30 systems, combined with a small laptop or smartphone, which is in fact a relatively small tablet
with a mobile network. The tablet is characterized by a simple intuitive user interface, and it
involves processing and creating data by means of a range of media and means, with application
bundles for varied usages and characterized by small dimensions, low weight, and mobility
(Rotem & Avni, 2013). In order to grasp the benefits of using tablets for pedagogic purposes at
present, it is important to understand how this technology developed. The computer was created
in the late 1940s to process data and information and in the late 1980s it became a popular
instrument in the form of the personal computer, with creative tools for writing, processing,
storing data, and more. Online communication and the internet (in the early 1990s) made it
possible to consume information from an endless ocean, and this formed a connection between
the wide public and computers. Thus, access was provided to information consumption, which
appears to be the main public use. As a result, devices that primarily serve for information
consumption were developed, and beginning from the mid-1990s hand-held computers and
mobile computers emerged, relatively simple devices compared to the strength and memory
required by desktop computers at the time in order to consume and update information (Rotem
& Avni, 2013).
Currently, in the second decade of the twenty first century, there is wide public access to
mobile tablets originating from smartphones used to consume online information, with a variety
of options for presenting, editing, and producing information through easy and user-friendly
applications. The new tablets (from 2012 on) contain more tools for creating information,
for instance Office Online, apps for creating and sharing such as Google Docs, side by side
with numerous specially designated apps for utilizing, creating, processing, and managing
information. File management is carried out primarily in a designated "cloud" on the web
(Rotem & Avni, 2013). These technologies render classroom-learning tools more efficient and
make the presentation and conveying of information more flexible than via traditional methods.
Many schools in Israel and elsewhere are utilizing these benefits and are beginning to use the
tablet as a regular learning tool in the classroom. This process is still in its initial stages and is
raising many questions regarding the contribution of mobile devices to teaching and learning
and their influence on perceptions of learning, motivation, and social aspects (Sofer, Kahn, &
Livne, 2014).
The Unique Role of the New Tablet-Utilizing Educational Pedagogy
Rotem and Avni (2013) claim that tablets are generating a real revolution in teaching and
learning as well as implementing an innovative educational pedagogy based on digital learning.
These researchers present a model that portrays the benefits of tablets for education and how
tablets enable application of pedagogic principles. They contend that the educational discourse
around the world understands that education can no longer be managed without integrating the
most advanced technology utilized in students' life, such as smartphones, laptops, and tablets.
Within such learning, the school system provides a relevant response to the world of young
students, in a language and terms compatible with their everyday world view and conduct.
Tablets enable, in theory and in practice, implementation of the slogan "connecting to the
student's world", which realizes the ideal pedagogy that many educators have been craving for
centuries (Rotem & Avni, 2013).
Using tablets for teaching and learning generates a pedagogically unique learning
experience based on the principles of enhancing the personal motivation of each student, self-
choice, and independent and shared initiatives for implementing one's studies. In the experience
of learning with tablets, learning is removed from the classroom and from the teacher's structured
lesson to a space of thinking and practical autonomy. This leads to experiences that involve
doing, the joy of creation and of revelation, independent gathering of information relevant for

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the student and for his and her inner world outside the class limits, and combining productive 31
means such as still photography, video, editing, voice and text, that until recently could not even
be imagined. At the same time, information is located online and utilized for the student's needs
when preparing for exams, learning products are thoroughly inspected, and more, all through
a single device that is held and operated by the student in person at all times (Rotem & Avni,
2013).
According to Rotem and Avni (2013) tablets make it possible to realize many pedagogic
principles such as: Student-centered learning – The personal tablet enables autonomous, personal,
and joint learning, while adapting the learning to the student's uniqueness, needs, choices, and
preferred manners of expression and displaying personal initiative and creativity. Creating and
spreading information – Students record personal information and process raw information
received from various digital materials on the web by means of diverse media according to their
personal creativity and initiative. Motivation and involvement – Personal motivation and active
involvement in realizing the student's overall capabilities, in order to develop self-efficacy
and nurture self-value. Diverse learning – An endless variety of applications designated for
specific activities, which are updated and expanded daily, and of topics, materials, and concrete
information aimed at diversifying and enriching studies (Donald, 2000, Rossing, Miller, Cecil,
& Stamper, 2012, Sofer, Kahn, & Livne, 2014).
The Main Aspects of Teaching
According to Donald (2000), optimal teaching is achieved first and foremost when
students learn efficiently. Namely, good teaching is defined by the outcome – good learning
by students. Hativa (2014) contends that in order to reach optimal teaching it is necessary
to achieve multidimensional goals in addition to learning certain material. These goals are
situated along two major dimensions: the cognitive dimension and the affective dimension. The
cognitive dimension includes developing problem solving skills and independent learner skills,
efficient management of time, and the ability to cope with difficulties and with the tendency
to procrastinate, as well as promoting critical and creative thinking. The affective dimension
consists of developing and changing attitudes and promoting interest in and motivation for
learning. In conclusion, efficient teaching is that which, in addition to developing understanding
of the study material, will facilitate development and a variety of other skills and capabilities.
In her model of good teaching, Hativa (2014) provides details of the cognitive and
affective dimensions as follows: The cognitive dimension consists of conveying the material
to the students and organization of the course/lesson – Students who are present in class are
aware of the stages through which the teacher proceeds, what has been studied so far and what
will be studied next, with the lesson well utilized for learning. Lesson clarity – The teacher
presents clear well-structured explanations that let the students understand the course of the
lesson and the study material. This in such a way that they are able to apply their understanding
and perform assignments based on the study material. Enhancing concentration and attention
as well as intellectual challenge – The teacher manages to maintain the students' concentration
and their involvement in the entire lesson. At the same time, the affective dimension consists
of the generation of a pleasant class atmosphere and reinforces openness and the desire to
learn. This dimension is comprised of maintaining positive and beneficial interactions with the
students – encouraging them to pose questions and providing helpful answers to their questions.
Displaying respect, empathy, and caring – Further, providing students with assistance and, in
general, displaying a warm and loving approach towards the students.
Hativa (2014) mentions Biglan's (1973) model, investigating which topics of instruction
were preferred by engineering students, who represented STEM subjects, and which were
preferred by humanities students, who represented non-STEM subjects. When ranking the

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32 aspects of lesson clarity and organization as well as the lecturer's positive responses to questions
(the cognitive dimension), STEM students attributed greater weight to these than did non-STEM
students. For students of STEM subjects, it was much more important than for students of non-
STEM subjects that lessons be organized, clear, and include good teacher-student interactions.
In contrast, students of non-STEM subjects found it particularly important, more than students
of STEM subjects, that lessons be interesting and fascinating and that the teacher make an effort
to maintain students' concentration and attention. In addition, the clarity of teaching is the most
important quality for students of STEM subjects, more than any other quality of good teachers.
In this way, students of STEM subjects appear to rank cognitive items higher.
Cognitive and Affective Dimensions of Tablet Use
Various studies on tablet use in schools in Israel and elsewhere show that the cognitive
dimensions mentioned by Hativa (2014) are manifested in learning: In aspects of lesson
organization – when using tablets for learning, in order to create an optimal and clear learning
environment, the teacher must know how to adapt the lesson structure and the material taught
to the technology used – learning app, presentation, films, etc. (Harris, Mishra, & Kochler,
2009). Organizing learning in this new way can help the student become better oriented to
the lesson's contents. In addition, the teacher must be familiar with operation of the tablet in
order to guide students on where to search for material when necessary (Mang & Wardley,
2012). Regarding the aspect of lesson clarity – the tablet is a tool for gathering information and
for constructing models by the students, by expanding the options for activity and discourse
in class in different directions. Students can implement their understanding of the lesson and
extend their knowledge of the study material so that the teacher will be able to know what the
student managed to grasp (Sharples, Taylor, & Vavoula, 2010).
In the aspects of intellectual challenge and enhancing concentration and attention,
mentioned by Hativa, the student is intellectually challenged while learning by means of the
apps available on the tablet – such as games, worksheets, etc. Learning also takes place in
"real time", in class. For instance, the student may see the country about which he is learning
on the tablet, becoming familiar with its location and population. In this way learning is not
only theoretical, rather also visual and more interesting (Sharples et al., 2010). In a research on
students' perception of learning by means of tablets, students claimed that this type of learning
helped them be more concentrated in class than in lessons with no tablet. Learning with a tablet
also helps them learn the content of the lesson, acquire command of the study material, wish to
be more present in class and more concentrated. Moreover, it was claimed that the tablet helps
them improve their abilities when performing in class beyond that possible in the traditional
method of learning (Rossing, Miller, Cecil, & Stamper, 2012). In a research conducted by Borse
and Sloan (2005), fourth to eighth graders who studied in classes that used tablets reported
more active participation in learning. Furthermore, improvements were evident in their writing
performance, as well as higher rates of homework done and very little absence from school
(Couse & Chen, 2010).
In addition to the cognitive dimension, the tablet has many benefits for learning on the
affective dimension as well. In the aspect of interaction between students: Learning with a
tablet facilitates easier interaction and communication between the student and the teacher and
among the students themselves. Moreover, it lets the students carry out joint actions, create files
and share them, and participate in different learning communities (Melhuiah & Faloon, 2010).
Furthermore, the size of the tablet and its features make it into an ideal tool for discussions and
interactions in small groups. In this way, students can synchronize information and files online.
There are applications that are intended and adapted for such joint activity between students
(Rossing, Miller, Cecil & Stamper, 2012). There is also the aspect of student-teacher interaction,

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where this learning is based on a change in the teacher's role to that of one who guides and leads 33
the student to autonomous learning while directing him or her to central contents, accessibility
and use of digital teaching-learning material and units, side by side with online information
sources. This is in order to structure inquiry-based knowledge while sharing, expanding, and
intensifying learning through accessible and active academic-social communication (Rotem &
Avni, 2013).
The affective dimension includes motivation as well: Various studies have found that the
tablet increases motivation to study and students' desire to attend class. The tablet also causes
students to be more attentive and involved in class (Rossing et al., 2012). In addition, creativity
in different types of lessons: In their studies, Rossing et al. (2012) found that the statement with
which students identified more than all was "Use of the tablet helped me connect to ideas in
new ways." Thus, in classes on English as a foreign language it is possible to repeatedly listen
to the study material and to use words, pictures, and sounds to better understand the material.
Students in physics classes can watch graphs that depict heights, forces, and speeds. Interviews
conducted by Manny-Iken, Berger-Tikochinski, Bashan, and Pesin (2014) show that use of
the tablet in different types of lessons has many benefits. In English, it is possible to use an
online dictionary in real time to search for explanations and translations of a poem learned in
class. In math, it is possible to demonstrate and physically observe quantitative elements such
as functions, etc. Another aspect is enjoyment and interest: The tablet provides experiential
learning and transforms traditional learning from a book into more interesting and varied
learning (Manny-Iken et al., 2014).
Gender and Age Differences
With regard to gender differences, preferences for STEM and non-STEM subjects it may
be associated with gender. A research that examined gifted third graders found that although
female adolescents showed an affinity with math and sciences (STEM subjects) they preferred
the more verbal (non-STEM) subjects (Olszewski-Kubilius & Turner, 2002). Moreover, in
developed countries, adult women still show less inclination towards STEM subjects than
do men; the rate of male students studying scientific-quantitative-engineering disciplines is
higher and men are more inclined to choose scientific-quantitative occupations (del Pero &
Bytchkova, 2013). These different gender inclinations towards STEM and non-STEM subjects
may generate differences in their perception of cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet
use. This resembles Biglan's (1973) previous research, where students of engineering and
humanities attributed different weight to the cognitive and affective dimensions.
Differences in tablet use are also evident at different ages. Among younger children,
usually at ages 2-8, use of technological products is particularly important for drawing, writing,
coloring, thinking games, etc. (Couse & Chen, 2010). Among elementary school students, use
of any type of technology for this purpose raises children's motivation to learn even more than
manual writing (Haugland, 1999). When young students experience drawing on a computer
or tablet, they learn not only about the art itself but also about how to create it on the device.
For example, in addition to drawing an outline or coloring in the lines, the child also learns
what happens when he moves the mouse in a certain direction or presses a certain key (Couse
& Chen, 2010). It is possible to see that, among younger children; learning by means of
technological tools is more experiential-emotional, characterized by learning from pictures,
colors, and shapes. In contrast, Barton and Collura (2003) found in their research that tablet
use has benefits for high school aged students due to its ability to organize the considerable
amount of writing required of them. The device makes it possible to organize lengthy notes,
where manual writing can be illegible and messy. Namely, here it is possible to see that use of
the tablet is more learning oriented, as required on the high school level. In this case, the tablet

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34 is associated more with the cognitive dimension of arranging and organizing learning and less
with the affective play experience.
Disadvantages of Tablet Use
Tablets also have technological weaknesses that cannot be disregarded. For instance, the
temptation to access domains or sites unrelated to the subject studied in class or to play games
(Manny-Iken et al., 2014). In addition, there is the problem of excess information that is not
always meaningful and relevant for learning and can inundate and confuse the students. In this
context, Rossing et al. (2012) suggest that the teacher must provide the students with direction
and assistance to prevent them from losing control. According to Shamir-Inbal and Blau (2013),
many teachers who experienced work with tablets reported technological difficulties, such as
incompatibility between the known computerized systems and tablet apps. Moreover, from a
technological viewpoint digital books are sometimes erased and it is necessary to wait a long
time for them to download (Manny-Iken et al., 2014). Fishman and Keller (2011), in their
research at Stanford University, found that an attempt to teach with tablets was unsuccessful.
Many students could not handle the tool and its operation and thus abandoned its use after
several weeks in favor of laptops or more traditional tools. Furthermore, the tablet may not
be the ideal form of learning for all students. Students with different learning styles may need
different methods of learning. Another disadvantage of tablet use refers to the change in the
significance of the teacher's role. Use of tablets might diminish the teacher's role as educator
and as an empowering, emotionally supportive educational role model who maintains personal
contact with students (Avni & Rotem, 2013). Accordingly, the research hypotheses are:
1. Students attribute different weight to the cognitive dimension of tablet use in
STEM and non-STEM subjects.
2. Students attribute different weight to the affective dimension of tablet use in
STEM and non-STEM subjects.
3. Students' age is correlated with their perception of the cognitive and affective
dimensions of tablet use. Thus, the older the student the greater the weight
attributed to the cognitive dimension of tablet use, and the younger the student the
greater the weight attributed to the affective dimension of tablet use.
4. Students differ in their perception of the cognitive and affective dimensions
of tablet use by gender. Thus, females attribute more weight to the affective
dimension than do male adolescents, and males attribute more weight to the
cognitive dimension than do female adolescents.
General Background
This research, conducted in January to June 2017, explored the impact of tablet use for
STEM and non-STEM subjects in Israeli schools on students' perception of the cognitive and
affective dimensions of learning processes. Mean, standard deviation, range, and reliability
were calculated for all research variables.
The subjects for which the tablet was used the most were history (84%), English (79.5%),
and biology (76.2%). Moreover, the findings show that the reliability range of all research
variables was high, with Cronbach's alpha of 0.93-0.94. In this research, four hypotheses were
explored concerning the cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet use.

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Sample 35
The research included 122 respondents (N=122), all of them students at the Boyar school
in Jerusalem. Of these, 77 were females and 45 male adolescents. Fifty-two students were ninth
graders and 70 tenth graders, and the mean age was 15.44 with a standard deviation of 0.62.
The school at which the respondents were sampled uses tablets for almost all research subjects.
The minimal age was 14 and the maximal age 16.5. The mean number of siblings was 2.95,
with a standard deviation of 1.39. Students' most common first language was Hebrew (112
respondents).
Tools
Demographic questionnaire
The questionnaire includes several questions on the respondent's personal details, such
as age, sex, grade, country of birth, first language, number of siblings, and place of residence.
Questionnaire on pedagogic use of tablets at school for STEM and non-STEM subjects
The questionnaire includes eight questions. It was administered twice: once with regard
to the cognitive dimension and again with regard to the affective dimension. The purpose of the
questionnaire was to examine good teaching based on Hativa's (2015) model and it included
statements that refer to the cognitive and affective dimensions of the impact of teaching with a
tablet. The questionnaire consisted of statements such as "The teacher uses demonstrations (for
example by showing films and animation) with the tablet in STEM lessons" and "The students
do not have to take notes in class because the research material is saved on the tablet."
The current research found a reliability of α=.93 for items pertaining to STEM subjects
and α=.94 for items pertaining to non-STEM subjects.
Questionnaire on tablet use for STEM and non-STEM subjects
The questionnaire includes 24 items. It was administered twice: once with regard to
the cognitive dimension and again with regard to the affective dimension. The questionnaire
included questions about various aspects of tablet use, such as: use of apps, organizing learning,
contact with the teacher via the tablet, contact with other students via the tablet, various usages
of the tablet for learning purposes, and more. The questionnaire consisted of statements such
as "The teacher teaches how to find reliable material in non-STEM subjects online" and
"Students create knowledge in class (for instance, via various applications)". The respondents
were requested to respond to the questionnaire's items on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). The questionnaire was based on questions that appeared in the
research conducted by Dr. Edith Manny-Iken and Tali Berger-Tikochinski (2015). The current
research found a reliability of α=.93 for items pertaining to STEM subjects and α=.94 for items
pertaining to non-STEM subjects.
General satisfaction
Students were requested to rank their general satisfaction with learning via the tablet in
non-STEM subjects and separately in STEM subjects and to choose between a low, medium,
or high level.

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36 Procedure
During 2017, the researchers approached several schools throughout Israel, reported on
the internet as schools where students learn with tablets, at random. The researchers contacted
the school management by telephone in order to provide details and a general explanation
of the research purpose and its process and to receive the school's agreement for students to
participate in the research.
The researchers met with a contact person on behalf of the school in order to provide more
details of the research and to confirm that the school agrees to administer the questionnaires.
At this meeting, the school was also presented with the Ministry of Education's approval of
the research. After this process, the researchers came to the school in person. They entered all
ninth and tenth grade classes, with about 40 students in each class. The students received an
explanation from the researchers and were told that the research deals with tablet use for various
subjects in Israeli schools. The questionnaires were administered online via the tablet. Each
student received a link to access the questionnaires, which they were requested to complete.
Additionally, the students were required to confirm their participation on an informed consent
form which explained that the questionnaires are anonymous and that the answers would
be used only for purposes of the current research. They were also told that there are several
questionnaires and that it will take about 15 minutes to complete them all.
Data Analysis
The school at which the respondents were sampled uses tablets for almost all research
subjects. The minimal age was 14 and the maximal age 16.5. The mean number of siblings was
2.95, with a standard deviation of 1.39. Students' most common first language was Hebrew (112
respondents).
Results of Research
First Hypothesis
In order to check for differences between STEM and non-STEM subjects in the weight
students attribute to the cognitive dimension of tablet use, a t-test for dependent samples was
held. This test found no significant differences between STEM and non-STEM subjects in the
weight students attribute to the cognitive dimension of tablet use (t(120)=.244, p>.05). The first
hypothesis was not confirmed.
Second Hypothesis
In order to check for differences between STEM and non-STEM subjects in the weight
students attribute to the affective dimension of tablet use, a t-test for dependent samples was
held. This test found no significant differences between STEM and non-STEM subjects in the
weight students attribute to the affective dimension of tablet use (t(120)=-.84, p>.05). The
second hypothesis was not confirmed.
Third Hypothesis
In this hypothesis, the research checked for a correlation between students' age and the
weight attributed to cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet use. Thus, the older the student
the more weight is attributed to the cognitive dimension of tablet use, and the younger the

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student the more weight attributed to the affective dimension of tablet use. In order to explore 37
this hypothesis, Pearson correlations were calculated between the variables of age, cognitive
dimension of tablet use, and affective dimension of tablet use. According to the findings,
no significant correlation was found neither between the variable of age and the cognitive
dimension of tablet use (p>.05) nor between the variable of age and the affective dimension of
tablet use (p>.05). Thus, the third hypothesis was not confirmed.
Fourth Hypothesis
In this hypothesis, t-tests were used to check for gender differences between students'
perception of the cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet use, on the assumption that
females would attribute more weight to the affective dimension than male adolescents and
males, in contrast, would attribute more weight to the cognitive dimension than females. A t-test
for independent samples found a significant difference between male and female adolescents
with regard to the weight attributed to the affective dimension, t(82.3)=2.74, p<.01. Thus, males
attributed more weight to the affective dimension (M=2.47, SD=.61) than females (M=2.16,
SD=.54). The hypothesis concerning the affective dimension was confirmed but not in the
expected direction. Then, in a t-test for independent samples, a significant difference was found
between males and females with regard to the weight attributed to the cognitive dimension,
t(88)=2.92, p<.01, such that males attributed more weight to the cognitive dimension (M=2.50,
SD=.61) than females (M=2.17, SD=.58). The hypothesis with regard to the cognitive dimension
was confirmed.
Furthermore, only among the male adolescents, a t-test for dependent samples found
a significant difference solely in the STEM subjects between the weight attributed to the
cognitive dimension and to the affective dimension, t(44)=-2.06, p<.05, such that in STEM
subjects males attributed more weight to the cognitive dimension (M=2.53, SD=.61) than to the
affective dimension (M=2.46, SD=.70).
In summary, the current research found no significant differences between STEM and
non-STEM subjects in the weight attributed to cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet
use. Moreover, no correlation was found between students' age and the weight attributed to
these cognitive and affective dimensions. Nonetheless, the current research found significant
gender differences in the perception of cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet use. Males
attributed more weight than females to the cognitive dimension of tablet use, as hypothesized.
Males also attributed more weight than female adolescents to the affective dimension of tablet
use, in contrast to the hypothesis.
Discussion
The current research examined the impact of tablet use for various subjects in Israeli
schools on students' perception of learning processes in the cognitive and affective dimensions.
The main hypotheses were that a difference would be found between STEM and non-STEM
subjects in the cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet use.
The first hypothesis, whereby differences exist between STEM and non-STEM subjects
in the weight students attribute to the cognitive dimension (lesson organization, lesson clarity,
enhancing concentration and attention, intellectual challenge) of tablet use, was not confirmed.
Namely, students attributed identical weight to the cognitive dimension of tablet use in STEM
and non-STEM subjects and no significant differences were found between the utilization of
more cognitive functions, such as: graphs, calculation apps, and various analyses in the different
subjects. Moreover, the second hypothesis whereby differences exist between STEM and non-
STEM subjects in the weight students attribute to the affective dimension (interaction between

