Problems of Education in The 21st Century, Vol. 72, 2016

Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864 VOLUME 72, 2016
PROBLEMS OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

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Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania, the Associated Member of Lithua-
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Science (ESHS) and International Council of Associations for Science Education (ICASE)
Editor-in-Chief
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania
Editorial Board
Dr., Prof. Boris Aberšek, University of Maribor, Slovenia
Dr. Saleh A. Alabdulkareem, King Saud University, Saudi Arabia
Dr., Prof. Agnaldo Arroio, University of São Paulo, Brazil
Dr. Monica Baptista, University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dr., Prof. Martin Bilek, Hradec Kralove University, Czechia
Dr., Prof. Andris Broks, University of Latvia, Latvia
Dr. Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Dr. Muammer Calik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Dr., Prof. Janis Gedrovics, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., Harun Yilmaz, Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, Turkey
Dr., Angela James, University of Kwazulu – Natal, South Africa
Dr., Prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after
Kh. Abovyan, Armenia
Dr. Kuo-Hung Huang, National Chiayi University, Taiwan
Dr. Milan Kubiatko, University of Zilina, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Miroslaw Kowalski, University of Zielona Gora, Poland
Dr. Todar T. Lakhvich, Belarusian State Medical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr. Eleonora Melnik, Petrozavodsk State University, Republic of Karelia, Russia
Dr., Prof. Danuše Nezvalova, Palacky University, Czechia
Dr., Prof. Yuriy Pelekh, National University of Water Management and Nature Resources Use,
Ukraine, Ukraine
Dr., Raffaele Pisano, University of Lille 1, France
Dr. Costin Pribeanu, National Institute for Research and Development in Informatics - ICI Bucur-
esti, Romania
Dr. Agneta Simeonsdotter Svensson, University of Gothenburg, Sweden
Dr. Uladzimir K. Slabin, University of Oregon, USA
Dr. Laima Railienė, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Prof. Borislav V. Toshev, Sofia University, Bulgaria
Dr., Prof. Milan Turčani, Constantine the Philosopher University, Slovakia
Dr., Prof. Nicos Valanides, University of Cyprus, Cyprus
Copyright of this volume is the property of Scientific Methodical Centre “Scientia Educologica” and Scientia
Socialis, Lithuania. By virtue of their appearance in this open access journal, articles are free to use, with
proper attribution, in educational and other non-commercial settings
Index Copernicus (IC™ Value): 90.09 (2014)

Global Impact Factor (GIF): 0.652 (2015).
Problems of Education in the 21st Century is an international, periodical, peer reviewed scientific journal, is-
sued by the SMC „Scientia Educologica“ in Cooperation with Scientia Socialis. PEC is published bimonthly.
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ISSN 1822-7864 © SMC „Scientia Educologica“ & Scientia Socialis, Lithuania, 2016
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 72, 2016
Contents 3
Editorial
TEACHER-EDUCATOR VERSUS TEACHER-LEADER

Vincentas Lamanauskas ............................................................................................... 4
Articles
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS’ BIOLOGY LABORATORY SKILL

PERFORMANCE AND THEIR COURSE ACHIEVEMENT
Getachew Fetahi Gobaw, Harrison Ifeanyichukwu Atagana ...................................................... 6
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTANCED E-LEARNING IN TEACHERS’ EDUCATION:

A CASE STUDY IN SLOVENIA
Milena Kerndl, Metka Kordigel Aberšek ............................................................................16
INVESTIGATING THE MOST NEGLECTED STUDENT LEARNING DOMAIN IN HIGHER

EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY ON THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON STUDENT
BEHAVIOUR AND EMOTIONS IN UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS LEARNING
Samuel Olugbenga King ............................................................................................... 31
ACCESS AND BARRIERS TO EDUCATION: ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS

OF ETHNIC MINORITIES LIVING IN GEORGIA
Anastasia Kitiashvili, Tamar Abashidze, Irine Zhvania ........................................................... 53
STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF FACTORS SLOWING DOWN THEIR STUDY PROGRESS:

THE CASE OF UNIVERSITY OF LAPLAND
Kaarina Määttä, Satu Uusiautti ....................................................................................... 65
INTERCULTURAL FEATURES AND THE THEME OF TRAVELLING IN BILINGUAL