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38 students, student-teacher interaction, motivation, enjoyment, interest, and creativity in class)

of tablet use was not confirmed. Namely, students attributed identical weight to the affective
dimension of tablet use in STEM and non-STEM subjects and no significant differences were
found between these subjects in the utilization of affective dimensions of tablet use, such as
information sharing between students and teacher, information search, presentations, and
drawing.
The researchers suggest that tablets are used uniformly and similarly by students in the
current sample in all subjects, with no congruence between certain academic usages of the
tablet and the type of subject. Students do not make use of the tablet's unique features and do not
sufficiently utilize its special properties for each subject. For example, no regular use is made in
math classes of apps that present graphs and facilitate calculations. In the researchers' opinion,
in all subjects students mostly use the tablet merely as a digital alternative for notebooks and
textbooks. This explanation is compatible with the research conducted by Manny-Iken, Berger-
Tikochinski, Bashan, and Wolf (2015) who examined three tenth grades in which personal
tablets had been introduced for all students. They found that the tablet was commonly used
mainly as an alternative to textbooks. Students in their research testified that they use the
apps on the tablet they received as a learning environment for marking the digital book and
adding notes and bookmarks. Further, Sofer, Kahn and Livne (2014) also reported that the main
prevalent use of tablets at the school they studied was as textbooks.
Evidence that tablets are not used for a variety of study options beyond serving as a
digital book in the school studied is provided by some of the students' responses. About 64% of
the students answered that they do not use the tablet's photography app, about 62% answered
that they do not use message sending to the teacher via the tablet and that they either do not
agree or slightly agree with the statement that they create knowledge with the tablet in class.
About 82% answered that the teacher does not teach how to summarize material from the
web and about 90% answered that the teacher does not teach how to find reliable material
related to the subject online via the tablet. In contrast, the students gave answers that reinforce
the explanation whereby the tablet is used more as a digital book. About 63% of the students
answered that they use the tablet to adapt study needs such as enlarging/reducing print, listening
to written text, etc., and also that the teacher gives homework on the tablet.
Another explanation of the findings in the two first hypotheses may be that teachers do
not always receive proper training in teaching with tablets and thus are not capable of managing
the lesson in a way that potentially integrates tablets. This is also true of utilizing the range
of qualities offered by tablets for more comfortable, interesting, and challenging learning.
Personal conversations with teachers in the school studied showed that their professional
training in tablet use is not always sufficient. Blackwell, Lauricella, Wartella, Robb and
Schomburg (2013) present the idea of "barriers teachers face when integrating technology ".
They contend that teachers' initial barrier is indeed, as mentioned above, the concrete barrier
to integrating technology in class and its proper use. Namely, a lack of teacher training on how
to teach with tablets, technological support, and knowledge of the programs to which they
provide access. Another barrier is more emotional, stemming of course partially from the first
barrier, and it includes personal access to technology, self-confidence, and anxiety with regard
to use of technology, inclination towards technology, and willingness to experience it. When
one manages to overcome the first barrier it is possible to deal with these subsequent difficulties
as well, which together affect the integration of tablets in the classroom as an enriching and
regenerating means of learning.
The third hypothesis claims that there is a correlation between the student's age and his or
her perception of the cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet use. Thus, the older the student
the greater the weight attributed to the cognitive dimension compared to the affective dimension
and the younger the student the greater the weight attributed to the affective dimension. This

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hypothesis was not confirmed. The findings show no correlation between students' age and the 39
weight they attribute to the different dimensions. A possible explanation of this finding is that
in this research the classrooms sampled did not encompass a significant age range. All students
were about 15-16 years old. If it had been possible to sample students with a significant age
range the correlation between age and various dimensions of tablet use may have been different.
For example, sampling seventh grade students from the beginning of junior high school who
are busy getting to know new students, new teachers, and may be more interested in affective
aspects, versus twelfth graders at the end of high school who may make use of tablets to study
for matriculation exams – a more cognitive use.
The fourth hypothesis was that gender differences would be found in students' perception
of the cognitive and affective dimensions of tablet use. Thus, while females would attribute
more weight to the affective dimension than male adolescents, males would attribute more
weight to the cognitive dimension than females. The fourth hypothesis was partially confirmed.
Males attributed more weight than females to both the cognitive and affective dimensions. The
finding whereby males attributed more weight to the cognitive dimension than females may
be explained by the male inclination towards STEM subjects. Various studies show that men
prefer and choose to study STEM subjects more than women. As stated, the proportion of male
students studying scientific-quantitative-engineering fields is higher and men are more inclined
to choose scientific-quantitative occupations (del Pero & Bytschkova, 2013). According to the
Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, as of 2017 men constitute a significant majority of students
studying the physical sciences (63%), math, statistics, and computer sciences (70%), as well as
engineering and architecture (72%), in Israeli institutions of higher education.
Furthermore, the current research found that in STEM subjects only males attributed
more weight to the cognitive dimension than to the affective dimension. This finding resembles
that reported by Biglan (1973), where students of STEM subjects attributed more weight
to cognitive dimensions of learning such as lesson clarity and lesson organization than did
students of non-STEM subjects. In the context of the current research, it is possible that males
attributed more weight to the cognitive dimension of tablet use than females since males
naturally constitute a majority of students in STEM subjects and show an inclination for them,
and these subjects include a stronger emphasis on cognitive dimensions of learning.
The added finding whereby males attributed more weight to the affective dimension than
did females proved significant but in the opposite direction to the hypothesis. The researchers
hypothesized that gender differences would be found in the perception of cognitive and affective
dimensions of tablet use, such that females would perceive the affective dimensions as more
important than would males. This may be related to a sampling error or specific limitations of
the current research, such as the small sample and the large discrepancy between the number
of male and female adolescents. However, it is also possible that this is no error and that this
result was affected by other factors. The researchers would like to suggest a direction that
may constitute one explanation among many for this finding. Gender differences in the weight
attributed to the affective dimension of tablet use may stem from natural differences in inherent
character traits between the genders. For example, Levin, Rubinek and Amiad (1981) found a
difference between males and females in the competitiveness dimension reflecting the degree
to which class students compete against each other and the teacher's encouragement of this
competitiveness. Males also perceived the degree of competitiveness in the classroom as higher
than did females. Namely, in the affective dimension males are more competitive than females
and they try to lead in situations of group dynamics and versus the teacher. Thus, they may
perceive affective use of tablets as a means of maintaining their social status within the class
and versus the teacher, an advantage which serves them well in interactions among the students
and with the teacher.

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40 Research Limitations and Recommendations for Further Research
The current research has several limitations. First of all, it included only one school
that does not represent all Israeli students. Hence, the sample is homogeneous with regard
to place of residence, socioeconomic status, style of teaching and learning, level of teachers,
etc. Furthermore, the school studied has specific operational problems with tablets, such as
the inability to use an external camera, which affect the quality of using tablets for learning
purposes. This problem does not exist in all Israeli schools and it affected some of the students'
perceptions regarding tablet use. Second, the sample was comprised of only 122 respondents.
A larger number of students may have been capable of affecting the significance of the results.
Third, the research did not include an equal representation of male and female adolescents (77
female versus 45 males). A different gender ratio may produce different results. Fourth, the
age difference between the grades was not sufficiently large (ninth versus tenth grades – ages
15-16). To begin with, the intention was to include a larger age range, such as seventh versus
twelfth grades, in order to examine the third hypothesis which explored the correlation between
various ages and the weight attributed to the tablet's dimensions, but this did not prove possible.
In future studies it is suggested that use be made of a larger sample that includes
students from several schools, as equal a ratio as possible of males and females, and a more
meaningful difference between respondents' ages. Another suggestion is to further investigate
the contrary finding to the current hypothesis, whereby males attributed greater weight to the
affective dimension than did females, as well as the gender differences in perceiving the various
dimensions of tablet use. At the same time, the character traits suggested here as inherent in the
various sexes, such as competitiveness, should be examined as well as their implications for
tablet use in the classroom.
It appears that in the school studied, which represents the situation in the Israeli school
system to a certain degree, tablet use is still in its initial stages. There is need to provide teachers
and students with thorough instruction in acquiring the necessary skills for proper and high
standard use of this device in order to enjoy its various benefits for learning. The researchers
suggest that teachers be instructed about the tablet in more thorough and extensive courses and
that they be given periodical further education as new developments are constantly emerging.
Perhaps in this way the tablet will serve not only as a digital alternative for textbooks and
notebooks rather as a well-developed learning tool. Moreover, designated lessons can be held
for students, in which they will engage in acquiring advanced learning methods of various
subjects using tablets.
Conclusions
With the passing years, the entire world is advancing in a more technological and
digital direction and leaving behind traditional forms of learning. People increasingly consume
news through smartphones instead of print newspapers, read digital books, universities are
moving towards advanced platforms such as presentations, models, etc. It seems that Society is
undergoing deep processes of transition "from print to digital". This is also true of the various
school systems around the world. It is increasingly important to be proficient in utilizing digital
resources for higher standard and better learning. If the tablet's uniqueness and benefits for
learning are not utilized, its disadvantages may overcome its advantages and society may
come to miss the qualities of traditional learning. The researchers expected to find differences
between STEM and non-STEM subjects in the weight attributed to the cognitive and affective
dimensions of tablet use. The research hypotheses were only partially confirmed and indicate
the significance of high standard and meaningful assimilation of tablet use for learning and
pedagogy in the current era.

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E-mail: romany@ariel.ac.il

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SCIENTISTS’ PERCEPTIONS ON THE 43
NATURE OF NANOSCIENCE AND ITS

PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
Antti Laherto
University of Helsinki, Finland
E-mail: antti.laherto@helsinki.fi
Frederike Tirre
University of Kiel, Germany
E-mail: ftirre@uv.uni-kiel.de
Ilka Parchmann, Lorenz Kampschulte

Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN), Germany
E-mail: parchmann@ipn.uni-kiel.de, kampschulte@ipn.uni-kiel.de
Stefan Schwarzer
Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich, Germany
E-mail: stefan.schwarzer@cup.uni-muenchen.de
Abstract
Some level of understanding of and about nanoscience and nanotechnology (NST) has been suggested
as being relevant in up-to-date scientific literacy for all. Research scientists working in these fields
are central in current efforts to inform and engage the public in NST. Earlier research has shown that
scientists can contribute to authentic science learning, but communication always entails roles that affect
the choice of content. This study investigated NST researchers’ views on the nature of their research
and their preferences in NST communication. Eight experienced professors working in various fields of
NST were interviewed. Semi-structured, in-depth interviews focused on the scientists’ views on 1) the
nature of their research, and 2) aspects of NST that should be communicated to the public. Qualitative
content analysis of the interviews revealed that the themes the interviewees highlighted when describing
their research (interdisciplinarity, size scale, methods, objects, nature of NST in general) were somewhat
different from the ones they considered as important for communication to the public (applications and
products, risks and benefits, visualizations). The results problematize the simplistic notion that exposure
to real scientists would unquestionably enhance the authenticity of science learning. This study gives
insight for research and development of science communication, especially scientists’ role and training
in it.
Keywords: authenticity, nanoscience, nature of science, science communication, scientist interviews.
Introduction
Nanoscience and nanotechnology (‘NST’ in the following) are an exemplar of a

contemporary, rapidly developing field with several prospects of economically, societally and
environmentally significant applications and implications. It seems likely that in the near future,
citizens will have to make more and more decisions on NST-related issues – both at the personal
level as consumers, and at the societal and global levels, regarding the future paths of NST
(Baird, Nordmann, & Schummer, 2004). Therefore, it has been argued that public understanding
of these fields should be enhanced, so that people could better participate in the public debate

Antti LAHERTO, Frederike TIRRE, Ilka PARCHMANN, Lorenz KAMPSCHULTE, Stefan SCHWARZER. Scientists’ perceptions on the
nature of nanoscience and its public communication
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44 and make decisions on related issues (Castellini et al., 2007; Gilbert & Lin, 2013; Healy, 2009).
Some level of understanding of these fields has been suggested as being relevant concerning
up-to-date scientific literacy in modern societies (Gardner, Jones, Taylor, & Forrester, 2010;
Gilbert & Lin, 2013; Laherto, 2010; Stevens, Sutherland, & Krajcik, 2009). While these
emerging fields have gained growing public interest and media attention, survey results have
shown that people’s awareness and knowledge of the fields have remained at a rather low level
(Sahin & Ekli, 2013; Waldron, Spencer, & Batt, 2006). Furthermore, in addition to the public's
awareness of the fields in question, public engagement in NST has been called for. In particular,
the important ethical issues related to these fields have given rise to the need to engage the
public in a deeper discourse on NST and its relations to society. (For further discussion, see
Laherto, 2010). Such discourse requires an understanding not only of basic scientific concepts,
but also of the processes underlying them, i.e. knowledge about the nature of science (Allchin,
2011; Erduran & Dagher, 2014). During the past two decades, these demands have given rise to
a large number of initiatives introducing NST to the general public.
Research scientists play the key role in all efforts of informal learning and public
communication of contemporary research. Scientists communicate their research by giving
popular lectures, writing popular articles and giving interviews in various media. Although large
initiatives and activities are organized and managed by science communication professionals,
the researchers of the field in question bring out the key content and represent science (Bauer &
Jensen, 2011). Public communication activities form a growing part of scientists’ work (Horst,
2013). Concerning science education, scientists’ direct impact on schools takes place not only
through their visits to schools but more importantly through out-of-school settings such as
visitor laboratories at universities (Glowinski, 2011), where researchers represent science both
via personal contact and via materials developed by them.
Pertaining to the scientific content of such settings, the role of scientists has often been
discussed using the multifaceted concept of authenticity (Buxton, 2006). A simplistic notion
is that scientists represent ‘real science’ and thereby bring an authentic element to science
communication. Similarly, authenticity of science education may be augmented if students meet
real scientists, get a glimpse of their daily work, and access real research facilities (Glowinski,
2011) and work with original research data (Lee & Butler, 2003). It is generally considered that
such activities support situated learning and provide a fruitful way for making science education
more authentic, valid and motivating (Adams, 2012; Braund & Reiss, 2006). “Scientists in
the classroom” interventions have changed students’ views towards a more realistic image of
scientists as persons and stronger engagement in scientific classroom activities (Laursen et al.,
2006). Meeting scientists provides exposure (Elder, 1995) to scientific careers. Exposure is
the notion that one’s life course is heavily influenced by one’s surroundings, and to be able to
choose an alternative future, one has to be exposed to it.
However, authenticity of science communication and education entails much more
than listening to scientists’ perspectives (see e.g. Kapon, Laherto & Levrini, 2016; Buxton,
2006; Rahm, Miller, Hartley, & Moore, 2003), and as such, scientists’ voice certainly does not
guarantee an unquestionably authentic image of science. Some earlier research has shown that
researchers may hold narrower views on the nature of science than expected (Peters-Burton &
Baynard, 2013). Furthermore, examining the scientists’ input in science communication and
education requires a closer look at modes of communication and researchers’ perspectives and
purposes in these activities. Studies on researchers’ views on science communication have shown
that the so-called deficit model is still a common, persistent view among scientists, but more
modern models of dialogue and interactivity with the public are employed as well (Schibeci
& Williams, 2014). Several typologies of scientists’ approaches in science communication
have been suggested and used – for example, four types of knowledge exchange: professional
science communication, deficit science communication, consultative science communication,
and deliberative science communication (Schibeci & Williams, 2014). On the basis of 20
scientists’ views, Maja Horst (2013) identified three modes of representation of the perceived

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role of researchers: Expert (representing a field of expertise), Research Manager (representing 45

an organization), and Guardian of Science (representing the institution of science). The role a
scientist takes, i.e. her/his intention, deeply affects the nature and content of communication.
Due to the importance of authentic NST communication and scientists’ key role in it,
this research aims for an increased understanding of NST researchers’ i) views on the nature
of their research, and ii) aspects of their research they find important to communicate to the
public. These views have been analysed and compared with each other and with the literature
on science communication and the nature of NST. This analysis and comparison can bring out
the potential challenges of NST communication and identify issues that should be considered
when developing outreach initiatives and venues for NST.
The broader aim of this research is to analyse and deepen the authenticity of
communication and informal learning of contemporary science. More specifically, the research
reported here addressed the following research question: How do NST researchers characterize
their research, and how is that in line with the aspects of NST they consider to be important to
communicate to the public?
Theoretical Background: the Nature of NST
Nature of Science (NoS) is a central element in above-discussed authenticity, and one

of the predominant concepts in research on science education as well as in reforms of science
curricula. NoS education is uniformly advocated since understanding the scientific processes
and the relationships between science and society is considered to be a crucially important
element of scientific literacy for all (Allchin, 2011; Roberts, 2007; Wenning, 2006). However,
both the content and the approaches of NoS teaching have remained under debate. The most
influential attempt to consolidate the concept has been the ‘consensus model’ (Lederman, 2007)
listing general characteristics of NoS such as tentativeness, non-linearity, theory-ladenness,
distinction between theories and laws, the use of models, the role of creativity, and the social
and cultural embeddedness (McComas & Olson, 1998; Lederman, 2007). To articulate the latter
of these better, the consensus view has recently been challenged by the Family Resemblance
Approach (FRA) (Irzik & Nola, 2011). The FRA aims to provide more elaborated, dynamic,
holistic and systematic representation of science, not merely as epistemic inquiry but also as a
social institution. The FRA considers science both as a cognitive-epistemic system and science
as a social institution (Irzik & Nola, 2011; Erduran & Dagher, 2014).
Since the present research is contextualized within NST and the problems in public
communication of that field, the theoretical background is here focused on NoS perspectives
specific to NST. In order to be meaningful and useful, NoS views need to be scrutinized in a
context (Rudolph, 2000; Tala & Vesterinen, 2015). Despite the relative novelty of NST, during
the past two decades, there has been a number of publications in the field of Science, Technology
and Society (STS) studies employing philosophical, historical, analytical and ethical approaches
to study the nature of these emerging fields (e.g. Baird, Nordmann & Schummer, 2004; Brune
et al., 2006; Cameron & Mitchell, 2007; Hunt & Mehta, 2006).
Despite the growing attention being paid to these fields, the concepts of nanoscience
and nanotechnology have remained ambiguous and without a universally-accepted definition.
The literature on the nature of NST (e.g. Baird, Nordmann, & Schummer, 2004; Brune et al.,
2006; Cameron & Mitchell, 2007; Hunt & Mehta, 2006), and textbooks and overviews on NST
(e.g. Nalwa, 2004; Poole & Owens, 2003) show that the field is a complex amalgam of various
questions, methods, technologies and findings. Commonly, the nanometre scale of objects
(together with the purposeful control of matter at that scale, and some aspect of novelty either in
methods, findings or applications) serves as a justification for considering a field as nanoscience
or nanotechnology. The scale is the main defining factor in the most influential definitions of
NST, e.g. the relatively inclusive one presented by the European Union (for a collection and
comparison of other definitions, see Palmberg, Dernis, & Miguet, 2009):

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46 Nanosciences and nanotechnologies are new approaches to research and development that
concern the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular
scales, where properties differ significantly from those at a large scale.
(European Commission, 2005, p. 2)
The central scientific concepts of NST have been systematically assembled and analysed
e.g. by Brune et al. (2006) and Stevens, Sutherland and Krajcik (2009), the latter from an
educational viewpoint. Since the focus of the present research is not on scientific concepts but
on the nature of the research on the nanoscale, we have reviewed that literature in the following.
To begin with, the interdisciplinary nature of NST has raised epistemological interest. Many
fields of NST clearly link two or more of the traditional disciplines or fields of research, mostly
physics, chemistry, biology, material science, medicine and engineering. Many recent writings
on modern scientific and technological literacy have emphasised such interdisciplinarity (see
e.g. Kähkönen, Laherto, Lindell, & Tala, 2016; Roberts, 2007). Interdisciplinary research in
NST, comprising both cognitive-epistemic and socio-institutional dimensions (Kähkönen et al.,
2016), is based on two ideas that provide common ground for researchers from different fields:
the shared size scale of objects and shared technological visions (Schummer, 2004). Many
expectations rest on this notion of interdisciplinarity, which has even been proposed as the
deciding factor in the progress of NST (Brune et al., 2006). The idea that forthcoming scientific
and technological breakthroughs will most likely occur at the intersections of traditional
scientific disciplines is generally accepted, and synergetic effects are believed to give rise to
innovative research. While reports concerning nanoscale research frequently highlight the
necessity of interdisciplinarity, doubts also remain about the true state of interdisciplinarity
in NST, rather describing it as a multidisciplinary field, criss-crossing but not dispelling the
disciplinary barriers (Kähkönen et al., 2016; Schummer, 2004).
Philosophers have also pointed out the interesting relationship between nanoscience
and nanotechnology. It has been suggested that the traditional, predominant way of thinking,
which considers science and technology (or the natural and the engineering sciences) to be
fundamentally different enterprises in the sense of purpose and function, fails in the context
of NST (Brune et al., 2006). Besides nanoscience research focusing on the use of various
instruments and equipment, the field also deals with artificially produced situations that depend
on human actions and technical purposes. Here, observations and discoveries are made in
relation to the states or properties of these artificial objects or events. Several scholars therefore
argue that no clear distinction exists between understanding nature and modifying it (Schmidt,
2004). These categories, however, are not exclusive to nanoscience – rather, this merging of
science and technology has always existed. This matter has been discussed using the concept
of “technoscience” (Nordmann, 2004). This convergence of science and technology has been
emphasised and accelerated in the case of NST (Kähkönen et al., 2016; Tala, 2009) and is,
therefore, a noteworthy category of these fields.
Another epistemological category of NST also relevant for education is the central role
of modelling and imaging. Brune et al. (2006, p. 53-57) argue that the discourse on NST is
replete with an apparent confusion of models with descriptions of reality. Again, this problem
is also well-known when learning more traditional science (Buckley & Boulter, 2000), but
it may be emphasised in the field of NST. Nanoscientists tend to use the models they have
conceived in similar and straightforward ways as empirical descriptions are commonly used
in everyday contexts, without emphasising that these conceptions are relevant only in the
framework of certain theories, models, methodological decisions and purposes (Lenhard,
2004). Consequently, models are confused with what is being modelled. Such confusion is
also of great concern in NST because of the extensive use of images in representing nanoscale
objects and phenomena (Landau et al., 2009). The common conception of nanoscience “making
atoms visible” is alleged to be problematic (Pitt, 2004), since the microscopy used in nanoscale
research is epistemologically not an outright continuation of instruments such as the telescope
or light microscope.

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The results of the present research are discussed in the light of these issues pointed out 47
in the literature on the nature of NST.
General Approach
The research question was addressed by an interview study with information-rich cases
(Patton, 1990) that could provide in-depth knowledge about researchers’ perspectives on the
nature of NST and its communication. Semi-structured interviews with eight experienced NST
researchers were carried out. This perspective from inside the research community was analysed
and compared to the perspectives from the literature on the nature of NST explored above.
Sample Selection
The research employed purposeful sampling that is typical for qualitative inquiry with
small samples (e.g. Miles & Huberman, 1994; Patton, 1990). The eight interviewees were all
full professors who had had several years of experience in research on NST. They had also been
active in outreach measures: all of them had given many public lectures and interviews in the
mass media, and given tours to visitor groups in their laboratories. Six of the professors were
working in the Collaborative Research Center “Function by Switching” at the University of
Kiel, Germany. Two additional interviewees had been chosen to avoid a too specific perspective;
they were professors from the Department of Physics at the University of Helsinki, Finland.
Although the purposeful sampling approach did not aim at a representative sample of NST
researchers but rather on a profound investigation of information-rich cases (Patton, 1990), the
professors in question were working on a wide variety of fundamental as well as applied NST-
related research close to chemistry, physics, and materials science.
On the basis of the research question, the interviews carried out during this research
included two topics that were discussed with the interviewees in two successive stages: 1)
Characteristics of their NST research, and 2) Aspects of NST that should be communicated to
the public.
Before the interview started, all professors were briefed in the same manner. The briefing
guided the interviewees, in the first stage (topic 1), to describe their research in detail to the
interviewers. The professors knew that the interviewers had a scientific background, although
not specific to NST. The context of public communication was introduced only in the second
stage of the interview, when discussing the aspects that should be communicated to the public
(topic 2).
In the first stage, the professors were asked to describe their NST research in their own
words and in their own context (topic 1). The semi-structured interview protocol included a
number of open interview questions offering the interviewees the opportunity to shed light on
their views of the nature of their research: What is “nano” in your research? Could you describe
the process of one of your nano-related research projects? Is that typical for nanoscience
research in general in your area? Do you think nanoscience research differs from other research
in science?
In the second stage of the interview, the focus was shifted from professors’ descriptions
of their research to the issue of public communication (topic 2). This discussion was catalysed
by questions: What aspects of your current NST-related research should be communicated to
the public in order to give them an “authentic image”? Are these the aspects that are generally
discussed when communicating NST research? If not, which aspects are?

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48 All interviews were carried out in English. Although only one of the professors had it as
native language, all of them were fluent in English. Each interview took 40-100 minutes, and
all professors agreed to be audio-recorded and to the anonymous use of the collected data for
research purposes.
Data Analysis
The audio recordings were first transcribed and then analysed through qualitative content
analysis of the interviewee’s responses in topics 1 and 2 separately. The content analysis was
aimed at identifying and categorising emerging issues, similarities and analogies in interviewee’s
responses (cf. Patton, 1990), i.e. finding themes that characterise respondents’ ideas concerning
the research question.
The inductive method of qualitative analysis (Mayring, 2001) was employed to categorise
the themes emerging from the interview data. Three of the authors carried out the analysis
and categorization independently. The observed inter-rater reliability was already high during
the first round of analysis and categorization. The disagreements were iteratively negotiated
until consensus was found. The results presented in the next sections represent the consensus
between the authors after three rounds of refinement.
Results of Research
Topic 1: Characteristics of NST
The themes that emerged from the analysis of the interviews on topic 1 (Characteristics
of NST) are presented in Table 1. For each category, a short description has been provided.
Under the description, we have chosen exemplary quotes from the interviewees. These quotes
represent typical ideas categorised in this theme. The categories are listed in descending order,
i.e. the themes in the first category were most frequently discussed by all interviewees, whereas
the last category was discussed by only a few interviewees. The most important themes are
discussed in the section following the table.
Table1. Interview topic 1 (characteristics of NST): the themes, their descriptions

and exemplary quotes in descending order.
Topic 1: Characteristics of NST

Quotes (exemplary) Description Category
“interdisciplinarity is important due to varied instru-
Exchange of expertise/
ments needed”; “interdisciplinarity is what makes
methods/results between
nano research different from other science”; “in
→ different research fields → Inter-disciplinarity
nano science it is natural to collaborate with other
(biology/chemistry/physics/
fields, but it doesn’t mean you see your colleagues
material sciences/etc.)
every day”
“chemistry is always nano since molecules are on Description of size and
that scale – but really, what makes nano science is → scale, nano as a scale to → Dimension
that you really look to nano scales […]” operate on
“We must use microscopic methods, looking at

spectra etc. to make it visible”; “methodology is Research methods used in Methods & instru-
→ →
very important”; “also laser experiments and AFM the field of nano research mentation
[Atomic Force Microscope]”

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49
“metallic & magnetic nanoparticles”; "carbon nano
Research objects and
tubes, graphene, nano clusters, nano wires and Objects & struc-
→ structures on the nano →
thin films”; “So, we're interested in processes at tures
scale
interfaces in condensed matter.”
“everything starts with a good research question
that can be answered by the methods available”; Ideas, research questions, Scientific process
→ →
“systematically changing the system, explaining the hypotheses, methods, etc. (general)
phenomena”
“Utilizing properties in materials – make antibacte-
rial applications, magnetic window glass, electronic From research to products,
Applications &
applications, filters, plasmonics, church windows → nano products on the →
products
(metallic nano particles). Create functional materi- market
als.”
“We take advantage of new physical properties of Effects due to size of par-
materials, surface area vs. volume and quantum ticles or structure, different Quantum effects
effects (e.g. optical)”; “self-organization processes” → behaviour of material on → & size-dependent
nano scale than on bigger properties
scales
“[…] getting funding, hiring a postdoc or a PhD Organizational aspects of
Organizational
student; additional proposals and adjusting the → work, writing proposals, →
process
direction of the research.” teaching, etc.
“So, the nano is just one label you can put on your Differentiation and com-
research, if the subject you're dealing with has parison between NST as a
Differences (to
something to do with nano sized objects, but I think → combined field and single →
other sciences)
the scientific approaches are very, very similar.” fields of research (Chemis-
try, Physics, etc.)
“Interdisciplinary research means we should build
a new generation. […] we try to understand the
basics, so all of us we try to learn and to learn Societal implications, Other goals of
→ →
something like a baby […] that we every day learn learning research
something new. And that is here important”
“There has been a lot of the research, which is now

branded as nanoscience research, was formally
research in physics and chemistry, maybe today History/novelty of
→ Origin of field, novelty →
people between physics and chemistry work more NST
closely together than they used to do maybe 30
years ago.”
The first theme (Table 1) that was discussed by all eight professors as a core characteristic
of their NST research is its interdisciplinarity. The interviewees broadly discussed both the
cognitive-epistemic and socio-institutional dimensions of interdisciplinarity, and considered
such features as the essence of the field, and what makes it novel:”[NST] requires methods
from physics, chemistry, engineering, sometimes medicine, biology”; “interdisciplinarity is
what makes nano research different from other science.”
However, the inherent interdisciplinarity of the field also presents challenges because
the researchers are still trained in a disciplinary way: "Nano is an interdisciplinary story, and
that means chemists can work with physicists and with biologists […] That's not really working
well, in my opinion. Because communication is very hard, background is totally different. We
should have a researcher in the future, who does know what physics is, what chemistry is, what
biology is, what engineering is… a multi-educated researcher that would be interdisciplinary!”

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50 According to the interviewees, the main common ground for interdisciplinary

collaboration in NST is the shared dimension, the nanoscale (1-100 nm). Some of the professors
mentioned the idea that NST is not actually a scientific field in itself, but a dimension in which
they carry out research (in all fields of natural sciences). All interviewees emphasised the aspect
that the systems to be examined cannot be seen by the bare eye nor a light microscope, and
specific instruments are necessary to look into an invisible world. "Chemistry is always nano
since, molecules are on that scale… but really, what makes nanoscience is that you really look
to nanoscales”; “specific to nano research is that we cannot see the systems under research
directly […].” Nevertheless, the idea of the size scale as a deciding factor was problematic to
some of the professors; they did not consider that their research and science in general is, or
could be, defined by scale.
As a third major theme of what the scientists used in the characterizations of NST was
methods and instrumentation. All the interviewees talked extensively about the instruments
typically used in NST research that characterize their daily work. They included “spectroscopy”,
“laser experiments and AFM”, "sputtering, thin film deposition, self-organized processes”,
“computer simulations and nano cluster deposition”, and “scanning tunnelling microscopy”.
Many of the professors explained the central role of instruments in NST in terms of dimension,
e.g. “we must use microscopic methods, looking at spectra etc. to make it visible”. But also
the applied nature of NST typically requires multiple techniques and methods: for example,
a professor described his research on interfaces as requiring “scanning probe microscopic
techniques, then also synchrotron based extra diffraction methods and other techniques like
spectroscopic techniques, electrochemical techniques, which carry information about the
interface".
Besides the methodology, the scientists’ descriptions of their research were heavily
focused on objects and structures that were not only studied but also created or developed in
the process. Such objects and structures included “nano particles”, “nanocomposite materials”,
“metallic & magnetic nanoparticles”; “functional materials”, "carbon nano tubes, graphene,
nano clusters, nano wires and thin films”.
When describing the nature of their NST research, the professors brought up several
general features of the processes of science that are not specific to NST – for example, the need
for good questions at the beginning and the ability to turn those questions into research. Few
of the researchers mentioned the applications and products of NST as an element of their
research and in the nature of NST.
Topic 2: Aspects of NST important for communication to the public
The main themes that emerged from the analysis of the interviews on topic 2 (aspects
of NST that should be communicated to the public) are presented in Table 2. As in Table 1,
the categories are illustrated by descriptions and exemplary quotes from the researchers and
sorted in descending order, i.e. the themes in the first category were discussed the most by
all interviewees, whereas the last category was discussed in some interviews only. The most
important themes are then discussed in detail.

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Table2. Interview topic 2 (aspect of NST that the scientists consider important 51
to communicate to the public): the themes, their descriptions and
exemplary quotes in descending order.
Topic 2: Aspects of NST important for communication to the public

Quotes (exemplary) Description Category
“They'll [the public] probably be only interested in
nano-related applications and products in daily Nanotechnological prod- Products & applica-
→ →
life, because that's what they can relate to, that's ucts and applications tions
what they know.”
“the balance of taking advantage of the many new
Risks and benefits of NST
opportunities and also taking care of the risks”;
→ and nano products on the → Risks & benefits
”that risks can be controlled” ”[…] you should also
market
identify the risk [in public communication]”
“[Pictures are] fascinating - a good way to promote Images (especially
the ideas of nanoscience”; “beautiful images produced by atomic force / Images & visualisa-
→ →
of what nano objects look like”; “if I see, I can tunnelling microscopies) to tions
imagine” illustrate nanoscale objects
“[…] how the method works and what you can
see with it; e.g. laser spectroscopy”; “showing
the labs & instruments; BUT you shouldn’t go to → Methodology used in NST → Scientific methods
very specific processes since the public is not
interested in it.”
“If you succeed in that people see OK, nano is
something interesting and may potentially, you Actual and potential ben- Usefulness of
→ →
know, make life better […] that would be already efits of nanotechnology research
a lot.”
“[…] you can set a target and then work on that
target, work towards that target on a straight
Processes of NST, nature
route, but that's simply nonsense, that's not → → Scientific processes
of science
how research works. […] Science is not a linear
process. It's a highly non-linear process.”
“Convincing young people that nano science is an
Career options in the field
attractive field and they should consider studying → → Career options
of NST
science.”
“not that important”; “quantum physics processes
Scientific basis
etc. are so complicated that they are difficult to un- Basic scientific concepts to
→ → (conceptual knowl-
derstand”; “I don't think the general public needs understand NST
edge)
to know very much about those technical details. ”
“[…] things get smaller and smaller and smaller in
electronics etc. – we're now making whatever 26 → Dimension of NST → Scale
or 28 nanometre wires and circles”
“I like to emphasize always […] that nano is some-
History/novelty of
thing, which has always existed. So, there have → Origin of field, novelty →
NST
always been nanometre scale objects around us.”
While the researchers did not see products and applications as an important characteristic
of their research (topic 1), they unanimously considered them to be the cornerstone of NST
communication to the public: “You probably don't want to stress that [research] so much, but
you want to talk more about the applications and products used in daily life.” They saw this

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52 as an important way to bring people into contact with NST because of the close connection
to everyday life, and they think that focusing on applications raises interest in their work:
“the applications make the nano science very concrete – people know what you are talking
about when you talk about applications. I think every presentation, every public writing or
presentation needs to have some part focusing on this.” Especially the information and
communication technology applications were seen as a good context for communication: “[For
communication we need] something you can touch, something you can see... our results are
usually in the computer.” “[…] the electronics industry like chips, recording, everything related
to information technology”.
In connection to the NST applications, the interviewees emphasised that both risks and
benefits of NST should be addressed in public communication. Communication measures
should carefully bring forward “the balance of taking advantage of the many new opportunities
and also taking care of the risks”, and emphasise “that risks can be controlled.” “We try first
with something which is not in direct contact with people, because there are a lot of things that
are still not clear. And that's also an important point, when you speak now about this story, then
you should also identify the risk. I mean, if I make a product out of nano, then I should also
identify how safe it is.”
In addition, the scientists emphasised the importance of images and visualisations
in public communication of NST. Illustrating nanoscale objects and phenomena by images
generated with an atomic force microscope or scanning tunnelling microscope was seen as the
main way to fascinate the public and also to make it concrete: “[the audience] would see what a
molecule is – that they are real!”; “educational animations on the basis of computer simulations
would be great”. Interviewees acknowledged that not all nanoscience can be communicated by
microscope images, but also in that case “we can make some nice graphics, colourful plots”.
In accordance with the fundamental role of methods and instruments in their research, the
interviewees also considered the scientific methods of NST as important for communicating to
the public. Yet, many of the researchers were cautious about not going into too much in detail
about their instruments: “showing the labs & instruments; but you shouldn’t go to very specific
processes since the public is not interested in them.”
Discussion
Researchers’ Views on the Nature of NST
The themes the professors discussed when asked about the nature of their research
culminated around the concept of interdisciplinarity. Both the cognitive-epistemic and socio-
institutional dimensions of interdisciplinarity (cf. Kähkönen et al., 2016) were used extensively
in the researchers’ descriptions. Closer analysis of the interviews revealed several factors that
the professors saw underlying the interdisciplinary nature of their field. Interdisciplinarity
seems to be based on the shared size scale of NST (cf. Schummer, 2004) – although the
fundamental role of the dimension in research was questioned too. Also, the central role of
methods and instruments, another frequent theme in scientists’ descriptions of their research,
was stated as a reason for interdisciplinary work: NST research typically requires a range of
instruments and that is why collaboration with other fields and their laboratories is needed.
The instrumentation available is crucial in all steps of the process, including setting research
questions. The interviewees’ descriptions of the technological nature and the fundamental
role of artificial objects and structures in NST research seem to be in line with the notions
of the techno-scientific nature of the field (Nordmann, 2004; Tala, 2009) as discussed in the
philosophical literature (see theoretical background).
Despite the emphasis on interdisciplinary features, the interviewees did not seem to uphold
a reductionist view of NST unifying the traditional disciplines (cf. Brune et al., 2006; Schmidt,
2004). Rather, they saw the interdisciplinary collaboration as being strictly structured – and

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also limited – by the disciplinary borders. Many researchers hoped and anticipated the deeper 53
interdisciplinarity that would come from the next generation of researchers with thoroughly
interdisciplinary training. Until that, the interviewees consider NST to be a multidisciplinary
rather than a truly interdisciplinary field (cf. Schummer, 2004).
Researchers’ Views on NST Communication
Interestingly, the themes the interviewees highlighted when describing their research
were somewhat different from the ones they considered as important for communicating to the
public. The latter were applications and products (due to their close connection to everyday
life), risks and opportunities (due to the strong interests and negative attitudes the public is
perceived to have), and visualizations (due to their fascination). They did not see the conceptual
knowledge, methodology or most features of the nature of NST as interesting or accessible to
the public. This is at least partly connected to the interviewees’ very low estimation of public’s
understanding of NST.
It is noteworthy that the researchers interviewed did not see the value of communicating
the scientific process or phenomena, but that communication should go directly to applications
and their implications. The scientific conceptual understanding was seen as being completely out
of reach to the public because of its complexity. They did not express interest in communicating
the scientific basics of nanoscale phenomena and properties, nor even the size-dependent
properties that are not based on quantum mechanics but more simply on the surface-volume
ratio (‘scaling effects’).
Among the characteristics of their NST research, the scientists thought that only the
instrumentation was important for communicating to the public. They clearly did not consider
the interdisciplinary processes or other epistemological elements as interesting or relevant for
the broader audience. While their descriptions of their research were replete with references to
the dimension, they did not see the size scale as a key issue of to communicate. Yet, some of the
scientists recognised that the ‘smallness’ of the nanoscale is a fascinating thing to understand
for the lay people.
The professors’ emphasis on applications, products, benefits and risks of NST in their
public communication seems to be motivated by their understanding of the public’s interests
and needs. Indeed, according to surveys and polls, the public is only interested in these aspects
of NST (e.g. Waldron, Spencer & Batt, 2006; Sahin & Ekli, 2013). Also, science teachers have
considered applications and risks as the most educationally significant aspects of NST (Laherto,
2011).
The researchers interviewed for this research were aware of the power of illustrations in
NST communication, and wanted to use them extensively to raise fascination and interest. They
did not discuss the need to problematize model-based interpretations, or express concerns about
the risks of epistemological misunderstandings (cf. Landau et al., 2009; Pitt, 2004; Laherto,
2013).
Implications
The results of this research problematize the emergence of authenticity in science

learning and communication. Scientists ‘automatically’ bring a touch of authenticity into
science communication (Braund & Reiss, 2006). However, as discussed in the introduction,
improving the authenticity of science learning and communication certainly requires more than
“listening to researchers” (cf. Kapon, Laherto & Levrini, 2016; Buxton, 2006; Rahm et al.,
2003). Scientists may adopt various roles when communicating to the public. According to the
results from the present research, it seems that NST researchers may tend to take the role of a
Guardian of Science in public communication (Horst, 2013). The professors interviewed are
inclined to tell the public about general applications and societal issues, rather than communicate

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54 the processes of science as they would probably do if they took the role of an Expert in Horst’s
(2013) model.
Another interesting finding is that while the risks of NST are not a central topic in the
daily work of the researchers, they still are inclined to address risks in public communication
because of the perceived importance of risks. Generally, researchers are untrained or uncertain
in risk communication (Gardner et al., 2017), but in the present research, the researchers were
at least very keen on communicating risks associated with NST. The results call for added
emphasis on risk communication in researcher training.
The scientists’ views gained from the interviews were helpful in the development of
research-based learning stations for school students in the student lab of the Collaborative
Research Center “Function by Switching” at the University of Kiel, on the topics of
nanotechnology and atomic force microscopy (Schwarzer et al., 2015).
Limitations
All conclusions from these results must acknowledge the small sample (eight interviewees)
and lack of representativeness. But the present research does not culminate in generalisations
to larger group of researchers. The choice of qualitative approach and purposeful sampling
(Patton, 1990) was driven by conceptual questions, not by concerns for representativeness
(cf. Miles & Huberman, 1994). The aim was to get an in-depth understanding of the potential
conflicts between how scientists see their research and how they want to communicate it to the
public. The researchers were very experienced in both research and in public communication
and therefore able to provide in-depth information on the issues in question.
The main challenge to validity of this research seems to arise from the research design. It
must be acknowledged that the interviewees also had a communicational “role” (cf. Horst, 2013)
when describing the nature of their research in the first part of the interview. We tried to reduce
the blurring of the research questions by making a clear distinction between the two parts and
objectives of the interviews. The context of public communication was mentioned only when
entering the second stage (topic 2) of the interview. Yet, in future research the reliability could
be enhanced by employing multiple methods: for instance, by responding to the first part of the
research question with an interview with implicit questions, and then by analysing scientists’
actual outreach measures (public talks etc.) to respond to the latter part of the research question.
Conclusions
To sum up, the interviewees argued that nanoscience can be taught and communicated in
an authentic way without focusing on the scientific conceptual knowledge or the main features
in the nature of the field. According to the professors interviewed, outreach measures should
try to deliver an overview of the whole field and useful applications rather than knowledge of
a specific research topic or the scientific basis of the field (e.g. quantum mechanics). While the
NST professors describe their research in terms of interdisciplinary processes and the size scale,
they do not consider such features that relevant or interesting to the broader audience.
Given the increasingly important role of researchers in the public communication of NST
and other contemporary science, the results may be generally useful in research and development
of science communication. The results of this research are critical of the simplistic notion,
common in science education literature, that exposure to real scientists would automatically
enhance the authenticity of science learning. If an understanding of the nature of science is
considered to be an element in such authenticity, more elaboration and viewpoints are needed
in public communication.
This research brought out researchers’ views of both cognitive-epistemic and socio-
institutional elements of the nature of contemporary science. It gives insight for research on
science communication, and development of outreach initiatives and informal learning settings

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on NST. It also highlighted the need for researcher training in public communication and, for 55
example, in dealing with the public’s perception of risk.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the six professors from the Collaborative Research
Center 677 “Function by Switching” at the Christian-Albrechts-University in Kiel, Germany,
and the two professors from the Department of Physics at the University of Helsinki, Finland,
for their time and good-will to participate in this research. Furthermore, the authors are grateful
for the financial support by the German Research Association (DFG) and the expertise of
colleagues in the field.
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Received: December 23, 2017 Accepted: February 21, 2018
Antti Laherto PhD, Lecturer, University of Helsinki, Faculty of Educational Sciences, Department
of Education, P.O. Box 9 (Siltavuorenpenger 5A), FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
E-mail: antti.laherto@helsinki.fi
PhD, Researcher, University of Kiel, Cluster of Excellence “The Future Ocean”,
Frederike Tirre Germany.
E-mail: ftirre@uv.uni-kiel.de
PhD, Professor, Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN),
Ilka Parchmann Olshausenstraße 62, D-24118 Kiel, Germany.
E-mail: parchmann@ipn.uni-kiel.de
Website: https://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/en/the-ipn/departments/chemistry-education/
staff/parchmann-ilka?set_language=en
PhD, Researcher, Leibniz Institute for Science and Mathematics Education (IPN),
Lorenz Kampschulte Olshausenstraße 62, D-24118 Kiel, Germany.
E-mail: kampschulte@ipn.uni-kiel.de
Website: https://www.ipn.uni-kiel.de/en/the-ipn/departments/chemistry-education/
staff/kampschulte-lorenz?set_language=en
PhD, Professor, Ludwig-Maximilian University of Munich, Butenandtstr. 5-13,
Stefan Schwarzer 81377 Munich, Germany.
E-mail: stefan.schwarzer@cup.uni-muenchen.de

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58
THE LEVEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
OF CHILDREN IN KINDERGARTEN IN
THE LIGHT OF SELECTED INDIVIDUAL
FACTORS
Stanisława Nazaruk, Joanna Waszczuk,
Joanna Marchel, Helena Kowaluk-Nikitin
Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biała Podlaska, Poland
E-mail: stnazaruk@poczta.onet.pl, awaszczuk@op.pl,
joanna44@o2.pl, konowaluk@gmail.com
Anna Klim-Klimaszewska
University of Natural Sciences and Humanities in Siedlce, Poland
E-mail: klimanius@interia.pl
Abstract
Taking into account the psychophysical development of a young person, a child in particular, attention
should be paid to forming certain habits related to physical activity, health, nutrition, hygiene, and
aesthetics during the preschool period as such habits will be of utmost importance in his/ her adult life.
Physical activity of children affects various health parameters both today and in the future. Specialists
draw attention to the correlation between physical activity and the development of the musculoskeletal
system, body posture, the nervous, respiratory and vegetative systems. The lack of physical activity may
result in cardiovascular diseases or obesity. These are just some of the reasons for which people need
physical activity in their lives. Bearing in mind the lack of research on this issue, it was decided to conduct
research on the physical activity of children (210 students) aged 4-6 attending selected kindergartens
located in the town of Biała Podlaska, Poland. The level of physical activity of children was measured
with the use of special devices, so called actigraph units (accelerometers in Polish). Due to a small
size of this wrist-watch-like device, movements of children or their participation in games and different
forms of activities in kindergarten were not hampered. On the basis of the collected data, statistical
analysis was performed. Non-parametric statistical tests were used in order to identify the relationship
between variables of the physical activity level and sex, age and weight of a child. Data analysis revealed
statistically significant differences between the level of physical activity and some personal characteristics.
The research conclusions, which will be helpful in providing effective education in the field of physical
activity, were made available to kindergartens.
Keywords: actigraph, accelerometer, kindergarten, pre-school child, physical activity.
Introduction
Nowadays the conviction about the need for physical activity as a permanent and
necessary factor to maintain health is deepening. Among the ranking of factors that maintain
and multiply health, it occupies a priority place. It is an indispensable element affecting
the health and well-being of people. At this point, it should be noted that there are many
definitions of physical activity in which different elements of this problem are noticed and its
multidimensional character is emphasized (Barankiewicz, 1998; Drabik, 201; Bielski, 2005).
Józef Drabik believes that "physical activity is a key and integral component of a healthy