MATHEMATICS LESSONS
Zuzana Naštická ........................................................................................................ 76
UNIFIED TAXONOMY OF COMPETENCES FOR VERIFICATION OF STUDENT'S SKILLS

Dragica Pešaković, Andrej Šafhalter ................................................................................. 89
Information
INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 101
QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st CENTURY ..........................................103
PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY ................................................104
2nd INTERNATIONAL BALTIC SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

EDUCATION (BalticSTE2017) ..................................................................................105
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4
TEACHER-EDUCATOR VERSUS
TEACHER-LEADER
Vincentas Lamanauskas
Siauliai University, Lithuania
E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt
Recently, in Lithuanian educational discourse there has been a lot of discussion about
leadership. This has become so popular phenomenon that quite often one even does not go
deep into the most important parameters of this phenomenon. Leadership phenomenon is not a
very new thing, having started to be investigated more exhaustively as far back as the second
half of the 20th century, however, over the last decade a lot of attention has been devoted to
this in Lithuania. One can reasonably assert, that this is even a matter of fashion. During the
aforementioned period, various questions such as teacher leadership, leadership development
in schools (as if everyone has to be only a leader), leadership influence on organisation
management and other have been investigated in one way or another. On the other hand, quite
a lot of attention has been devoted to school managers, having in mind that they should not be
just managers, but real managers – leaders. There is no intention to discuss various leadership
concepts or to give any recipes how to turn teachers and managers to leaders. Moreover,
there exists a vast diversity of concepts. It is obvious, that poor, ineffective and unsuitable
management affects the teachers and the teaching learning process itself. It is logical, that this
aspect has to be evaluated, and only people suitably prepared and ready for this should become
managers of educational institutions. On the other hand, it wouldn’t be fair to identify managers
and management with leadership.
It is understandable that in a modern school it is not enough for the teacher to know
only his professional sphere. Teacher, first of all, is educator. Such a person has undoubtedly
huge influence on the other people, and first of all, on children’s personality development.
This is not only a professional in his own field, but first of all a personality – a man able to
educate, practically develop, psychologically and emotionally improve the learner, to develop a
harmonious personality from him, a citizen, a perfect humane man. This namely is the essence
of teacher-educator. The future is in the hands of such a teacher. Such an educator is responsible
for the bringing up of a fully valued person. He is responsible, one can trust him, follow him. I
wouldn’t agree that teacher-leader corresponds to these absolutely necessary criteria. Teacher-
educator is both a professional and a humanist at the same time, helping for the young man to
find his place in the world and in the society, to reveal and realise his potential, his essence.
Recently, a popular statement that a modern teacher should be known having similar features
to a business organisation manager is very doubtful. School is not and will never be a trade
organisation.
Despite the fact, that education is being tried to look at differently, the central idea
keeping the approach oriented to the child, modern education systems still keep on accentuating
knowledge acquisition, specialist preparation. Personality development remains overboard.
Both in general education and in higher education systems one can notice two negative
tendencies. The first one, information stream is rapidly increasing and this leads towards
teaching time lengthening, teaching/ learning load increasing, the second one, increasing
the amount of information, the number of subjects, cognition spheres also increase and so
on. Multidisciplinarity is being formed, which causes an information dubbing phenomenon,
weakens interdisciplinary integrational relations. In this way, quite a narrow, limited technical
thinking is formed, the holistic world view is not formed in the mind of pupils and students.
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Very much is required from the teacher today. Only the question is how much is 5
reasonable. He/she is both information renderer and consultant, class leader, senior friend and
adviser, researcher, innovator and change initiator, psychologist, organiser, catalyser and so on.
It has just become fashionable to write about this, discuss and so on. Still it has to be mentioned,
that teacher has to be a modern technology “geek”, able “to take a plunge” not only into the
real but also into the virtual world. How much logic is in that? Unfortunately, really quite
often there is lack of it. As R. Pavilionis (1999) has rightly noticed, material, technological
society progress does not condition itself its emotional progress, more sophisticated things
themselves do not arouse human perfection. However, in the present technological age it is a
rather forgotten thing. It is much more fashionable to speak about competition, settling in the
labour market, care about yourself and your well-being. In all possible ways one is asked to get
acquainted and master leadership as a new modern life paradigm. And, as it has been mentioned,
individual interests are in the centre of attention. One of the leadership propagators A. Havard
(2007) states, that leaders are not born, they are made. However, I would like to think contrary.
The educators are born, they do not become leaders by accident. Only teacher-educator
can develop a fully valued personality. Education, serving the neoliberal leadership ideology
and/or representing it, is a way to nowhere.
Society demands are becoming both more diverse and more complex. The schools find it
more and more difficult to satisfy them. However, the incitement to prepare education leaders is
hardly the right way. In order to change school and education, first of all, one must prepare the
highest professionality educators. Every teacher is (or can be) a leader in one way or another,
because he makes influence on pupils. However, not every teacher is (or can become) a real
educator.
References
Havard, A. (2007). Virtuous leadership. New York: Scepter Publishers.