Stanisława NAZARUK, Joanna WASZCZUK, Joanna MARCHEL, Helena KOWALUK-NIKITIN, Anna KLIM-KLIMASZEWSKA. The level
of physical activity of children in kindergarten in the light of selected individual factors
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lifestyle. Without it, no strategy of health, its maintenance and multiplication is possible, and in 59
children – proper development " (Drabik, 2001, p. 5).
Since during millennia of the evolution of the human race, physical activity was a
necessary condition for survival, it became a part of human nature. Therefore, the appropriate
level of physical activity of modern man not only favours the functions and development of the
body, but also has a positive effect on the psyche and well-being (Pawłucki, 1996).
Lack of regular physical exercise is the cause of the development of many chronic
diseases, what is more, the detailed results of epidemiological and clinical studies prove that
these diseases are more common in people who take physical activity to a small extent or do not
take it at all. Hypokinesis (lack of movement or its insufficient dose) is considered even as one
of the sources of the obesity epidemic (Cordero-MacIntyre, Peterson, Fukuda, Gungur, 2006)
and the accompanying metabolic syndrome (Bloomgarden, 2004), it is also considered one of
the causes of ischemic heart disease (Janssen, 2007) and cancers (Mao, Wen, Johnson, 2003).
In contrast to hypokinesia, the appropriate dose of physical activity brings many health
benefits (Bruunsgaard, 2005), among others it improves the efficiency of the cardiovascular and
respiratory system (Watts, Beye, Siafarikas, O'Driscoll, Jones, Davis, Green, 2004) and delays
the appearance of symptoms of these diseases (Schnohr, Lange, Scharling, Jensen, 2006). The
life capacity of the lungs, breathing depth and oxygen consumption are also increased, and the
number of breaths per minute and the amount of oxygen debt are reduced. In addition, strong
respiratory muscles shape the chest, causing it to grow and improve the body posture, which
improves the supply of oxygen to the body.
Movement is used successfully everywhere where development deviations can be
eliminated or mitigated through appropriate exercises and in the therapy of many developmental
disorders and diseases (Bielski, 2005; Pawłucki 1996). The research confirmed the unique
importance of physical activity in the prevention of civilization diseases and proved its affiliation
to the main determinants of the human health field (Cendrowski, 2002).
It should be noted that "physical health is not the only benefit of physical activity, but
also the significant value associated with emotional experiences shaped in the common play,
game, dance, singing, etc." (Cendrowski, 2002, p. 11).
In the broad context of health and emotional factors, the importance of physical activity
in learning process was appreciated. Researchers have proven that about 50% of learning
abilities develop up to the fourth year of life, and further 30% before the end of the eighth
year (Woynarowska, Kowalewska, Izdebski, Komosińska, 2010; Wolański, 2012). During this
period, the main nerve pathways are created, enabling lifelong learning. They will continue
to form, but the foundations are shaped in the years mentioned. Children, through regular
exercises, greatly support brain development. This is because the so-called atrial system is
stimulated. Physical exercises stimulate the maturation of the motor centres in the brain, which
improves the development of motor fitness. The speed of conduction of nerve stimuli increases,
coordination of movements is improved (Osiński, 2003; Wolański, 2012).
As mentioned before, the importance of physical activity in human development is
particularly important in the pre-school period (3-6 years), when the child grows, develops,
learns behaviours, assimilates norms, values and shapes habits. To develop the child's physical
activity in a professional way obliges the Program of Pre-school Education (Journal of Laws of
24 February 2017, Item 356). The said document contains provisions obligating kindergartens
to create conditions and implement in practice all the activities of children, including physical
ones, among others developing motor skills in the field of large and small motor skills that will
be necessary in school education.
Due to the fact that in Poland there are almost 90% of children aged 3-6 in pre-school
education, the importance of the work of these institutions in the area of physical activity seems
to be leading. Bearing in mind the concern for the proper development of a child and taking into
account the fact that there are no studies on the level of physical activity of pre-school children,
it should be assumed that there is a need for this type of research.

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60 The main purpose of the research was to identify the actual level of physical activity of
children during their stay in kindergarten. The following research problems were formulated
with regard to the research purpose:
1. What physical activity level do 4 to 6-year-old children demonstrate during educational
classes in kindergarten in one day?
2. Does the physical activity level of children depend on their sex or age?
3. Is weight and height (Body Mass Index) of significance in undertaking physical activity
by children?
Methodology of the Research
General Background
The conducted research is a part of the research on physical activity of pre-school

children. Taking into account the presented problems, the research was carried out in Poland in
three local kindergartens in city Biała Podlaska. Children who had a written consent from their
parents or legal guardians joined the tests. Measurements of the level of physical activity of
children were made using special devices, so-called actigraphs (MTI7164), which determined
the objectivity and accuracy of the test results.
Procedure and Data Collection
The research was performed from the 4th to the 30th of September 2017. Before its start,
each child’s weight and height were measured. The collected data: sex, age, weight and height
were recorded in the computer programme. Every day of testing, an actigraph unit was worn on
the wrist by children starting at 8.30 a.m. Due to a small size of the device, it did not interfere
with normal activity of children, e.g. jumping or running. Actigraph units were removed at 3.00
p.m. when kindergarten classes were over. There were 20 devices available to measure physical
activity of children, so 20 children were tested at the same time in one day. The data from
actigraph units were entered into the computer system every day after the completion of testing
in kindergarten. The research was conducted for the period of twenty-one days in September
2017.
Data Analysis
Statistical analysis of the obtained data was performed in the STATISTICA v. 10.
program. For the examined characteristics defining the level of physical activity of children,
arithmetic means were calculated. In order to detect statistically significant differences, non-
parametric U Mann-Whitney test and Krsukal-Wallis tests were used. In all analysed cases, the
significance level was assumed p=.05.
Participants
The research included children aged 4 to 6, attending three kindergartens in Biała

Podlaska, i.e. Self-Government Kindergartens No. 14, No. 10 and No. 6. The body running the
mentioned facilities is the Self-Government of Biała Podlaska. The basic data of the studied
group of children are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1. Basic information data concerning children participating in the research 61

(N=210).
Variable Number of children Structure (%)
Sex
Girls 93 44.29
Boys 117 55.71
Age
4 years old 21 10.00

BMI – Body Mass Index
Thinness 90 42.65
Normal weight 108 51.47

Overweight 12 5.88
210 children participated in the research, 55.71% of which were boys, and 44.29% were
girls. The smallest group were 4-year-old children, while groups of 5- and 6-year-old children
were comparable.
Results of Research
Three levels of intensity of physical activity were determined using activity measuring
devices. These are levels of moderate, low and sedative intensity (also known as sedentary).
Due to the psychophysical correctness of a child development, physical activity with moderate
intensity is the most beneficial.
Detailed results of the children's examinations, which determine the levels of physical
activity are as follows:
1) high activity level – 0% of children;
2) moderate activity level – 43.8% of children;
3) low activity level – 49.7% of children;
4) below-low activity level, referred to as sedative mode – 6.5% of children.
Regarding these results, it should be noted that physical activity at a moderate level was
recorded only in approximately 43.8% of the studied population. Thus, the results of over 50%
of the examined children are unsatisfactory, which may in the future lead to the consolidation
of bad habits, overweight, faulty posture or other developmental constraints.
The results of the intensity of physical activity of children, including gender, are shown
in Figure 1.

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62
60%
50.3 50.4
50%
43.7 44
40%
30%
20%
10% 5.7 5.9
0%
Sedentary lifestyle Low intensity activity Moderate intensity activity
Z=0.57, p=0.5710 Z=2.47, p=0.0135 Z=2.12, p=0.0340
Girls Boys
Figure 1: Intensity of physical activity of the examined children, including sex.

Z-value of the Mann-Whitney U test.
The data presented in Figure 1 show that boys are more physically active compared to
girls. On a moderate level, they achieved better results. In turn, the girls' results are slightly
higher at the low level compared to the boys indicate their lower activity. The collected data
allow to suppose that boys prefer movement activities, such as games, running, ball games and
accessories. However, girls prefer classes at tables such as painting, drawing, writing, listening,
singing, playing with dolls, playing home or resting. Based on the calculated values of the
Mann-Whitney U test and the assumed significance level of p=0.05, it should be stated that the
observed differences between the sexes at two levels of physical activity, namely a moderate
and a low one, are statistically significant.
Figure 2 shows the results in terms of the intensity of physical activity of the examined
group of children depending on their age.
60%
50 49.6
50% 47 46.6
44.7 45.7
40%
30%
20%
10% 7.8
5.7
3
0%
H=7.70, p=0.0213, 1-2.3 H=3.27, p=0.1953 H=1.50, p=0.4722
4-years old 5-years old 6-years old
Figure 2: Intensity of physical activity of the examined children, taking into

account their age.
H-value of the Kruskal-Wallis test.

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The obtained data shows that 5-year-old children show the highest physical activity in 63
kindergarten in comparison with 6-year-old and 4-year-old children. However, these are not
statistically significant differences. Based on the calculated values of the Kruskal-Wallis test
and the adopted level of significance, p=0.05 it is stated that there is no significant statistical
differentiation in the physical activity of children depending on their age at a moderate and low
level. Statistically significant differences were observed at a sedentary level.
Figure 3 illustrates the intensity of physical activity of the examined group of children
depending on their BMI.
600%
486.2 495.7
500% 458 474.4
445.5 452.6
400%
300%
200%
100% 55.8 58.7 73.1
0%
H=3.63, p=0.1631 H=2.69, p=0.2599 H=2.32, p=0.3138
Thinnes/being thin Correct value Overweight
Figure 3: Intensity of physical activity of the examined children taking into

account their BMI.
H – value of the Kruskal-Wallis test.
On the basis of the calculated value of the Kruskal-Wallis test and the adopted level of
significance p=.05, it can be stated that there is no significant statistical differentiation in the
physical activity of children depending on their BMI.
Physical activity of children was determined using the Steps Per Minute test in which the
number of steps taken by a child in one minute is counted. Figure 4 illustrates the results of the
Steps Per Minute test taking into consideration children’s sex and age.

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64
Step Per Minute
Sex Z=3.15, p=0.0016* Girls 19.7

Boys 22.5
4-years old 21.9

Age H=3.04, p=0.2187 5-years old 21.9
6-years old 20.6
Thinnes 21
BMI H=0.37, p=0.8310 Correct value 21.7
Overweight 21.6
Total 21,4
18 18,5 19 19,5 20 20,5 21 21,5 22 22,5 23
Figure 4: The number of steps per minute performed by children, including

gender and age.
Z – value of the Mann-Whitney U test, H-value of Kruskal-Wallis test, * significant variation
at p=.05.
The data presented in Figure 4 shows that the best score from the Steps Per Minute
test was achieved by boys. The results of the U Mann-Whitney and Kruskal-Wallis test at the
significance level of p=.05 allow to conclude that there is a significant statistical differentiation
of results depending on the sex. However, the results of the children's test with regard to age are
very similar. Small differences were found which, using statistical tests, did not confirm their
significance.
Summing up the results of the conducted research stated that in all age it should also be
groups, boys showed greater physical activity than girls. The biggest difference between girls
and boys was found in the group of 6-year-old children, the smallest in the group of 4-year-old
children, although it was slightly smaller than the difference between girls and boys in the group
of 5-year-old children.
Discussion
The aim of the undertaken research was to learn the level of physical activity of children
aged 4-6 during educational and upbringing activities in kindergarten in one day. The mentioned
goal was implemented in several selected kindergartens in Biała Podlaska. The mentioned
facilities have similar housing conditions, are run by Self-Government, they implement the
core curriculum of pre-school education and a similar plan of work with children during the
day. The aforementioned similarities are the basis for stating that children in kindergartens
in Biała Podlaska have similar conditions to develop physical activity. Therefore, it can be
assumed, considering the developmental age of a child (4-6 years), which is characterized
by a strong need for movement, that the level of physical activity manifested by children in
kindergarten should be similar and at the correct level. It should be emphasized once again
that all kindergartens are obliged to implement the guidelines contained in the Program of Pre-
school Education, in which the Ministry of National Education indicated the skills that a child
should achieve after reaching the age of 6, including physical fitness skills, which is among
others, the element of child's achievement of school readiness. The mentioned document does
not give ready solutions regarding the selection and application of specific methods of work of
teachers with children in kindergarten. This issue was left to the teachers' disposal. Teachers

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draw up the kindergarten work plan themselves choosing the forms, methods and techniques of 65
working with children taking into account many factors such as the rate of child's development,
the need for movement, interests, predispositions and talents. The results of the research carried
out among 210 pre-schoolers revealed that only 47.8% of children demonstrated physical
activity at a moderate level, and 5.8% of children showed a sedentary level of physical activity.
No high activity level was observed.
Considering the biological development of a child of this age, i.e. the development of
bone and muscle tissue, maturation of the nervous system, the final stage of innervation of
muscle groups, lack of physical activity at an appropriate level may be a limiting factor for
a child development in both physical and intellectual dimensions. The relationship between
physical activity and child development is undisputed. That is why, more and more specialists
in the field of health pay attention to the key importance of the kindergarten in the process of
physical activation of children.
European research on physical activity level of children, depending on age, sex or even
the kind of kindergarten, comprises the research performed in Denmark, Portugal and Poland.
The research in the above-mentioned countries revealed differing levels of physical activity
of kindergarten children, even of the same age. Physical activity of children in Denmark was
tested using special devices called accelerometers. The research results revealed that about 50%
of 4 to 6-year-old children engaged in a moderate level of activity, and girls were less active in
comparison with boys of the same age (Pate et al., 2006). Another research on physical activity
of 4 to 6-year-old children during their stay in kindergarten was performed in Porto, Portugal.
The research was conducted with the use of accelerometers for the period of 7 consecutive days
and examined the relationship between physical activity and obesity of children. The research
results indicated that boys were more active and had a lower obesity rate than girls (Vale et al.,
2013).
Current research results show an increasing tendency to limit physical effort of people
(especially children and adolescents) in favour of mental effort and a static lifestyle (Merkiel,
Chalcarz, Deptuła, 2011).
We also observe a tendency of the family's weakening role in shaping physical activity,
e.g. after the child's return from kindergarten to home. In the majority of children, they spend
time at home in a way that is not very physically active, because more and more often both
children and their parents prefer passive leisure activities (Korpak, Bergier, 2013). The results
of the research conducted in Sweden on 4-year-old children exemplify this trend. The aim
of the research was to compare physical activity of children during five days of their stay in
kindergarten with their physical activity at the weekend at home. The research results revealed
that physical activity of children during the weekend is lower in comparison with their activity
during their stay in kindergarten. Most children spend their leisure time at home with their
family in a passive way (Berglind, Tynelius, 2018).
The purpose of the research was to determine the differences in the level of physical
activity of children depending on individual factors, mainly gender and age. In Poland, so far,
no research has been recorded in the field of physical activity measurement (using actigraphs)
of children aged 4-6 during educational and upbringing activities in kindergarten. In the context
of the Danish research, the results of research from Polish kindergartens carried out in Biała
Podlaska show a similar tendency. At the same time, the physical activity test was extended
by an additional Steps Per Minute test. The results of this test showed differences between
girls and boys, which turned out to be statistically significant. This allowed to conclude that
individual factors, especially sex, significantly affect the physical activity of children aged 4-6.
A similar tendency in terms of physical activity was observed in the comparative analysis of
physical activity of adolescents from six countries conducted by Józef Bergier and Małgorzata
Wasilewska, in which a downward trend in activity was observed depending on sex and age. At
the same time, the relationship between activity and cultural factors was pointed out (Wasilewska,
Bergier, 2015). There were also reports on the physical activity of school youth depending on

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66 the type of place of residence carried out with the help of the International Physical Activity
Questionnaire IPAQ. Schoolchildren, especially boys living in family homes, are characterized
by a higher level of physical activity than their peers living in blocks (Bergier, Niznikowska,
Bergier, Junger, Salonna, 2016). Examination of the physical activity of kindergarten children
depending on their family environment and living conditions will probably be another objective
of the research, which is going to be continued because of its importance to the health of
children.
Conclusions
On the basis of an analysis of the collected empirical data, the research conclusions were
drawn, which would be helpful in organising effective educational work in kindergartens in
the field of physical activity. Unfortunately, the level of physical activity of more than 50% of
children during one day of their stay in kindergarten, which was measured objectively with the
use of actigraph units, is a disadvantage for normal development, and may result in decreased
mobility, faulty postures or even obesity in the future. These are just some of the negative
consequences of the lack of optimal amount of physical activity in child development.
Therefore, it has been recommended that kindergartens, being the major institution
organising physical activity for children aged 4-6, should modify their educational work and
introduce various forms and methods of physical activity in order to encourage children to
engage in it. Bearing in mind the research results indicating lower physical activity of girls
in comparison with boys, it has been recommended that teachers should individualise their
actions. Such approach is particularly advisable in the case of a group of students who need
support, not only girls but all children whose physical activity level was identified as sedentary.
On the basis of the research findings it can also be concluded that parents should spend
their free time with children in an active way. Children’s active participation in leisure activities
may form pro-health habits in their future adult lives. The conducted research showed that there
is still a need to perform further research and have a further discussion on physical activity
of children because the brain and body systems are developed in the kindergarten period.
Moreover, in the same period children shape their habits and acquire values, to which health
certainly belongs. Thus, bearing in mind the importance of the presented problem of physical
activity of children, it should be stated that this issue will be the subject of further research.
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Woynarowska, B., Kowalewska, A., Izdebski, Z., & Komosińska, K. (2010). Biomedyczne podstawy
kształcenia i wychowania [Biomedical foundations education and upbringing]. Warszawa: PWN.
Vale, S., Trost, S., Ruiz, J. J., Reˆgo, C., Moreira, P., & Mota, J. (2013). Physical activity guidelines and
preschooler’s obesity status. International Journal of Obesity, 37, 1352-1355.

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Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018
68 Received: December 22, 2017 Accepted: February 22, 2018
Stanisława Katarzyna Nazaruk PhD, Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biala
Podlaska, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Department
of Education, ul. Sidorska 95/97, 21-500 Biała Podlaska, Poland.
E-mail: stnazaruk@poczta.onet.pl;
Website: http://www.pswbp.pl
Joanna Waszczuk PhD, Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biala
E-mail: awaszczuk@op.pl
Website: http:// www.pswbp.pl
Joanna Marchel PhD, Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biala
E-mail: joanna44@o2.pl
Website: http:// www.pswbp.pl
Helena Konowaluk-Nikitin PhD, Pope John Paul II State School of Higher Education in Biala
E-mail: konowaluk@gmial.com
Website: http://www.pswbp.pl
Anna Klim-Klimaszewska PhD, Professor, Head of the Department of Teacher Education,

University of Natural Sciences and Humanities in Siedlce, Faculty
of Humanities, Institute of Education, ul. Żytnia 39, 08-110 Siedlce,
Poland.
E-mail: anna.klim-klimaszewska@uph.edu.pl, klimanius@interia.pl
Website: http://www.kd.ip.uph.edu.pl

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Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018
THE RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT TO 69
MEASURE TEACHER KNOWLEDGE FROM

THE PERSPECTIVE OF LEARNERS IN THE
CONTEXT OF PIBID
Keysy S. C. Nogueira, Carmen Fernandez
University of São Paulo, Brazil
E-mail: keysynogueira@usp.br, carmen@iq.usp.br
Abstract
This research sought to analyze the reliability of an instrument to measure teacher knowledge of a
group of pre-service chemistry teachers participating in the Institutional Program for Scholarships for
Beginner Teachers in Brazil (PIBID).. Thus, it was analyzed the evaluation of a group of students about
the Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) of five pre-service chemistry teachers from the program.
Accordingly, an instrument containing 28 statements and an open question was applied to a group of 70
students from a public school to whom the pre-service teachers had applied their didactic proposals. The
purpose of the instrument was to measure the perception of the students' about the components of the
teacher knowledge (Subject Matter Knowledge - SMK, Instructional Representation and Strategies - IRS,
Instructional Objective and Context - IOC and Knowledge of Students’ Understanding - KSU) of the pre-
service teachers. The results of the analysis revealed that the instrument about teacher’s knowledge has a
high reliability based on the alpha Cronbach values. The results of the alpha coefficient for the pre-service
teachers were all above 0.9 suggesting that the instrument is reliable and has consistent measurements.
Regarding to the exploratory analysis, the main scale in the PCK evaluation of the undergraduates was
four which means that the students consider that the aspects related to the SMK, IRS, IOC and KSU are
frequently present in the classes of the future teachers.
Keywords: instrument reliability, PIBID, redox reactions, teaching knowledge, PCK.
Introduction
In the scientific literature there are several authors dealing with the knowledge necessary
to be a teacher. Shulman conceived of a knowledge base inherent in the teaching profession
(Shulman, 2004). The author proposed seven knowledge categories for teachers (Shulman,
1987), particularly Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), which represents knowledge that
distinguishes a chemistry teacher from a chemistry specialist, being specific for each subject
and developed in practice (Fernandez, 2014). Shulman’s proposals inspired other researchers to
investigate PCK (Grossman, 1990; Magnusson, Krajcik & Borko, 1999; Rollnick & Mavhunga,
2014; Van Driel & Verloop, 1998; Fernandez, 2015).
Socialized studies on PCK mean that the participants of the studies are generally teachers
who teach in basic education and they are based on a qualitative approach, which suggests that
research analyzing the PCK of university professors and pre-service teachers is rare. However,
despite being in early stages, some researchers started to develop questionnaires to measure the
PCK of teachers (Kleickmann et al. 2013; Kirschner, Borowski, Fischer, Gess-Newsome & Von
Aufschnaiter, 2016). Among the quantitative studies, though, few analyze student perceptions
of the teachers’ knowledge of their respective professors (Criua & Marian, 2014; Halim &
Abdullah, 2014; Jang, 2011; Sofianidis & Kallery, 2016; Tuan, Chang, Wang & Treagust,

Keysy S. C. NOGUEIRA, Carmen FERNANDEZ. The reliability of an instrument to measure teacher knowledge from the perspective
of learners in the context of PIBID
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70 2000). Jang, Guan and Hsieh (2009) developed a Likert scale type instrument to measure how
undergraduate students perceived the PCK of their professors. In assessing the results, the
authors argue that professors began to consider student understanding over teaching strategies
used in the teaching environment. This instrument was used in other studies (Girotto Júnior,
2015; Jang, 2011; Sofianidis & Kallery, 2016). In one of these researches, Girotto Júnior (2015)
applied it to undergraduate students in chemistry. The results of the instrument were compared
to the view of the researcher based on one phase of their studies with qualitative characteristics.
The analyses imply that the students are aware of their professors’ knowledge of practice, but
they have difficulty in recognizing other types of knowledge, which are part of out-of-class
activities, such as, for example, class planning and issues related to the prior knowledge of
the students. Possible inconsistencies between perceptions by students and outside observers
of teacher knowledge can be a reflection of the different aspects each one observes (Peterson,
Wahlquist & Bone, 2000).
Therefore, the aim of the research is to analyze the reliability of an instrument on teacher
knowledge of five pre-service chemistry teachers who participate in the “Programa Institucional
de Bolsa de Iniciação à Docência (PIBID)”, Institutional Scholarship Program for Beginning
Teachers.
Program for Beginning Teachers - (PIBID)
The Programa Institucional de Bolsa de Iniciação à Docência (PIBID, “Institutional

Scholarship Program for Beginning Teachers”) is a relatively recent Brazilian policy that
promotes and values the teaching career. It enables undergraduate students to have teaching
experience during the undergraduate course (Braibante & Wollmann, 2012; Gatti, Barreto &
André, 2011; Scheibe, 2010). Its purpose is to promote the integration between basic education
and higher education, promoting reflections on the educational practice and to promote
professional development of teachers (Canan, 2012; Ribeiro & Nogueira, 2016). In this sense,
PIBID has been considered a third educational space, in addition to undergraduate studies and the
supervised internship (Felício, 2014). Research on this program are dedicated to investigating
mainly the educational aspects of the undergraduates made possible by PIBID. For Silva
(2015), the program promotes the interest of the student teachers in the course. Other studies
have analyzed the influence of PIBID in structuring the teaching knowledge of its participants
(Morais & Ferreira, 2014; Sá & Garritz, 2014) and adopt a qualitative methodology. In the
exploratory analysis of studies related to PIBID, the studies are associated to teacher training,
the production of teaching materials and reports of experiences (Passoni et al., 2012), suggesting
that studies addressing student perceptions on the teaching practice of PIBID students are rare,
mainly of their teaching knowledge (Freire & Fernandez, 2014).
Research Methodology
Context of the Research
The PIBID students participating in this research were part of a subproject organized by
a coordinator in the Chemistry teacher education program, two in-service Chemistry teachers
(supervisors) and eleven pre-service teachers. In the subproject, the teaching proposals were
associated to the Política Nacional de Resíduos Sólidos (PNRS, “National Policy of Solid
Waste”) (Brasil, 2010) and founded in the Science, Technology and Society (STS) approach
and on experimental activities. During the implementation of the subproject, meetings were
organized and conducted by the coordinator who, together with the pre-service teachers, defined
the classroom objectives, the theoretical references to be studied and the inquiry questions to
be chosen for each group of preservice teachers, which guided the planning of the teaching
sequences. Then, in individual meetings with each group, the concepts, teaching strategies,
methods of evaluation, among other aspects involved in the teaching sequences were defined.

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In this research, the teacher knowledge of five pre-service chemistry teachers were 71
analyzed. For ethical reasons they will be referred to using fictitious names, Antônio, Melissa,
Clara, Elder and Mateus. Over the course of a semester, Antônio and Melissa developed the
topic “The inadequate disposal of automotive batteries” using the chemical concept of redox
reactions, in a senior year of Educação de Jovens e Adultos (“Youths and Adults Education”).
Elder, Clara and Mateus taught classes to sophomore year from secondary school, about the
issue “Disposal of fluorescent bulbs in teaching electrochemistry”.
Quantitative Research
This research used a quantitative approach. The reliability of the instrument was
determined by analyzing the internal consistency through Cronbach's alpha. According to
Diehl, quantitative research minimizes possible “[...] distortions of analysis and interpretation
and allowing greater safety margin” (p.13, 2004).
The instrument used in this research was adapted from the one developed by Jang, Guan and
Hsieh (2009) and translated by Girotto Júnior (2015). The instrument consists of four categories
of statements: Subject Matter Knowledge (SMK), Instructional Representation and Strategies
(IRS), Instructional Objective and Context (IOC) and Knowledge of Students’ Understanding
(KSU). SMK is related to student perceptions regarding their teachers knowledge of the topic
in the context of the discipline. IRS aims to examine how the students understand the elements
associated to the teaching strategies of their teachers including group discussions, experimental
investigation, among others. The purpose of IOC is to understand how the students perceive the
teacher’s proposals and objectives in teaching, which encompasses knowledge of the context,
the curriculum and class management. KSU is related to student perception regarding the
methods of evaluation used by the teacher to evaluate them (Jang, Guan & Hsieh, 2009). Each
category had six options (Likert scale). The scale ranged as follows: 0 (I don’t remember / I
don’t know), 1 (If it never happened in the teaching practice), 2 (If it seldom happened in the
teaching practice), 3 (If it sometimes happened in the teaching practice), 4 (If it often happened
in the teaching practice) and 5 (If it always happened in the teaching practice). The instrument
also included an open question that allowed the respondent to talk about a learning difficulty or
to make some comments on the pre-service teacher. The original test did not have the 0 (I don’t
remember / I don’t know) option on the scale, which we included in this research. The adapted
instrument used in this research consists of 28 statements and six options (appendix).
Procedure
The instrument was applied in a class where each pre-service teacher taught their lessons.
The students who answered the instrument were those who attended classes during the school
year, meaning we worked with a population of convenience, despite the understanding that
the greater the number of respondents, the greater its variance (Bland & Altman, 1997) and,
consequently, that the number of participants influences the value of the Cronbach’s Alpha
calculated. As such, the instrument was answered by 70 students, with 45 from the sophomore
year of regular Secondary School and 25 from the senior year of EJA (EJA, Youths and Adults
Education). The instrument was answered by a total of seventy students from Secondary School
and from EJA.
Quantitative Data Analysis - Cronbach’s Alpha
In this research, Cronbach’s Alpha was used to analyze the reliability of the instrument
(Cronbach & Shavelson, 2004; Leontitsis & Pagge, 2007). In the literature, there is no agreement
regarding the value of alpha in analyzing the reliability of an instrument. Along these lines,
the lower limit of .7 is accepted and other studies accept .6 for exploratory research (Hair

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72 Júnior, Black, Babin & Anderson, 2009; Santos, 1999). Values lower than 0.6 indicate that
the instrument has a low internal consistency, which can lead to incorrect conclusions about
what it is supposed to measure (Hair Júnior, Black, Babin & Anderson; Landis & Koch, 1977;
Malhotra, 2011; Vieira, 2009). The authors Freitas and Rodrigues (2005) suggest a classification
for alpha values, presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Classification of the Cronbach’s Alpha values and reliability.
Reliability Very low Low Moderate High Very High

Cronbach’s Alpha
α < .30 .30 ≤ α < .60 .60 ≤ α < .75 .75 ≤ α < .90 .90 ≤ α
Value
In the present research, the coefficient was analyzed per individual sample, including the
overall Cronbach’s Alpha calculation for the entire instrument (considering all 28 statements)
and by dimension (SMK, IRS, IOC and KSU). Moreover, calculations related to the exploratory
analysis (mean, median and standard deviation) were carried out.
The analysis of the instrument was carried out separately for each pre-service tacher.
Primarily, it will be presented the treatment of the data related to the percentage of respondents
who answered each question that constituted the categories. Then, it will be presented the
exploratory analysis for the five pre-service teachers and finally, the presentation and discussion
related to the Cronbach’s Alpha values and the validation of the instrument. The analysis is
founded on the exploratory procedure and not the inferential procedure, meaning the set of data
from the sample will not be used to generalize to a population (Bland & Altman, 1997). The
analysis of the open question of the instrument will not be presented here.
Validity
The validity of an instrument analyzes whether it is evaluating what it is meant to

measure. There are no formal mathematical methods to analyze the validity of a instrument,
despite some studies appealing to a statistical analysis of factorial design, which describes
the correlation between variables. The factorial analysis is considered controversial due to its
subjectivity (Bittencourt, Creutzberg, Rodrigues, Casartelli & Freitas, 2011). As a result of this,
researchers appeal to methods of reliability (Hora, Monteiro & Arica, 2010). However, there is
no reciprocity between the instrument being reliable and valid, since not every construct that
is reliable is valid. On the other hand, every valid instrument can be reliable (Vieira, 2009).
Various authors propose different methods of validation (Bittencourt, Creutzberg, Rodrigues,
Casartelli & Freitas, 2011; Vianna, 1976). Moron (1998) suggests the apparent validity of the
content, criterion and construct. In this research, we only consider the validity of the content,
which consists of an analysis of the content in the instrument by specialists from the area
(Haynes, Richard & Kubany, 1995).
Research Results
Exploratory Analysis
The pre-service teacher Antônio was in his freshman year in the PIBID teacher program
and in the sixth semester of the teaching degree in chemistry. Antônio taught class in a
secondary senior year class in EJA with 13 attending students. Table 2 gathers the percentages
of the participants who completed the statements that constitute the categories Subject Matter
Knowledge (SMK), Instructional Representation and Strategies (IRS), Instructional Objective
and Context (IOC) and Knowledge of Students’ Understanding (KSU).

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Table 2. Percentage of respondents who answered the instrument in each 73

category – Antônio.
Answers given (%) Answers given (%)

Statement 0 1 2 3 4 5 Statement 0 1 2 3 4 5
SMK 1 0 0 0 15 38 46 IOC 1 0 0 0 15 46 38
SMK 2 0 0 0 46 31 23 IOC 2 0 0 0 8 23 69
SMK 3 0 0 0 38 23 38 IOC 3 0 0 15 15 38 31
SMK 4 8 0 0 0 62 31 IOC 4 0 0 8 38 46 8
SMK 5 0 0 0 23 54 23 IOC 5 0 0 15 23 23 38
SMK 6 8 0 8 23 31 31 IOC 6 8 0 8 15 46 23
SMK 7 0 0 8 0 54 38 IOC 7 0 8 0 8 31 54
IRS 1 0 0 0 15 38 46 KSU 1 0 0 15 31 23 31
IRS 2 0 8 8 8 54 23 KSU 2 0 8 15 38 38 0
IRS 3 0 0 8 31 31 31 KSU 3 8 8 0 31 46 8
IRS 4 0 0 8 15 8 69 KSU 4 8 8 0 38 23 23
IRS 5 0 0 8 23 31 38 KSU 5 0 0 8 8 54 31
IRS 6 0 0 0 38 62 0 KSU 6 8 0 8 23 38 23
IRS 7 8 0 31 15 31 15 KSU 7 0 0 15 15 31 38
0 (I don’t know), 1 (Never), 2 (Seldom), 3 (Sometimes), 4 (Often) and 5 (Always).
In general, the mean, median and standard deviation for the categories are reflected in
the percentage of students who completed the questions that constituted the categories and their
scales. These values are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Mean and standard deviation values for each category referring to the
answers about Antônio’s classes.
Categories Mean Median Standard deviation

SMK 3.98 4 0.99
IRS 3.85 4 1.07
IOC 3.98 4 1.04
KSU 3.54 4 1.21
Melissa also developed her activities in EJA during the semester. The student-teacher
was in her freshman year of the teacher education course and of PIBID. The instrument was
answered by 12 students, while one of the students did not want to answer the instrument for
Melissa.
Primarily, the data were organized (Table 4) according to the percentage of respondents
who completed one of the twenty-eight subcategories, in addition to the maximum and minimum
values given.

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74 Table 4. Percentage of respondents who answered the statements that

constitute each category – Melissa.

State-
0 1 2 3 4 5 Statement 0 1 2 3 4 5
ment
SMK 1 8.3 0 0 8.3 33.3 50 IOC 1 0 0 8.3 25 33.3 33.3
SMK 2 0 0 8 33 17 42 IOC 2 0 0 0 17 33 50
SMK 3 8 0 0 17 33 42 IOC 3 0 0 17 17 33 33
SMK 4 0 0 0 17 8 75 IOC 4 8 0 8 17 25 42
SMK 5 0 0 0 25 42 33 IOC 5 8 8 8 8 33 33
SMK 6 0 0 8.3 25 33.3 33.3 IOC 6 17 0 8 8 42 25
SMK 7 0 0 0 25 33 42 IOC 7 0 0 8 17 42 33
IRS 1 0 0 8 25 25 42 KSU 1 8 17 8 17 25 25
IRS 2 0 8 0 33 17 42 KSU 2 0 8 8 25 25 33
IRS 3 0 0 8 8 50 33 KSU 3 8 0 17 17 33 25
IRS 4 0 8 8 17 25 42 KSU 4 0 8 8 17 33 33
IRS 5 8 0 8 17 33 33 KSU 5 0 8 0 25 33 33
IRS 6 0 17 8 17 33 25 KSU 6 8 17 0 8 25 42
IRS 7 8 8 8 25 25 25 KSU 7 0 0 8 25 25 42
0 (I don’t know), 1 (Never), 2 (Seldom), 3 (Sometimes), 4 (Often) and 5 (Always)
The grouping of the values for mean, standard deviation and median are presented in
Table 5.
Table 5. Mean values and standard deviation for each category referring to the
answers about Melissa’s classes.
Category Mean Median Standard deviation

SMK 4.09 4 1.07
IRS 3.72 4 1.30
IOC 3.80 4 1.30
KSU 3.60 4 1.41
The third pre-service teacher, Mateus, was in his sophomore year in the program PIBID
and in the teacher education course. His classes in the partner school were given in two
sophomore year classes in regular secondary school, which were usually held, due to the low
attendance of the students in the teaching institution. Table 6 gathers the percentages of the
participants who valued the statements that constitute the categories analyzed.

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Table 6. Percentage of respondents who valued the statements, that constitute 75

each category – Mateus.
State- Answers given (%) State- Answers given (%)

ment 0 1 2 3 4 5 ment 0 1 2 3 4 5
SMK 1 0 0 0 20 0 80 IOC 1 0 0 6.6 6.6 26.6 60
SMK 2 0 6.6 0 20 60 13.3 IOC 2 0 0 6.6 33.3 33.3 26.6
SMK 3 0 0 0 13.3 66.6 20 IOC 3 0 0 0 13.3 33.3 53.3
SMK 4 0 0 6.6 13.3 6.6 73.3 IOC 4 0 0 6.6 26.6 33.3 33.3
SMK 5 0 0 6.6 6.6 40 46.6 IOC 5 0 0 6.6 26.6 26.6 40
SMK 6 6.6 0 6.6 33.3 20 33.3 IOC 6 0 0 13.3 6.6 26.6 53.3
SMK 7 0 0 6.6 6.6 53.3 33.3 IOC 7 0 0 6.6 6.6 13.3 73.3
IRS 1 0 0 0 20 13.3 66.6 KSU 1 20 6.6 13.3 26.6 20 13.3
IRS 2 0 40 0 33.3 6.6 20 KSU 2 6.6 0 6.6 53.3 13.3 20
IRS 3 0 13.3 0 13.3 0 73.3 KSU 3 0 0 20 26.6 26.6 26.6
IRS 4 0 6.6 0 6.6 6.6 80 KSU 4 6.6 0 13.3 33.3 20 26.6
IRS 5 0 6.6 6.6 26.6 26.6 33.3 KSU 5 0 0 6.6 20 6.6 66.6
IRS 6 0 6.6 6.6 33.3 13.3 40 KSU 6 0 0 0 13.3 40 46.6
IRS 7 0 13.3 66.6 6.6 6.6 6.6 KSU 7 0 0 6.6 13.3 6.6 73.3
The results of the instrument answered by the students for Mateus, regarding the
exploratory analysis are presented in Table 7.
answers about Mateus’ classes.

SMK 4.12 4 0.98
IRS 3.65 4 1.45
IOC 4.18 4 0.94
KSU 3.74 4 1.35
The PIBID pre-service teacher Clara was in her freshman year of the chemistry teaching
education course and also in PIBID. She worked together with Mateus and Elder. Table
8 presents the percentages of participants who completed the questions that constituted the
categories analyzed.

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76 Table 8. Percentage of respondents who valued the statements, which

constituted each category – Clara.

Statement 0 1 2 3 4 5 Statement 0 1 2 3 4 5
SMK 1 0 6.6 0 20 26.6 46.6 IOC 1 0 0 6.6 13.3 33.3 46.6
SMK 2 0 6.6 6.6 6.6 26.6 53.3 IOC 2 0 0 6.6 6.6 26.6 60
SMK 3 0 6.6 0 6.6 26.6 60 IOC 3 0 0 6.6 20 13.3 60
SMK 4 0 6.6 6.6 6.6 13.3 66.6 IOC 4 0 0 6.6 26.6 20 46.6
SMK 5 0 6.6 0 13.3 26.6 53.3 IOC 5 0 0 20 13.3 13.3 53.3
SMK 6 0 6.6 13.3 6.6 26.6 46.6 IOC 6 0 0 6.6 0 33.3 60
SMK 7 0 6.6 0 13.3 20 60 IOC 7 0 0 13.3 0 40 46.6
IRS 1 0 6.6 13.3 6.6 40 33.3 KSU 1 0 0 6.6 33.3 20 40
IRS 2 0 20 6.6 13.3 26.6 33.3 KSU 2 26.6 0 6.6 20 20 26.6
IRS 3 0 0 6.6 13.3 13.3 66.6 KSU 3 0 0 13.3 0 53.3 33.3
IRS 4 0 0 6.6 0 26.6 66.6 KSU 4 0 0 6.6 0 26.6 66.6
IRS 5 0 0 13.3 20 20 46.6 KSU 5 0 0 6.6 6.6 26.6 60
IRS 6 0 0 13.3 20 33.3 33.3 KSU 6 0 0 6.6 6.6 33.3 53.3
IRS 7 0 13.3 13.3 6.6 26.6 40 KSU 7 0 0 6.6 0 26.6 66.6
The results of the instrument answered by the students for Clara, regarding the exploratory
analysis are presented in Table 9.
answers about Clara’s classes.

SMK 4.17 5 1.18
IRS 3.96 4 1.23
IOC 4.23 5 1
KSU 4.09 4 1.23
Similarly to Clara and Melissa, the PIBID pre-service teacher Elder was in his freshman
year of chemistry teacher education course. He entered PIBID in the second semester of
the teacher education course. In his initial trajectory in the context of the beginning teacher
program, he taught classes on the redox content. Table 10 presents the percentage of students
who answered the questions that constitute each category of teacher knowledge.

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Table 10. Percentage of respondents who valued the statements that constitute 77
each category – Elder.

State-
Statement 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
ment
SMK 1 0 6.6 6.6 13.3 13.3 60 IOC 1 0 0 6.6 26.6 46.6 20
SMK 2 0 0 6.6 20 33.3 40 IOC 2 0 0 6.6 13.3 26.6 53.3
SMK 3 0 0 13.3 6.6 20 60 IOC 3 0 0 20 13.3 13.3 53.3
SMK 4 0 0 6.6 13.3 26.6 53.3 IOC 4 0 6.6 6.6 20 33.3 53.3
SMK 5 0 0 6.6 20 26.6 46.6 IOC 5 0 0 20 6.6 33.3 40
SMK 6 0 6.6 13.3 6.6 26.6 46.6 IOC 6 6.6 0 6.6 26.6 20 40
SMK 7 0 0 6.6 6.6 20 66.6 IOC 7 6.6 6.6 0 6.6 46.6 33.3
IRS 1 6.6 0 13.3 13.3 40 26.6 KSU 1 0 0 26.6 20 13.3 40
IRS 2 0 13.3 6.6 26.6 20 33.3 KSU 2 6.6 6.6 6.6 26.6 26.6 26.6
IRS 3 0 0 20 0 40 40 KSU 3 0 6.6 0 13.3 40 40
IRS 4 0 0 6.6 20 26.6 46.6 KSU 4 0 13.3 0 20 33.3 33.3
IRS 5 0 6.6 6.6 6.6 33.3 46.6 KSU 5 0 0 0 26.6 33.3 40
IRS 6 6.6 0 13.3 6.6 33.3 40 KSU 6 0 0 0 20 46.6 33.3
IRS 7 0 6.6 20 20 13.3 40 KSU 7 0 0 0 20 20 60
Table 11 presents the percentage of students who valued the statements that constitute
each category of teacher knowledge.
answers about Elder’s classes.

SMK 4.18 5 1.07
IRS 3.82 4 1.28
IOC 3.90 4 1.19
KSU 3.93 4 1.13
Reliability - Cronbach’s Alpha
The measures of exploratory statistical analysis did not indicate the reliability of the
instrument. As such, it was calculated Cronbach’s Alpha to ensure the reliability of the answers
given by the students regarding their perceptions of the PCK of the pre-service teachers. In
Table 12, the values of the alpha coefficient were compiled for the entire instrument and by
category.

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78 Table 12. Cronbach’s Alpha values for the entire instrument and by category.
Pibid students Alpha values

(pre-service Category
teachers) Instrument
SMK IRS IOC KSU
Antônio .92 .69 .78 .72 .83
Melissa .95 .77 .82 .77 .91
Mateus .95 .85 .84 .89 .77
Clara .96 .97 .82 .89 .84
Elder .94 .84 .86 .83 .80
Validation
In this research, the validation of the content was done by 3 graduate students who
research chemistry teacher knowledge.
Discussion
Exploratory Analysis
Data analyses of the Table 2, in the SMK 1 question “My teacher knows the content
he/she is teaching”, for 46%, Antônio always demonstrated proficiency in the redox subject
that he was teaching and, for another 31%, the student-teacher frequently explained the
impact of this subject on society (SMK 6). In the item IRS 7 “My teacher uses multimedia or
technology to express the concepts”, Antônio rarely (31%) used technology as a strategy to
develop concepts. However, the same percentage of students believed that Antônio frequently
used these resources. Despite the students recognize that Antônio used different approaches,
the use of strategies involving media and technology perhaps needs to be improved. Regarding
the category IOC 2 “My teacher provides an appropriate interaction or good atmosphere” for
69% of the studentes, Antônio always provided interaction with the students and, consequently,
made the classroom space conducive to a social atmosphere. Upon contrasting this percentage
with another similar question from the IRS 4 category “My teacher provides opportunities for
me to express my views during class”, it was observed in the paragraph above that the same
percentage is obtained from students who answered that this atmosphere always existed in the
student-teacher classes, indicating that the items involved in these questions are correlated.
In the item KSU 6 “My teacher’s assignments facilitate my understanding of the subject”,
in the view of 38% of the class, the use of a determined methodology often facilitated the
understanding of the subject, while for 23%, it always happened, and, for another 23%, it
sometimes occurred in the teaching practice. Perhaps it is difficult for the students to understand
the extent of the activities developed by Antônio before going into the classroom and,
consequently, to understand that one of the results of these tasks is class preparation.
The results presented in Table 3, the mean values found for the categories do not have
significant differences, suggesting that the students marked primarily scale 4 (Frequently
happened in the teaching practice). In relation to the standard deviation, the category with the
lowest value was the SMK and that with the highest value is KSU. The standard deviation
values higher than one indicate that the students did not consistently answer the questions that
constituted the categories. On the other hand, a value lower than one means that the groups
marked mainly two scales, revealing consistent student perceptions.

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Based on the exploratory analysis, it was understood that, according to student 79

perceptions, Antônio frequently (scale 4) demonstrated knowing the concepts that he taught,
enabling the students to understand the objectives of his classes, the strategies that helped them
in teaching and learning the specific subject, in addition to demonstrating an understanding of
the difficulties, limitations and needs of his students in relation to the specific subject.
Upon analyzing the data for Table 4, in the subcategory SMK 1 “My teacher knows the
content of teaching”, according to 50% of the students from EJA, Melissa always demonstrated
knowledge of the content, while 8% answered I don’t remember/I don’t know. In SMK 4 “My
teacher selects the appropriate content for students” for 75% of the students, the student-
teacher always adequately chose the concepts. On the other hand, 25% answered sometimes
and for another 25% Melissa frequently used adequate examples to teach (IRS 1). In relation
to using analogies in the student-teacher classes (IRS 2), for 42% of the students, they were
always in Melissa’s classes, while for another 33%, it sometimes occurred in her practice, which
generally means that the students did not always observe Melissa using analogies in her classes.
In relation to the IOC 1 subcategory “My teacher makes me clearly understand objectives
of this course” for 8% rarely, 25% sometimes, 33% frequently, meaning that for 66% of the
students, Melissa did not always make her educational objectives clear. When questioned on IOC
6 “My teacher copes with our classroom context appropriately” in the perspective of students
17% answered I don’t remember/I don’t know, 8% seldom, 8% sometimes and 42% answered
frequently. These values lead to the inference that the students did not have a homogeneous
perception of how Melissa coped with the class.
In KSU 1 “My teacher realizes students’ prior knowledge before class”, for 25%, Melissa
always checked their previous knowledge, while the perception for 25% was frequently. By
contrast, 8% answered I don’t remember/I don’t know, 17% never happened in practice, 8%
rarely happened and for 17%, sometimes.
In the Table 5, the standard deviation values for the four categories are higher than
1, which means that the students did not have a homogeneous perception of the statements
constituting SMK, IRS, IOC and KSU. The values of the means are very similar, which was
reflected in a median of scale 4 (frequently). These data suggest that in the students’ perception,
Melissa frequently accessed during her classes the knowledge related to the redox content and
to teaching strategies, among others. The standard deviation values for the four categories
are higher than 1, suggesting that the students had different perceptions for the statements
constituting SMK, IRS, IOC and KSU. The mean values are very similar, which reflected in
a median of 4 (If it happened frequently in the teaching practice), which means that in the
perception of the group, Melissa frequently accessed during her classes the knowledge related
to the redox content and to teaching strategies, among others.
According to the data presented in Table 6, in question SMK 1 “My teacher knows the
content of teaching”, for 80% of the class, Mateus always seemed to dominate the content on
electrochemistry that he taught. Perhaps knowing that the PIBID student-teacher dominated the
subject, when questioned SMK 3 “My teacher knows how theories or principles of the subject
have been developed” for 66%, the pre-service teacher often demonstrated knowing them. In
relation to the use of analogies (IRS 2), 40% of the students marked scale 1 (If it never happened
in the teaching practice) which means that they did not perceive the use of this strategy. On the
other hand, for 66.66% of the respondents, the PIBID student-teacher gave examples (IRS 1)
that made the learning easier.
In relation to IOC 2 “My teacher provides an appropriate interaction or good atmosphere”
the class did not have a hegemonic perception, since, for 6.66% it rarely happened, for 33.33%
sometimes, for 33.33% often and, for only 26.66% Mateus was always able to implement a
good atmosphere for interpersonal development. However, for 70% of the students, the PIBID
student-teacher always promoted dynamic and active teaching (IOC 7).
The students’ perception of the knowledge of the students’ understanding reveals that only
13.33% indicated that Mateus always demonstrated his prior knowledge (SMK 1) Regarding

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80 the evaluation, in question KSU 7 “My teacher’s tests help me realize the learning situation”, for
73.33%, they always contributed to the students’ understanding the electrochemistry concepts
that formed the foundation of Mateus’ classes. In relation to the teaching approaches in the
classes of the PIBID pre-service teacher’s, when they analyzed question KSU 5 “My teacher
uses different approaches (questions, discussion, etc.) to find out whether I understand”, 66.6%
of the students were able to identify the various teaching approaches and strategies that involved
teaching the specific content.
In the Table 7 IRS and KSU categories, the standard deviation is higher than 1, which
reveals that the group of students had a more heterogeneous perception about the knowledge
involving teaching strategies and the students’ knowledge in the classes taught by Mateus. On
the other hand, it was observed a homogeneity in the answers for the statements from the SMK
and IOC categories, suggesting that the class had a similar perception of the statements that
constituted Mateus’ knowledge in relation to the content, the class and his teaching proposals.
In her trajectory in PIBID, Clara helped the students with their doubts in relation to the
chemistry content presented by Elder and Mateus. According to the results of Table 8, when
the students were questioned regarding SMK 2 “My teacher explains clearly the content of
the subject” and SMK 5 “My teacher knows the answers to the questions that we ask about
the subject”, the same percentage of students, 53.3%, indicated that Clara was always able
to explain their doubts and knew the electrochemistry content. Perhaps this perception of the
students was a reflection of the PIBID student-teacher providing space to express their points of
view (IRS 4) according to 66.6% of the students. On the other hand, for 26.6% of the students,
Clara did not previously know about students’ difficulties regarding electrochemistry (KSU 2).
In relation to the values of the exploratory analysis (Table 9), the standard deviation was
higher than 1 for the SMK, IRS and IOC Categories, revealing an inconsistent perception of
the students about this knowledge in the PCK of the PIBID pre-service teacher’s. On the other
hand, in the IOC category, which represented knowledge related to the strategies for teaching
the content, the students demonstrated more similar perceptions.
The categories of teacher knowledge presented a standard deviation higher than or equal
to one, which leads us to infer that the students had a more heterogeneous view on the questions
that constituted the categories of Clara’s knowledge.
Acording to the results of Table 10 in category SMK 1 “My teacher knows the content he/
she is teaching” for 60% of the students, Elder had knowledge about redox reactions. When the
students analyzed the examples chosen by the PIBID student-teacher to explain the concepts
(IRS 1), for 40% of the students, the examples often made it easier to understand the concepts
taught. For 40% of the class, the PIBID student-teacher always had an adequate relation with
the class (IOC 5), while for 20% of the class, it happened rarely.
In statement KSU 2 “My teacher knows students’ learning difficulties of subject”, for
26% of the students, the PIBID student-teacher was sometimes, often and always aware of
his limitations with the redox subject. These data suggest that Elder needs to improve his
understanding of the students’ learning difficulties regarding the concepts he teaches.
The standard deviation values presented in Table 11 for the four categories raised a
diverging view of the students on Elder’s teaching knowledge in relation to redox reactions,
students’ difficulties, teaching strategies, the context, among others.
Reliability - Cronbach’s Alpha
The results presented in Table 12 for Alpha from pre-service teachers were: .92 (Antônio),
.95 (Melissa), .95 (Mateus), .96 (Clara) and .94 (Elder) reveal that the set of answers in the
instrument used presented reliable answers and, consequently, very good internal consistency.
The literature points out that the reliability of an instrument can present very good consistency
in relation to the context. From this, one can infer that the degree of correlation between the
statements that constitute each category had a good correlation as a result of the alpha values,

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since the number of statements in the instrument could result in an increase in the consistency 81
of the scale used (Krus & Helmstadter, 1993; Streiner, 2003). For Vieira (2009), when the alpha
is calculated item by item, as was done in this research, there is a decline or improvement in the
overall consistency, when a determined item is important or not in the instrument.
The calculation of the alpha coefficient for each of the dimensions (SMK, IRS, IOC and
KSU) are also a consequence of this. The values for the four dimensions of teacher knowledge
are higher than .6, which suggests that the instrument as a whole presents a good correlation
between the categories. Moreover, the categories can be implemented separately if the researcher
wished to do so. However, it was considered more pertinent to use it as a whole, as done in this
research, since there are statements in each category that were related to the other categories,
when considering its individual characteristics.
Overall, the reliability calculated for the instrument and analyzed for each participant
revealed that the instrument is reliable and produces stable and consistent measurements,
meaning that the instrument is reliable when used in the context of early teacher training.
Validation
Since the graduate students’ analyses were effective, some commented that the statements
in the categories were clear. On the other hand, others believe that certain questions bring up
concepts that perhaps the students cannot understand, such as, for example, what the prior
knowledge of the students is, analogies and methodologies. It is worth noting that, upon
applying this instrument, these terms were explained to the students. Another suggestion would
be to apply the instrument and change the order of the statements of each category. It is worth
pointing out that this was not done in the present research.
Conclusions
The aim of this research was to evaluate the reliability of the instrument which measures
teacher knowledge, in the context of PIBID and, consequently, whether the instrument could be
used to measure the teacher’s knowledge in pre-service teacher, based on student perspectives.
The values found for the Cronbach’s Alpha allow us to conclude that the instrument
applied is reliable regarding students’ perceptions of the teaching knowledge of the PIBID pre-
service teacher's. Therefore, the instrument can be used in contexts of early teacher training
and reveal to these subjects the specific components of professional knowledge of the pre-
service teachers that the students did not perceive. This information can be valuable for pre-
service teachers and can influence the planning and implementation process of classes, as
well as student learning. It was believed the instrument can be used in research related to pre-
service teachers and continued teacher training, such that these professionals can reflect on their
practice, based on their students’ perceptions, because in the previous researches in which they
were applied the instrument involved analysis of teacher knowledge in the university professors
and experienced teachers.
In general, the purpose of this research was reached, because it was possible to assess
the reliability of an instrument that measures teacher knowledge in the context of pre-service
teachers. The future goal of the research is to adopt the instrument in activities developed by the
pre-service teachers so that their planning of the didactic sequences contemplate the four SMK,
IRS and IOC categories of the instrument. In addition, our intention is to apply the instrument
to evaluate the teacher knowledge of pre-service chemistry teachers through the establishment
of partnerships with researchers of the teaching area linked to other universities in the city of
São Paulo. We believe that the adoption of this instrument in several stages of the education of
undergraduates may promote reflective processes that contribute to the continuous professional
development of these future professionals.

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82 Acknowledgment
The author thanks for financial support the research group conducted by Brazilian
government agencies FAPESP (Process N. 2013/07937-8 and 2016/08677-8).
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Appendix
This instrument aims to recognize and record the perceptions of high school students
about the PCK of PIBID pre-service teacher's. This instrument is an adaptation of the proposal
of Jang, Guan and Hsieh (2009).
This set of statements aims to recognize and record the perceptions of high school
students about the PCK of PIBID pre-service teacher's.
Analyze the statements that follow and use the scale below to express how are your
views to it, considering the Pibid pre-service teacher's______________________, during the
implementation of their classes this year. Be sure to give an scale for all statements. Mark the
scale that corresponds to your perception.
0 I do not remember / I do not know

1 Never occurred never in teaching practice
2 Seldom occurred in teaching practice
3 Sometimes occurred in teaching practice
4 Often occurred in teaching practice
5 Always occurred in the teaching practice

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85
Scale
Category Statements
0 1 2 3 4 5
Subject Matter 1. My teacher knows the content is teaching.
Knowledge
2. My teacher explains clearly the content of the subject.
(SMK)
3. My teacher knows how theories or principles of the subject
have been developed.
4. My teacher selects the appropriate content for students.
5. My teacher knows the answers to questions that we ask about
the subject.
6. My teacher explains the impact of subject matter on society.
7. My teacher knows the whole structure and direction of this
SMK.
Instructional 1. My teacher uses appropriate examples to explain concepts
Representation & related to subject matter.
Strategies (IRS) 2. My teacher uses familiar analogies to explain concepts of
subject matter.
3. My teacher’s teaching methods keep me interested in this
subject.
4. My teacher provides opportunities for me to express my views
during class.
5. My teacher uses demonstrations to help explaining the main
concept.
6. My teacher uses a variety of teaching approaches to transform
subject matter into comprehensible knowledge.
7. My teacher uses multimedia or technology to express the
concept of subject.
Instructional Ob- 1. My teacher makes me clearly understand objectives of this
jective & Context course.
(IOC) 2. My teacher provides an appropriate interaction or good
atmosphere.
3. My teacher pays attention to students’ reaction during class
and adjusts his/her teaching attitude.
4. My teacher creates a classroom circumstance to promote my
interest for learning.
5. My teacher prepares some additional teaching materials.
6. My teacher copes with our classroom context appropriately.
7. My teacher’s belief or value in teaching is active and aggres-
sive.
Knowledge of
1. My teacher realizes students’ prior knowledge before class..
Students’ Under-
standing (KSU) 2. My teacher knows students’ learning difficulties of subject
before class.
3. My teacher’s questions evaluate my understanding of a topic.
4. My teacher’s assessment methods evaluate my understand-
ing of the subject.
5. My teacher uses different approaches (questions, discussion,
etc.) to find out whether I understand.
6. My teacher’s assignments facilitate my understanding of the
subject.
7. My teacher’s tests help me realize the learning situation.

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86 Comments:
During the pre-service teacher class: ____(name of the pre-service teacher)________,

do you have any learning difficulty? If you want to comment on the student teacher, please use
this space.
Keysy Solange Costa PhD Student at Interunities Graduate Program in Science Education,
Nogueira University of São Paulo, Rua do Matão, 1371 - 05508-090 Cidade
Universitária, São Paulo, Brazil.
E-mail: keysynogueira@usp.br
Website: http://sites.usp.br/pequim
Carmen Fernandez PhD in Chemistry, Associate Professor, Institute of Chemistry, University of

São Paulo, Av. Prof. Lineu Prestes, 748 - Butantã - São Paulo – SP, 05508-
000, Brazil.
E-mail: carmen@iq.usp.br
Website: http://sites.usp.br/pequim

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THE CONTRADICTORY NATURE 87
OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE

PARTNERSHIP BETWEEN UNIVERSITY
AND SCHOOL
André Machado Rodrigues, Cristiano Rodrigues de Mattos
University of São Paulo, Brazil
E-mail: rodrigues@if.usp.br, mattos@if.usp.br
Abstract
There is a growing understanding that teacher education should not be handled either exclusively by the
University or in School settings. Nevertheless, the issues on how to foster a fruitful partnership between
these two different institutions remains an open and challenging point. The practicum is a critical point
in the pre-service teacher’s development, usually because it is the first time they have to face the concrete
professional issues, which they only had a partial view of as students. This research is a year-long inquiry
on practicum in the Physics teaching program developed in the Institute of Physics at the University of
São Paulo, Brazil. Drawing on cultural-historical activity theory, contradiction is used as an explana-
tory principle to examine change and development in the practitioners’ activity. Therefore, the research
includes in the analytical framework the contradictions and the processes of overcoming it. Examples
are provided in which there is little control therefore demanding extra efforts but makes room for active
participation. The data analysis indicates that the source of agency and activities transformation is pre-
cisely a contradictory process, which might be overlooked. The pre-service teachers’ agency is shaped
by contradictory process within the activity – practicum - rather than aligned forces pushing it toward
autonomy, student sensitiveness or professional identity.
Keywords: initial teacher education, practicum, university-school partnership, qualitative research.
Introduction
There is a growing understanding that teacher education is a complex system of activities

that should not be handled either exclusively by the University or in School settings. Nonethe-
less, how to better develop the partnership between these two different institutions remains
a significant challenge (Akkerman & Bruining, 2016; Harfitt & Tavares, 2004; K. Zeichner,
2009). The University and basic School shared commitment – with focus on the teaching-learn-
ing process of future teachers – is the cornerstone of the initial teacher’s education program.
Ideally, pre-service teachers would have opportunity to circulate in and experience both envi-
ronments. Although literature indicates a variety of models, mechanisms and strategies to better
integrate School and University in this joint enterprise, the core ideas float around the harmful
effect of keeping these two institutions apart and the urgent need for more organic integration
between these instances of pre-service teachers’ development.
Nevertheless, the process of integrating different institutions and stakeholders is rarely
unproblematic. Indeed, the boundary-crossing is a challenging process where practitioners are
permanently invited to face the contradictions nested in it (Engeström, Engeström, & Kärk-
käinen, 1995; Tsui & Law, 2007). In addition, it is pivotal to bear in mind that, in itself, teaching
is a complex activity with multiple demands in many levels (Shulman, 1987; Yamagata-Lynch
& Haudenschild, 2009). Today teachers must be aware of cultural differences, inclusion and
exclusion issues, curriculum development, local and large scales assessment, students’ engage-
ment and progression learning etc.

André Machado RODRIGUES, Cristiano Rodrigues de MATTOS. The contradictory nature of teacher education in the partnership
between university and school
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88 The practicum1 is a critical point in the pre-service teachers’ development, usually be-
cause it is the first time they have to face the concrete professional issues, which, as students,
they only had a partial view of. The transition between University and School throughout the
practicum goes far beyond the institutional shift (Anagnostopoulos, Smith, & Basmadjian,
2007). Pre-service teachers experience a change in moving from the position of students to-
wards a position of teacher. Moreover, in those transitions it is expected that pre-service teach-
ers take part in teaching activity. Meanwhile, they have to master and actively apply it in such
complex processes.
Frequently, practitioners tend to see practicum – embodying the hierarchical relation-
ship between University and School – as a unilateral movement that goes from the University
to School. Curiously, such perspective could be found in both institutions. On the other hand,
those perspectives that see the School as an extension of the University or a merge of both in-
stitutions in one general event are unable to see the contractions in, within and between them
(Jooganah & Williams, 2016). Even though School and University have similarities, they are
indeed radically different institutions, which have their own ways of organizing their educa-
tional tenets as well as diverse cultural and historical backgrounds.
Assuming that practicum is a highly complex activity which stems from the encounter
of School and University, Fazio, Melville, & Bartley (2010, p. 678) express theoretically and
methodologically the challenges implied in practicum. The authors conclude that “[...] the com-
plex reality of knowledge, motivation, beliefs, capability, and context are clearly intertwined
by a complex web of dialectical interactions, which in turn concomitantly determine teachers’
actions.” Therefore, the practicum activity is not a merely knowledge transfer from University
to School. Accordingly, in their research on University-School collaboration, Anagnostopoulos
et al. (2007, pp. 150–151) concluded that:
Teacher educators are increasingly being called on to improve the learning opportunities they pro-
vide beginning teachers. This necessitates reenvisioning teacher education’s multiorganizational terrain
as a source of not only beginning teacher learning but also of our own learning as teacher educators and
the learning of our K-12 colleagues.
This multidirectional expertise is a key concept, which provides a better picture on Uni-
versity-School connections.
The Research Questions
This research is a yearlong inquiry on practicum in the Physics teaching program of the
University of São Paulo, Brazil. The practicum carried out by pre-service teachers in middle
and high Schools in the urban area around the University campus will be examined. Therefore,
the research aims to scrutinize this particular partnership between University and School and
answer:
1) What kind of contradictions emerged?
2) How the contradictory processes in the practicum shape the pre-service teachers’
agency as future teachers?
The initial hypothesis is that the contradictions within the partnership are not a conse-
quence of a careless planning or a direct impact from the lack of infrastructure. Rather, the con-
1 In Brazilian teacher education programs, the practicum is considered the group of mandatory
activities that pre-service teachers carry out in School. A variety of activities and small tasks might be
designed for pre-service teachers which run from classroom observation to teaching practices. This term
may change across different countries or teacher education programs – internship, school-based activities,
school placement etc.

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tradictions that shall be presented and discussed are an inherent part of this encounter between 89
two institutions with different initial goals.
A Glance into the Brazilian Teacher Training Program
Since 1996 with the last Brazilian National Education Guidelines and Standards Law, the
path to become a teacher is, to some extent, unified. In order to teach Physics in middle and high
School classes the student must attend a specific undergraduate program available in universi-
ties and high education institutions. Moreover, teacher certification programs are not part of the
national education policy and they barely exist as state or municipality education policy. Par-
ticularly, to be a middle and high School teacher, the students should choose the teaching career
form they apply for admission at University. Indeed, in the federal University system there are
just a few universities that offer the course structure as two years of specific content disciplines,
and only later, the students are asked to choose the teaching course path.
The Brazilian National Guidelines for Teacher Education determine that from 3,200
hours of course, 400 hours students are supposed to dedicate for practicum and School place-
ment (Ministry of Education of Brazil, 2015, p. 11). Furthermore, the practicum involves very
different sets of tasks in the School such as observations, study of School documents, proposing
workshops, participation in a variety of School meetings, and the teaching of specific subject
matters (idem).
Recent trends indicate a progressive increment of the time spent in School-base activi-
ties (Janssen, Westbroek, & Doyle, 2014; Lampert, 2010), although the concrete institutional
instruments that enable pre-service teachers’ development are not very clear. In other words,
the education policy has provided the conditions to increase quantitatively the time pre-service
teachers spend in School. However, it is not explicit how to enhance quality (Gatti, 2014).
At University, the students choose the career from the beginning. However, not all pre-
service teachers aim the teaching profession. In many cases, the pre-service teachers are not
sure whether they want to be a teacher or not (Hong, 2010). The profession drops out and the
low adherence to teaching career is one of the major issues for initial teacher education in Bra-
zil.
For the last ten years, particularly in the Brazilian context, the educational system was
driven by a combination of high levels of social inequality and a sharp capitalist development.
Specifically, teacher education is suffering with a well-known contradiction: the need for a vast
squad of new “domesticated teachers” in order to keep in track the economic development
(Sobrinho, 2006). A direct effect is the massification process where teacher education is getting
quicker and homogenized in a high scale (Barretto, 2015). Villani et al. (2009) outlined how
such contradictions have been built in the historical development of Brazilian teacher education
programs. Although the University specialists point towards a complex and autonomous educa-
tion, they do not desist from control and domain over teachers work (idem).
Cultural-Historical Activity Theory
The practicum is a highly complex activity where School and the University meet, com-
bining aspects of University demands, scripts and routines with those from School daily life.
To handle such a complex and dynamic object the research is drawing on Cultural-Historical
Activity Theory (CHAT) seeking to provide a robust framework rooted in dialectical material-
ism and stemmed from Vygotsky’s research tradition (Vygotsky, 1978).
According to Engeström (2001, pp. 134–135) the “concept of activity took the paradigm
a huge step forward in that it turned the focus on complex interrelations between the individual
subject and his or her community.” In this perspective, the human activity is a mediated process

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90 in which human beings change the surrounding world, whereas they are transformed by it. A
two-way process that changes the concrete material relation simultaneously changing the con-
sciousness. The concept of activity as presented by Engeström (1987, 2001) is a well-known
way of conceptualizing organizations, cross-boundary processes and institutional interactions
insofar it enables the researcher to relate dialectally individual and collective features of trans-
forming activities.
Engeström (2001) proposed five principles in which activities are constituted:
1) activity is the unity of analysis;
2) the activity system is multivoicedness as an entanglement of different perspectives
from the subjects of the activity;
3) the activity is historical, i.e., activity system is shaped and develops through time;
4) contradictions and the process of overcoming them are the source of change, innova-
tion and development in an activity system;
5)the activity expands, changing qualitatively.
All those five tenets of CHAT approach work as heuristics principles compounding its
basis and consequently they should be seen integrally related to one another. Considering this
unity, the research is focusing on the role of contradiction in the development of a cross-bound-
ary practice – the practicum.
The Role of Contradictions
The common use of the term contradiction refers to dual opposite positions that contra-
dict each other. The formal logic influence in the common thinking associates contradiction
with a sort of blind alley of the thought in a problem-solving process. In this vein, contradiction
must ultimately be avoided in any process of conceptualization since it means a logical error
(Ilyenkov, 1977). The fundamental law of non-contradiction in classical formal logic expresses
that a statement and its denial cannot both be true at the same time. However, in any other dia-
lectical approach, contradiction has a radically different meaning:
Contradiction is not the end of the matter, but transitional point of stability, an aporetic movement
of reflection that must cancel itself out at a higher ground than can be afforded by any of the concepts at
the present level (Hahn, 2007, p. 38).
According to Engeström (2001, p. 137), in cultural-historical activity theory the term

contraction is the “historically accumulating structural tensions within and between activity sys-
tems”, indicating that “dialectics deals with systems in movement through time.” (Engeström &
Sannino, 2011, p. 370). This means that contradictions are embodied in the activity. From this
perspective, the common unfruitful misunderstandings and misuses of the contradiction as an
explanatory principle are in the inquiries that ignore movement and concreteness, i.e. historical
development and its complexity.
Ultimately, the contradiction is not an analytical mistake, but an explanatory principle to
examine change and development in the practitioners’ activity. Therefore, one should include in
the analytical framework the contradictions and the processes of overcoming it.
General Background
In 2009, within the Physics teacher training program, a relatively stable format for
a discipline entitled Practice of Physics Teaching was consolidated. This discipline aims at
articulating the Physics specific content matter, pedagogical theory, and the practice done at

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School placements. Its syllabus starts with the objective of the course: “to enable the students 91
[pre-service teachers] to develop, autonomously, the integration of the contents of Physics and
pedagogical ones, initiating them [pre-service teachers] into professional practice” (Institute
of Physics, 2008, p. 10). From the outset of the program, the pre-service teachers must engage
in School placements (practicum) at specific partner public Schools. It also involves much
more guided assignments to be done at School than the pre-service teacher uses to perform in
previous moments in the program. In 2010, several working routines were more stabilized and
synchronized with partner Schools. For example, the number of visits, didactic material dis-
tribution, specific procedures to develop the experiments in the classroom and the partnership
among pre-service teachers started to gain a stable format. The coordination of actions was,
at the same time, process and product of the University and School mutual acknowledgment.
Hence, School mentors and the University professors intensified the planning meetings to look
for joint solutions of issues such as lack of materials, better synchronism between School and
University tasks, align pedagogical approach within the classroom.
During the implementation of the teacher educations reforms, University staff started
knowing some aspects of School routines by a kind of trial and error process. However, even
with a stable routine at University, the inverse way remains practically impossible, considering
that Schools are not seen by the practitioners as an empowered institution for teachers’ instruc-
tion, and thus having little influence into University educational system decisions (Fazio et al.,
2010; Whitney, Golez, Nagel, Nieto, & Nieto, 2002).
One of the hardest problems during 2010 was the School teacher – mentor – absences
throughout the year. Since there is no institutional formal compromise among University and
mentors, many of them were not authentically involved with the pre-service teachers’ assign-
ments at School, the implications of this aspect shall be discussed later in this paper. In many
cases, the presence of pre-service teachers at the classroom was seen as an opportunity for
the mentor to accomplish other small works, thus pre-service teachers conducted the classes
without proper teacher supervision neither orientation. A similar situation is highlighted by
Edwards and Protheroe (2004, p. 194) saying that mentors “with students in their classrooms
were considered to have increased freedom to undertake other work in School, hence they were
regularly absent from the classroom.” That situation was not general, touching only part of the
pre-service teachers under specific mentor’s supervision.
The general activity was compounded by two-week cycles in two different layers each
- planning and teaching. During the first week of the planning layer, the University professor
presents a draft of the lesson plan and in the next week the pre-service teachers along with men-
tors design hands-on assignments. During the first week of the teaching layer, pre-service teach-
ers develop Physics experiments and hands-on activities at School and in the next week, they
spend some time evaluating the previous Practicum lessons in class discussions at University.
The cycles feed each other with new information.
Sample Selection
Roughly 20 hours of video recording and 241 weekly written reports produced by 52
pre-service teachers working in pairs at School in 2010 was considered to select a representa-
tive sample. Furthermore, some field notes were used for a substantive triangulation of the data
(Kadri & Roth, 2015; Roth, 2005). All the participants signed the research agreement explicitly
discussed at the beginning of the data gathering. Additionally, the participants’ names in the
paper are pseudonyms.

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92 Instrument and Procedures
Data were gathered at the Physics teacher education course at University of São Paulo
(Brazil) in a two year-long research project. Although some pieces of information and impres-
sions from high School students and mentors were collected, data gathering was focused pri-
marily on pre-service teacher experiences and action within the whole system. A camera was
fixed at the classroom corner and the dialogs transcription – originally made in Portuguese
– was translated into English. Each excerpt was marked with a number that refers to original
marks made in the speech turns’ transcription.
Table 1. Timetable and description of the topics discussed over 2010 within
video recording data.
N Date Time length Topics discussed and general features.

1 February, 22th 86 min Professor explanation on courses, practicum routines and rules. Debate about
the text “How people learn” (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000).
2 March, 1st 37 min Pre-service teachers’ seminar about “energy conservation and transformation”.
Debate over concept map of energy.
3 March, 8th 97 min Hands-on experiment with pre-service teachers on energy transformation and
process of respiration.
4 March, 15th 95 min Work in groups on an experiment of thermodynamics. Pre-service teachers'
seminar on heat and energy as a product of the discussion groups.
5 March, 22th 98 min Work in groups on an experiment in electromagnetism. Organization of the
pairs’ work in schools, set on schedule and timetables.
6 April, 5th 107 min Final preparation for school placement. Talk about the experiences and hands-
on activities. Some conversation in groups.
7 April, 19th 63 min General discussion on first experience in school. Some problems and many
pre-service teachers’ frustrations.
8 May, 3rd 95 min Continuation of the discussion on school placement experiences. More specific
actions in school and discussions on the general characteristics of the schools.
9 May, 17th 106 min Discussion on school assignments and hands-on activities. Debate on agency
and commitment with the school interventions.
10 May, 31st 109 min Experienced teacher gives a talk about violence and teacher’s action at school
to control and deal with difficult situations.
11 June, 7th 92 min General discussion on major difficulties at school placement.
12 August, 2nd 100 min Elaboration and organization of laboratory guides. Group discussions.
13 August, 30th 88 min Pre-service teachers present some feedbacks about the work at school place-
ment.
14 December, 52 min Evaluation meeting and general discussion on year performance. Pre-service
13th teachers point out prominent problems and make some suggestions.
Data Analysis
The thematic content analysis was done (Kapustka, Howell, Clayton, & Thomas, 2009)
and data was coded using a hybrid system of theory-driven and data-driven categories (Fereday
& Muir-Cochrane, 2008). The discussions at classroom were described and characterized us-
ing a set of data-driven categories (Edwards & Protheroe, 2004). Especially for the case study
presented in this paper an overlapping of critical situations, agency and activity change was
observed.

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Results of Research 93
Connecting University and School
Considering the concrete conditions to establish the practicum activity, one of the very
first challenges was to wave partnerships with the Schools around the University campus. The
University professor in charge of practicum was responsible to begin the negotiation with
School principals. At the very first contacts with some schools’ principals, the University pro-
fessor had unsuccessful attempts to carry out a joint project. This initial resistance is partly due
to the criticism that School staffs use to receive University people when they adhere to this sort
of partnership. Principal and teachers use to interpret that University activities include School
only as a scenario for researches and, in return, University gives faultfinding critics. It was
identified, during the initial visits to the Schools, that this sort of understanding repels Schools
and teachers from initial teacher education and influences Schools that had no previous inter-
action with the University. During the interview, the University professor also confirmed such
resistance.
A fruitful response came only through finding and contacting directly teachers that are
willing to mentor pre-service teachers with no reward but the experience of mentoring. Ul-
timately, the informal and non-institutionalized contact indicates the burdensome aspect of
developing the partnership at School level. The School and University partnership was not
established at an institutional level, rather it was a personal commitment between mentors,
University professor and pre-service teachers.
On the one hand, it entails that School teachers that become responsible for the develop-
ment of the partnership should be fully committed and personally involved in the mentoring
activity. This personal engagement is one of the key elements to sustain such a non-institution-
alized partnership. This commitment also gives much more freedom of action to subjects of the
activity. The ill-structured and less bureaucratized relationship left space for local individual
initiatives and collaborative action, on the other hand, a non-institutionalized relationship re-
quires from the subjects extra efforts to carry out even small coordinated actions. Moreover, it
makes the partnership far more fragile as it relies primarily on personal commitment. Occasion-
ally teachers willing to take part in mentoring have overload of work, which might compromise
the engagement in a long run.
Nevertheless, this problematic situation of teacher's work overload might help to make
some room for agency emergence. The pre-service teachers ended up receiving less attention
than what was initially planned, and the mentoring process turns out to be much looser. This
general scenario somewhat shaped participants’ agency within this activity system. The proto-
cols to solve any small problem were very flexible and have to be done case by case.
One unexpected consequence, unfolded by the fragmentation of the University action
in School, was the simultaneous activities developed by different groups and subject matters.
Only after ten months the Physics group finds out that there was a different group from Chem-
istry developing Practicum in the same Schools. Those actions reach the Schools from distinct
sides, showing the disjunction within the University. From the researchers’ perspective, it is a
consequence of having a particular connection – one by one – and not a connection between
two whole institutional activities.
Embedded Activities
Even though it is explicitly called ‘School-based activity’ in opposition to ‘campus-

based activities’, one should ask to what extent the practicum is integrated with School activity.
Even a small School activity is assembled by many different actions and operations. Although

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94 classroom lessons are central to understand the schooling process, there are many other aspects
to consider such as teachers meetings, planning, assessing, teacher-parent relationship etc. The
social interaction processes grown outside the classroom indicate how pre-service teachers have
to behave within the classroom. During the weekly meeting with the University professor, the
pre-service teachers reported many impacting events from outside the classroom, for instance,
the problem of where they could find extra materials for experimental activities, what to do with
disruptive students or what type of extra support they might get from other School teachers.
Although the partnership between University and School has some instance of collabo-
ration, the situation could be considered as a University activity nested within School context.
The major empirical indicator is associated with pre-service teachers’ reports on successful les-
sons. They commonly describe successful lessons as those in which they were able to develop
the full planned lesson, fulfilling all the planned steps for the experimental activity. Mainly in
the beginning of the academic year, they were attracted by the idea of the fulfillment of the
experimental protocol as the objective benchmark for successful lessons and seldom mention-
ing students learning or well-being as something to take into account. This sort of educational
goals narrowing happens mainly because pre-service teachers are indeed engaged in a Univer-
sity activity, even though all the events happen in the School context. They are answering to
University expectations and standards.
In other words, pre-service teachers start the practicum committed with the University
within School though. Ultimately, this commitment with the University goals (final grade, their
own learning and development, accomplishing experimental protocols, etc.) not only shapes
the pre-service teachers’ agency in the practicum, but also determines how well they connected
themselves to School life.
The class was interested, but the students were very dispersive. We could not apply the entire
experiment until the end. The second class was hectic, displayed less interest and one group did nothing
... In this class, we also could not apply the experiment until the end. (Pre-service teachers’ weekly report:
Mellisa and Rebecca, April 2010)
This excerpt reflects the over-concern with the experiment, rather than with students’
needs. They frequently replace the students’ learning by students’ interest. It happens because
the student’s engagement in the lesson is the first level of evaluation pre-service teachers have
available. There is a significant shift in the reports, showing that pre-service teachers’ activity
moves towards students learning, which may work as an empirical indicator for pre-service
teachers’ connectedness to School activity.
Furthermore, the process of unidirectional connection between University and School is
not completely clear to pre-service teachers, making shifts in their thinking and behavior much
slower. It indicates that practicum was not a fully shared activity, since it kept on intense sub-
ordination ties with the University. This aspect shows up in a variety of ways, when the lesson
planned in the University contradicts with the current practice in School.
I took the advantage that the teacher was not there and had the freedom of asking for the students'
notebooks. I took a quick look. 'Guys, let me check your notebooks.’ I looked one by one and I was like
... [shocked]. Because, until now, they have only half page of Physics. (Pre-service teacher group discus-
sion: Fernando, May 2010)
Indeed, pre-service teachers have difficulties to envision what happens in School when
they are not present. As they have a limited connection with the School, it is not an easy task to
figure out the class and School lives.

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Disruptive Dynamics or Mismatching Routines 95
The encounter of two different institutional dynamics and historical backgrounds affects
pre- service teachers’ work in School. It is important to take into account that the University
calendar, routines, hierarchical organization, protocols and ways of doing things – the whole
cultural milieu – as well as the University goals within the practicum shape pre-service teach-
ers’ activity. In the first five weeks that pre-service teachers spent at school, conducting the
planned lessons – all including weekly hands-on experiments – they dedicated some effort try-
ing to match the different demands in both institutions. The weekly reports were largely focused
on School institutional ambiance.
In many cases, during the discussion in the University they developed complex compari-
sons to contrast University and School routines. In spite of the particularities of each school,
part of the School routines are familiar to them, and, somehow, they are familiar with the stu-
dents’ activity in the School, however the teachers’ activity is completely new for them.
The examined teacher education program uses to accept candidates from different parts
of Brazil, especially from the countryside where Schools have a very different social structure.
Some pre-service teachers get surprised with the large difference from when they used to go to
School.
The main point here is that initial teacher education is not a clear goal for School. The
whole School organization, all the components of School activity are settled around and orient-
ed toward student learning as the core outcome. In many cases, practicum is seen as a marginal
task, which may disturb the School regular routines. This is not a particular perspective from a
teacher or a principal rather than an underpinning objective of School organization. For a nov-
ice it is not a simple task to understand the School organization and how it reaches its goals as
reported in the weekly discussion.
For instance, in the lesson named ‘vector race’, students should learn about vectors. The
‘vector race’ is a game that should be carried out in order to introduce the concepts of addition
and multiplication of vectors. One of the pre-service teachers – Fernando – decided to break the
planning previously made in the University and changed the course of actions during the class.
He justifies it, saying:
What happened this specific day is that they [students] simply did not know anything about vec-
tors. They knew it was an arrow. […] In an entire class, no one could understand how the rules of the
game worked. There was no way to play. So… you're saying we have to follow the script, then we do
not. We did not follow the script ourselves. I could not follow the lab protocols. But you do not have to
worry about the student. When we decided to change the script, it means we were concerned about the
student. But isn’t the purpose just to use the lab protocols to teach something? (Pre-service teacher group
discussion: Fernando, May 2010)
This example expresses the contradiction of two divergent dynamics, as well as of their
goals. In this case, to break with the University planning and commitment, means to respect the
students timing and needs. This disruptive agency, which changed the course of actions as well
as the set of commitments, is a critical moment in practicum. In other words, the contradiction
moves the edge between University and School organizational dynamics.
Identity Formation as a Contradictory Process
One of the main contradictions affecting directly pre-service teachers’ engagement and
disposition to try out, is the fact that, although they are in a teacher’ training program, they do
not necessarily mean to be teachers at the end of the process. In an initial questionnaire, only
56.3% (out of 82 answers) of pre-service teachers have clear intention to become a high School

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96 teacher afterwards. This point was especially critical in the moment of practicum, since the
pre-service teachers had to actively face their professional future. In another moment, where
the course content is focused and exclusively held in the University, the pre-service teacher
could postpone the professional issues. However, the practicum touches these issues in a very
concrete way.
Although the University staff knew the critical point of pre-service teachers’ interest in
entering in teaching career, this topic was overlooked during the class discussions at the Univer-
sity. The teachers’ identity – as well as their belonging – may work as an intermediate concept
indicating how the subjects are engaged in the teaching activity.
I have learned that teaching practice does not depend solely on techniques and strategy, but also
has a very important human element. Even if I use the best educational techniques and strategies, if I can-
not instigate, encourage and show that what I teach has some relevance in the student's life, my practice
will be quite difficult, and the results will probably not be long lasting. […] So, if encouraging students is
an essential part of teaching practice, how to do it in an environment where you are discouraged from the
very first moment? (Preservice teachers’ weekly report: Eric, December 2009)
This excerpt presents that the pre-service teachers were in a critical moment for his
identity formation. Nevertheless, the experiences in School facing at concrete situations are not
always pleasant or encouraging. Throughout research pre-service teachers reported frustration,
stress and work overload.
The practicum will work as a first meeting with teaching practice. I expect that there are discus-
sions about the career and its responsibilities, about the pertinent concepts to the discipline (Physics),
some teaching trends and their applications, the current school structure. (Pre-service teachers’ initial
questionnaire: Daniel, April 2010)
From the beginning, pre-service teachers expect this confrontation. Pre-service teachers
cope with a wide range of difficulties from which their identities are formed. This experiences
in and through practicum are relevant for identity formation, reinforcing or challenging their
initial disposition. In this case, teacher identity seems to be part of the meaning making process
of the teaching activity, which, in turn, shapes their agency in School setting. Their concrete
agency in School impacts and is impacted by this contradictory encounter between future teach-
ers’ expectations and their actual experiences.
Discussion
Zeichner (2009, p. 9) indicated that “even in the current wave of School-University part-
nerships in teacher education, colleges and universities continue to maintain hegemony over
the construction and dissemination of knowledge”. Moreover, Schools remain in the position of
practice fields “where student teachers are to try out the practices provided by the University”.
This type of one hand relationship in which University sets goals and strategies upon School
is reflected in the concrete social dynamic during the practicum. As the literature corroborates,
the unbalanced partnership between University and School reflects negatively in the develop-
ment of mentoring as well as in the pre-service teacher learning opportunities (Zeichner, 2009;
Keogh, 2010).
Regarding the contradictory processes within the School, Chetcuti & Buhagiar (2014)
underline that the current model for initial teacher education might be reformulated in terms of
the community of practice. The authors indicated “This can lead to the apprenticeship model
where the expert shows the apprentice how to do a task, the apprentice observes before starting
to practice the skills involved, and then gradually takes more responsibility of his or her own

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learning.” (Chetcuti & Buhagiar, 2014, p.48) To a large extent, it is aligned with the findings 97
presented.
On the one hand, the practicum might operate as a positive influence toward teacher
identity. It might build a meaningful experience for newcomer teachers. On the other hand,
the practicum confronts the pre-service teachers with their career, difficulties, and challenges.
Hence, it might exacerbate the career dropout, what is align with the national tendency (San-
tos & Curi, 2012, Vargas, 2012). Additionally, one should take into account the undervalue of
teacher career in Brazilian context (Vargas, 2012), which might severely impact the pre-service
teacher’s decision to carry on after the practicum.
The current literature supports the idea that School should be an active part of pre-ser-
vice teacher’s instructions (Edwards & Protheroe, 2004; Ferrier-Kerr, 2009; Zeichner, 2009).
Nevertheless, the models and institutional scheme developed so far lag behind in describing the
particular and general mechanisms of institutional partnership.
Commonly, the University and School connections are seen as natural and unproblemat-
ic, however, the results presented indicate that pre-service teachers are still strongly connected
to University tasks when in the School setting. The results also indicate that the connections be-
tween University and School evolve through contradictions which range from the institutional
level to the personal as well as professional levels. This aspect is corroborated by the literature
(Ferrier-Kerr, 2009). Ultimately, the results show some detailed mechanisms that underpin the
institutional partnership.
Conclusions
The pre-service teachers’ agency is shaped by contradictions of the activity – practicum,

rather than aligned forces pushing towards autonomy, student sensitiveness or professional
identity. The modeling of teacher development in initial teacher training is much more complex
and evolves in several levels. Such a complex, multilevel and contradictory process runs from
how the practicum is institutionalized as cooperative stance between University and School,
incorporated within Schools and classrooms, and embodied as identity formation.
In this research, it is depicted what seems to be the core process in each level. Con-
tradiction as an analytical tool allows the researchers to see beyond the apparent obstacles or
shortages, it reveals a deeper dynamic, which should be taken into account when analyzing the
practicum. So far, the results provide a picture of contradictions, but it is important to bear in
mind that all contradictions presented and discussed evolve in time and are strongly dependent
of practitioners’ agency. The way students conceptualize the contradiction between University
and School changes throughout the academic year and demands further investigation.
Practically, this analytical framework makes possible to outline the subjects’ develop-
ment even when the particular context indicates the contrary. As examples indicated, the situa-
tion in which there is little control eventually demands extra efforts but leaves room for active
participation. The data analysis indicates that the source of agency and activities transformation
is precisely in the contradictory process, which might be overlooked because the theoretical
framework is not able to disentangle the processes in teacher development. Finally, the practi-
cum has a great number of elements and participants that, in many cases, rub against each other,
producing something meaningful for practitioners and researchers.
It should be underlined that practicum is a crossing boundary activity in many ways.
Pre-service Science teachers have to move across institutions as well as they have to move their
own position in the whole activity – from student to teacher. From the results, it is possible to
conclude that the pre-service teacher’s agency is shaped, above all, in contradictory processes,
rather than a linear force that leads them to autonomous practice.

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Received: December 12, 2017 Accepted: February 26, 2018
André Machado Rodrigues PhD, Assistant Professor, Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo,
Rua do Matão, Travessa R, 187, São Paulo, Brazil.
E-mail: rodrigues@if.usp.br
Cristiano Rodrigues de Mattos PhD, Professor, Institute of Physics, University of São Paulo, Rua do
Matão, Travessa R, 187, São Paulo, Brazil.
E-mail: mattos@if.usp.br

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100
CHOOSING TEACHING AS A PROFESSION:
INFLUENCE OF BIG FIVE PERSONALITY
TRAITS ON FALLBACK CAREER
Robert Tomšik, Viktor Gatial
Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
E-mail: robert.tomsik@ukf.sk, vgatial@ukf.sk
Abstract
Personality plays a significant role in influencing motivation for choosing a perspective profession. As
empirical evidence confirmed, personality traits conscientiousness, openness to experience, extraversion
are in positive correlation with intrinsic motives for choosing teaching as a profession (in negative
with personality trait neuroticism), and in negative correlation with extrinsic motivation and fallback
career (in positive with personality trait neuroticism). The primary aim of research is to point out the
importance of personality traits in career choices via detecting which personality traits are predictors
of fallback career. In the research first grade university students (teacher trainees; N = 402) completed
the Five Factor Inventory and SMVUP-4-S scale. As results show, Big Five personality traits are in
correlation with fallback career and are a significant predictor of fallback career. The Big Five model
together explained 17.4% of the variance in fallback career, where personality traits agreeableness,
conscientiousness, openness to experience and neuroticism has been shown as a statistically significant
predictor of fallback career of teacher trainees.
Keywords: Big Five, career choice, fallback career, personality traits.
Introduction
The influence of the personality on the career choice is a frequent topic in scientific
researches. These influencing variables have been dealt with by many authors such as Holland
(1985), Barrick & Mount (2005), Kapová (2007), Jugović, Ivanec & Vidović (2012), Datu (2012),
Chen, Wu & Chen (2010) and others. According to Holland (1985), types of personality allow
to predict individual professional behavior, career choice, and even satisfaction with the chosen
profession. The issue of professional personality and career choice in the teacher's profession
is particularly sensitive because teachers work with children and shape their personality, what
justifies a large number of researches dealing with this problem. Nevertheless, there are only a
handful of studies that deal with the correlation between the personality of the teacher and the
motivation for choosing teaching as a career (particularly fallback career choice) in our region.
In this study, on the basis of certain theoretical and empirical assumptions, we try to identify
the existence of a linear relationship between the personality traits and the specific motives for
choosing teaching as a profession, and point to an important role of personality predispositions
in the career choices.
Personality Traits and Fallback Career: Defining the Concepts

and Background of Research
Holland (1985) has developed a typology of personalities or professional orientations

according to which can be predicted the professional behavior of individuals. Some personality
traits are important for a successful performance in certain professions, which ensure certain

Robert TOMŠIK, Viktor GATIAL. Choosing teaching as a profession: Influence of big five personality traits on fallback career
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consistency in the behavior of individuals in different situations (Kapová, 2007). An instructive 101
classification of the personality characteristics of the teacher is given by Kasáčová (2004).
However, the author states that personality characteristics do not have a permanent and
unchangeable condition. Many of them can continue to develop during the study process.
Kasáčová (2004) differentiates the personal (intrapersonal and interpersonal), social and ethical
characteristics of teacher personality. The author determines the following factors as the most
important personality characteristics of the teacher:
• Personal:
a) Intrapersonal: self-confidence, creativity, purposefulness, responsibility, emotional
stability.
b) Interpersonal: patience, flexibility, sophistication, persuasiveness, consciousness,
optimism, foresight.
• Social: communicativeness, sociability, tolerance, accepting others, empathy, respect
for others, agreeableness, affiliation, sense of humor, consideration, justice, love for
children, prosociality.
• Ethical: altruism, congruence, honesty, straightness.
Based on these personnel requirements for the teaching profession can be deduced that
individuals with these characteristics have stronger intrinsic and altruistic career choices, while
individuals who do not have these characteristics are, as stated by Watt & Richardson (2006),
oriented against the profession because their personality characteristics do not correspond to the
nature of the profession (Tomšik, 2016a).
Currently there are many studies dealing with the problematic of motivation for choosing
teaching profession (e.g. Jugović, Ivanec & Vidović, 2012; Şahin, 2014; Watt & Richardson,
2006), but there are only a handful of studies that deal with the motivation for choosing teaching
profession in relation to personality characteristics (Emmerich, Rock & Trapani, 2006; Tomšik,
2016c). The fact that only a few studies focused on the correlation or influence of personality
traits on the motivation for choosing teaching profession results from the difficulty of realizing
the research and the absence of a research tool that would find a global motivation for the choice
of profession (e.g. internal, external). A large majority of existing studies have identified the
relationship between personality traits and specific interests related to a particular profession or
to the general interests (e.g. Chen, Wu & Chen, 2010; Barrick & Mount, 2005; Holland, 1985;
Larson, Rottinghaus & Borgenl, 2002; Tokar, Fischer & Subich, 1998; etc.).
Nevertheless, even on the basis of these results, it is possible to predict the direction
of the hypotheses on relation between personality traits and motivation for choosing teaching
profession. By summarizing the theoretical basis and empirical evidences mentioned above,
the following generalizations and assumptions can be deduced: it can be expected that internal
and socially beneficial values (intrinsic and altruistic motivation) are associated with higher
scores of extraversion, openness, consciousness and agreeableness. Some research evidence
suggests that neuroticism could be related to the external aspects of motivation and fallback
career, but so far, research does not allow clear predictions. Consciousness is not conceptually
related to the specific professional requirements of the teacher's profession but is consistently
the most promising dimension of overall performance and job satisfaction (Barrick & Mount,
2005; Judge, Heller & Mount, 2002). To this day, there is only one research that deals with
the relationship between the personality traits (NEO-FFI) and the motivation for choosing a
teaching profession on the sample of teacher trainees’ students, namely Jugović, Ivanec &
Vidović (2012). The study was released in Croatia and presents the results that are based on
standardized research tools. In the research the FIT-Choice scale was used to determine the
motivation for choosing teaching as a profession and NEO-FFI for determining personality
traits. There were 374 respondents involved into the research, teacher trainee students of three
Croatian universities. Confirming the factors using factor analysis in the Croatian version of
the FIT-Choice tool, the results of the research reached a higher, more sophisticated level. The
research results show that extraversion and agreeableness were important predictors of intrinsic

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102 motivation for choosing teaching as a profession, but also satisfaction with the choice of this
profession. Personality trait extraversion also predicted capabilities and experience, while
agreeableness was positively correlated with the altruistic types of motives. Neuroticism has
been in a negative relationship with the mentioned types of motives for choosing teaching as a
profession.
The specific motive for choosing teaching profession is a fallback career. This motive is
characterized as an alternative choice of profession, or it can be defined as a second occupational
choice, if one of the first choices of the profession is for some reasons unavailable. Because of
today's volatile labor market and large job offer, many university students often choose teaching
as an alternative profession for various reasons (university availability, failure to access to other
study programs, easier access to teaching study programs etc.). However, the alternative career
choice has a hidden motive that could be included in other categories of motives (extrinsic,
altruistic or even intrinsic). In most studies this motive is categorized as an extrinsic motive
(Şahin, 2014), nevertheless Tomšik & Verešová (2016) consider it as a separate category
of motive, precisely because the hidden motives behind fallback career not always must be
conditioned to external influences.
In the aforementioned research (Jugović, Ivanec & Vidović, 2012) fallback career was in
negative correlation with the personality traits extraversion (r = -.110), agreeableness (r = -.220)
and conscientiousness (r = -.210). In the research a prediction model was also analyzed, where
the lack of the personality traits agreeableness and conscientiousness predicts fallback career
(R2 = .074, a linear regression relation was negative).
Based on the results of this research and the theoretical assumptions given above, it was
assumed that there is a negative correlation between the fallback career and the personality traits
of conscientiousness (H1), openness to experience (H2), extraversion (H3) and agreeableness (H4),
and the positive relationship between the fallback career and the personality trait neuroticism
(H5). The last hypothesis (H6) assumes that personality affects the choice of profession, which
means that Big Five personality traits will be the predictors of fallback career.
General Characteristics
The aim of research is to point out the importance of personality traits in career choices
by measuring influence of personality on fallback career. This aim involves measuring the
correlation between variables (personality traits and fallback career) and measuring which
personality traits are predictors of fallback career. In order to confirm the defined hypotheses,
it was decided to carry out quantitative oriented research, which allows the support of previous
theoretical and empirical assumptions using statistical analyzes.
To obtain information about students' personality structures and motives for choosing
teaching as a profession, standardized and validated research tools were chosen (questionnaires,
paper form). The whole research tool consists of two full questionnaires for the measurement
of research variables and one questionnaire for the detection of demographic information of
participants. Participants submitted questionnaires with consent to the processing of data. All
questionnaires were anonymous. Data was collected by psychologists at Slovak universities.
Participants had 45 minutes to complete the questionnaires.
The final version of the research tool was elaborated and piloted in March – April 2016.
Data were collected in September – November 2016. In December 2016 data were processed
and analyzed.

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Sample of Research 103
The research sample consists of students of the Slovak universities (Catholic University
Ružomberok, Comenius University, Constantine the Philosopher University, DTI University,
Matej Bel University, University of Prešov, University of Trnava, University of Žilina) from
all regions of Slovak republic (Nitra, Bratislava, Banská Bystrica, Prešov, Trenčín, Trnava and
Žilina). In total 402 students of the first year of bachelor studies were involved in the research
(teacher trainees). A research sample consists of 119 male and 266 female respondents (17
uncategorized), with an average age of 20.50 years.
In the academic year 2015/2016, around 3300 adolescents were admitted to the first
year. According to the approximation of Morgan and Krejcie (as cited in Tomšik, 2017), at least
346 respondents must be included in the set, with a percentage distribution corresponding to
the size of the basic set in each region. During research 500 questionnaires were distributed,
which means that the return of the questionnaires was 80.40%. This means that criterion of
Morgan and Krejcie approximation is fulfilled. The choice of first year students was based on
the assumption that there was primary motivation for choosing teaching as a career. Primary
motivation of students of higher grades might be modified due to other factors.
NEO Five Factor (NEO-FFI) is a standardized personality inventory that examines a

person's Big Five personality traits (openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion,
agreeableness, and neuroticism). The authors of the NEO-FFI questionnaire are McCrae and
Costa (Slovak version by Ruisel & Halama, 2007). Cronbach's alpha of the questionnaire is α
= 0.87 (Ruisel & Halama, 2007). Questionnaire consists of 60 items (Likert type), twelve for
each personality dimension:
• Openness to experience (inventive/curious vs. consistent/cautious). Openness
reflects the degree of intellectual curiosity,
• Conscientiousness (efficient/organized vs. easy-going/careless). A tendency to be
organized and dependable, show self-discipline, act dutifully, aim for achievement,
and prefer planned rather than spontaneous behavior.
• Extraversion (outgoing/energetic vs. solitary/reserved). Energy, positive emotions,
surgency, assertiveness, sociability and the tendency to seek stimulation in the
company of others, and talkativeness.
• Agreeableness (friendly/compassionate vs. challenging/detached). A tendency to
be compassionate and cooperative rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards
others.
• Neuroticism (sensitive/nervous vs. secure/confident). The tendency to experience
unpleasant emotions easily, such as anger, anxiety, depression, and vulnerability.
For detecting the fallback career of teacher trainees was used the Scale of motivation for
choosing teaching profession (SMVUP-4-S) – version for students constructed by Tomšik &
Verešová (2016). Individual motives of career choices in the SMVUP model were induced in a
scale based on empirical and theoretical findings. Existing studies (e.g. Hřebíček, 1995; Jugović,
Ivanec & Vidović, 2012; Şahin, 2014; Watt & Richardson, 2006; Young, 1995) indicate three
types of motivation for choosing teaching as a career: intrinsic, extrinsic and altruistic. Each
category consists of specific motives related to the teaching profession, specifically:
• Intrinsic motivation: interest, self-perception of teaching skills, work potential,
previous experience;
• Extrinsic motivation: benefits, income, social status, significant others;
• Altruistic motivation: prosocial behavior, work with children, work with youth.
• Fallback career (alternative choice).
Each of the subscale consists of four items. The score of the respondents can range

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104 from 4 points as a minimum score 20 points as a maximum attainable score. The higher score
represents a higher level of motivation factor. Items of the range are in the form of assertions
that the respondents answer on a 5-point Likert scale. Cronbach's alpha of scale is α = .86, while
at the subscale alternative career choice is α = .75 (Tomšik & Čerešník 2017).
Data Analysis
For the descriptive and inference data analysis statistical programs SPSS (Statistical
Package for Social Science ver. 20) and STAT 13 were used, specifically:
• MCAR test (Little's Missing Completely at Random) was used to verify the missing
data.
• To verify the normality of the research data the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test were used.
• To determine the correlation between personality traits and fallback career Pearson
coefficient of correlation was used, while Linear regression analysis was used, based
on Breusch-Pagan test of homoscedasticity, to determine the statistical prediction.
Results of Research
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics of research variables. Observing only the average
score, students have reached the highest score in the personality trait conscientiousness (M
= 31.82). Approximately one-and-a-half points below were scaled personality traits of
extraversion (M = 30.14) and agreeableness (M = 30.07). The lowest average scores were
achieved in personality traits openness (M = 27.99) and neuroticism (M = 22.28). Compared
to the standards presented by Ruisel & Halama (2007) in the handbook, we do not notice
significant differences compared to the scores that were measured on our sample. For the age
group of individuals aged 15–24, the authors report the following average scores for individual
personality traits: neuroticism M = 21.87; extraversion M = 30.05; openness to experience M
= 29.45; agreeableness M = 29.69 and conscientiousness M = 29.45. The biggest differences
are in personality traits openness to experience and conscientiousness, where students of our
research sample have reached about one point higher scores compared to norms. Average score
of variable fallback career is M = 8.796, which is compared to the median (Md = 12) satisfying
result.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of research variables.
Variables N MIN MAX M SD S C
Neuroticism 402 .00 43.00 22.28 8.077 .000 -.120
Extraversion 402 5.00 45.00 30.14 6.538 -.297 .103
Openness to Experience 402 4.00 46.00 27.99 6.070 .246 .137
Agreeableness 402 16.00 46.00 30.07 6.421 .235 -.742
Conscientiousness 402 13.00 48.00 31.82 6.736 .109 -.217
Fallback Career 402 4.00 20.00 8.796 4.143 .401 -.958
*Note: N- number; M- mean; MIN- minimum score; MAX- maximum score; SEM- standard error of the
mean; SD- standard deviation; S– skewness; C– kurtosis.

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Table 2 summarizes correlations between fallback career and Big Five personality 105
traits. The results show that significant correlations were obtained between fallback career
and all Big Five personality traits, specifically: negative linear correlation with personality
traits conscientiousness (r = -.322, p < .001), agreeableness (r = -.316, p < .001), openness to
experience (r = -.206, p < .001) and extraversion (r = -.270, p < .001). Between fallback and
personality trait neuroticism were obtained positive linear correlation (r = -.238, p < .001).
Table 2. Correlation between fallback career and Big Five personality traits.
Variables 1 2 3 4 5 6
Fallback Career 1 .238** -.270** -.206** -.316** -.322**
Neuroticism 1 -.442** -.143** -.198** -.234**
Extraversion 1 .207** .385** .341**
Openness to Experience 1 .133** .194**
Agreeableness 1 .390**
Conscientiousness 1
*Note: r– Pearson correlation coefficient; p– level of statistics significance; **.– correlation is significant
at .010 level.
Homoscedasticity of data was confirmed by Breusch-Pagan test (χ2 = 8.220; p = .145).

Results of linear regression analysis show that independent variables when pulled together
significantly predicted fallback career of the participants (F (5, 396) = 17.863, p < .0001). The
value of R2 (adjusted) = .174 indicated that the personality traits accounted for 17.40% of the
total variance in fallback career (Table 3).
Table 3. Linear regression analysis.
Dependent Standard-
Predictor R R2 Adjusted R2 β F p
Variable ized β
Neuroticism .059 .115

Extraversion -.040 -.064
Openness to Experi-
Fallback Career
.429 .184 .174 -.080 -.117 17.864 ˂ .001

ence
Agreeableness -.118 -.183
Conscientiousness -.110 -.179
*Note: R– multiple correlation coefficient; R2– coefficient of determination; β– Beta coefficient; F– F

ratio; p– level of statistics significance.

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106 Discussion
The aim of the research was to point out the importance of personality traits in the career
choices among teacher training students. This aim was realized by detecting the correlation and
prediction between the key research variables on a sample of teacher training students. Research
has identified significant correlations between Big Five personality traits and the motivation of
choosing teaching as a career, namely fallback career. Despite the fact that all of the required
personality traits for the successful performance of the teacher's profession are not implemented
in the Big Five model, in relation to SMVUP-4-S model successfully explains reality. Students
with the lack of personality trait openness to experience, agreeableness, conscientiousness and
extraversion, which are also important factors for the successful performance (not only) in the
teaching profession, more often choose the teaching profession as a substitute solution. Due
to the fact that between these personality traits and the fallback career variable were found the
significant correlations, hypothesis H1–H5 were supported. Another research goal was to find
out whether personality traits are predictors of fallback career. Based on the results of regression
analysis hypothesis H6 was supported. Personality traits are a good predictor of fallback career,
specifically personality traits as openness to experience, conscientiousness and agreeableness
have a negative impact on fallback career (they are declining fallback career) while personality
trait neuroticism has a positive impact on a fallback career (neuroticism increases the fallback
career). Although we found only one research with similar research problem, results were also
supported by research findings from other authors such as Jugović, Ivanec & Vidović (2012)
who also found out that personality traits are predictors of career choices among teacher training
students. However, Jugovic, Ivanec & Vidović (2012) research was carried out on a sample of
Croatian students, where the percentage of variability was significantly lower (7.4%) compared
to the variability of this research sample (17.4%).
The results of the analysis confirmed the theoretical assumptions and confirmed the
empirical facts of the previous authors (e.g. Holland, 1985; Şahin, 2014; Watt & Richardson,
2006; etc.). According to the theoretical backgrounds, each personality structure is predestined
and directed to a certain profession, and the intrinsic motivation attuned individually to the
specific professions. In particular, in the teaching profession, intrinsic and altruistic motivation
leads to better learning outcomes, higher satisfaction with the choice of profession and a more
active approach to work activities as well as engagement at work (Barrick & Mount, 2005).
These facts were also confirmed by research, specifically extraverts are more likely to report job
satisfaction than individuals low in extraversion (Cropanzano, Janes, & Konovsky, 1993; Tokar
& Subich, 1997), but have additionally shown that agreeableness is an important predictor of
satisfaction with the specific career choice of becoming a teacher, while extrinsic motivation
repudiates individuals from choosing a profession that is not in compliance with their personal
predispositions and inner convictions (Watt & Richardson, 2006). Here comes the tendency to
choose profession under the influence of fallback career. These individuals have lower scores
of personality dimensions conscientiousness and openness to experience (Jugović, Ivanec &
Vidović, 2012). These individuals also show higher score of neuroticism, where we consider
this feature to be unpleasant in the teacher's profession, given that the teacher should be an
emotionally stable personality to effectively manage work-related stress and problems.
The results of this research can be implemented in the theory of pedagogy and teacher
development and deepen the knowledge of the teaching personality. It has been pointed out that
personal characteristics are important in career choice, and it is important to pay attention to these
qualities even before the beginning of the study through an admission procedure, which should
encompass not only an analysis of previous school success but also an analysis of personality
predispositions and motivation of choosing a teaching profession. Such a selection of students
can allow further work during a research with students whose personality characteristics and
motivating factors corresponded to the content of a profession.

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IN THE 21st CENTURY
Vol. 76, No. 1, 2018
Conclusions 107
Research has found that personality traits (Big Five) are predictors of motivation for the
choice of the teaching profession, particularly students with high scores of neuroticism and low
score of openness to experience agreeableness and conscientiousness choose the professions
under the influence of fallback career.
From the results of the descriptive statistics, it was found that approximately 15% of
the participants had chosen the profession under the influence of fallback career. To reduce the
number of these candidates, it is necessary to implement the diagnosis of personality traits, and
in particular the motivation for choosing teaching as a profession would allow the selection of
students with intrinsic and altruistic motivation to teach, which are considered to be the pillars
of successful exercise of a profession. Despite the fact that students are admitted to teacher
training study programs regardless of their personal characteristics, the subjects that develop
these characteristics should be implemented in the education system (e.g. self-confidence,
patience, flexibility, persuasiveness, conscientiousness, sociability, tolerance, altruism and
others), because the personality traits are variable in a certain way and can be developed to a
certain extent.
Based on this, it is possible to determine the implications for further investigation of
this issue. It is necessary to observe (on the basis of the longitudinal type of research) whether
during the study and practice of the students (primarily those who have chosen profession under
the influences of external motives and fallback career) is changing their personality structure
(whether some personality dimensions are increasing and to what extent), consequently,
whether this change is sufficient for the successful performance of the teaching profession.
This longitudinal research should be more comprehensive and should include all motivating
factors for choosing teaching as a profession (intrinsic, altruistic and extrinsic) as well as the
professional characteristics of the teachers that are not included in the Big Five model.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported by the project UGAV/18/2018 Moderate Impact of

Parenting Styles and NEO-FFI Personality Dimensions on Motivation for Choosing Teaching
as a Profession.
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Croatia. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 40 (3), 271-287.

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108 Kapová, J. (2007). Pojem profesijného zamerania a jeho činitele [The concept of professional orientation
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E-mail: robert.tomsik@ukf.sk
Website: https://sites.google.com/site/tomsikrobert/
Viktor Gatial PhD, Lecturer, Researcher, Constantine the Philosopher University, Faculty of Education,
Department of Educational and School Psychology, Dražovská 4, 949 74, Nitra, Slovakia.
E-mail: vgatial@ukf.sk
Website: http://www.kpsp.pf.ukf.sk/o_nas.html

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IN THE 21st CENTURY
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Address: Scientia Socialis, Ltd. © Scientia Socialis Ltd., 2017

TEACHER HEALTH LITERACY: WHY DOES IT MATTER?

INTERGENERATIONAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP EDUCATION: OLDER ENTREPRENEURS

THE EFFECTS OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS AND THEORY OF MIND ON

THE IMPACT OF MOBILE TABLET USE ON STUDENTS' PERCEPTION

SCIENTISTS’ PERCEPTIONS ON THE NATURE OF NANOSCIENCE AND

THE LEVEL OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY OF CHILDREN IN KINDERGARTEN IN THE

THE RELIABILITY OF AN INSTRUMENT TO MEASURE TEACHER KNOWLEDGE

THE CONTRADICTORY NATURE OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE

CHOOSING TEACHING AS A PROFESSION: INFLUENCE OF BIG FIVE

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 109

QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st CENTURY ..........................................111

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

“Lack of activity destroys the good

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Sara Santini, Marco Socci

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General Background of Research

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Instrument and Procedures

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As mentioned, the research adopted a qualitative methodology. Nevertheless, first several

Italian Young People: When the Real “Enterprise” is Finding a Job in an

ISSN 1822-7864 (Print) ISSN 2538-7111 (Online)

Another difficulty for starting a business identified by the interviewees is finding

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14 Older Entrepreneurs: When Grit and Self-Esteem were

Moreover, seniors thought that, before starting a business, it is necessary to make a

Also, technical competencies were considered important for running a business:

Others were pushed to become entrepreneurs because of the need of a job:

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In order to be successful, an entrepreneur has to be correct and respectful of human

The interviewees thought that an entrepreneur or an ex-entrepreneur could help a young

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In light of the findings, it is absolutely apparent that if we want to do anything to make 17

In a youth labour market characterised by increasing complexity, growing fractured

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Received: November 15, 2017 Accepted: January 15, 2018

Barbara Baschiera PhD, Researcher, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Palazzo

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THE EFFECTS OF EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS 21

AND THEORY OF MIND ON SEMANTIC

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22 Verbal fluency, consisting of semantic and phonological fluency, is often regarded as

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Children were recruited from 8 small-sized public kindergartens in Canton Sarajevo.

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Results of the Research

Table 1. Means and standard deviations of semantic fluency task as a function

Task Pass Fail

Table 2. Summary of two-way ANOVA for Executive Functions and Theory of

1st category- Card Sort: Failure; TOM: Failure

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QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st CENTURY ..........................................111