Pavilionis R. (1999). Būti reiškia nepaklusti absurdui [To be means not to obey absurdity]. Kn.: H. D.
Thoreau. Voldenas, arba Gyvenimas miške*Apie pilietinio nepaklusnumo pareigą. Vilnius, p. 8.
Vincentas Lamanauskas PhD, Professor, University of Šiauliai, Faculty of Education Sciences

and Social Welfare, Department of Education & Psychology, P. Visinskio
Street 25-119, LT-76351 Siauliai, Lithuania.
E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt
Website: http://www.lamanauskas.puslapiai.lt/
https://www.facebook.com/ScientiaEducologica
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6
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
STUDENTS’ BIOLOGY LABORATORY SKILL
PERFORMANCE AND THEIR COURSE
ACHIEVEMENT
Getachew Fetahi Gobaw

Ambo University, Ethiopia
E-mail: getachewfetahi@yahoo.com
Harrison Ifeanyichukwu Atagana

University of South Africa, South Africa
E-mail: atagahi@unisa.ac.za
Abstract
The focus of this research study was to investigate the relationship between students’ prior achievement
in higher education entrance examination score and their course achievement in undergraduate biology
program. It also examined the relationship between students’ high school and college preparatory
school biology laboratory experience and their undergraduate biology laboratory skill performance. A
correlational study was used. The sample consisted of 55 third year undergraduate biology students. The
findings of the study showed that there is significant and positive linear correlation between students’
competences in practical skills and performance in higher education entrance examination scores.
There is a significant and a positively linear relationship between the students’ cumulative grade point
average (CGPA) with higher education entrance exam scores and biology laboratory skill test score.
However, laboratory skill performance test score was not correlated with students’ high school laboratory
background and sex. The findings implicated that the Ministry of Education should foster secondary
high schools and college preparatory schools to put greater efforts at preparing undergraduate admitted
students for students’ better outcome and their retention in universities.
Key words: high school achievement, practical skill test, undergraduate biology.
Introduction
Higher education admission officials typically use higher education entrance

examination scores on university entrance to predict an applicant’s probability of
academic success in the universities. Moreover, employers use cumulate grade point average
of the students as main selection criteria. Research studies show that undergraduate students’
performance depends on many factors such as availability of learning resources, gender, age,
socioeconomic status of the students, influence of peers and academicians (Hansen, 2000).
Yet, there is little evidence on the relationship between students’ theory and practical skill
performance. A study conducted by Uwaifo (2012) showed that there is a statistically significant
relationship between students’ theory and practical performance scores. Aina (2014) reported
that there are significant differences between students’ performances in physics theory and
practical; between female Physics theory and practical and also between male Physics theory
and practical.
On the other hand, research findings showed that there is no relationship between
students’ achievement in theory and practical work scores (Achor, Kurumeh & Orokpo, 2012;
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Getachew Fetahi GOBAW, Harrison Ifeanyichukwu ATAGANA. The relationship between students’ biology laboratory skill perfor-
mance and their course achievement
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Nawaz, Mahmood & Rana, 2004). Akanbi and Usman (2014) showed also that there is no 7
relationship between physics student performance in micro-teaching and that of teaching
practice.
Several studies have been carried out to examine the relationship between students’
high school background and university course achievement. But there is still a debate among
researchers. For example, Sadler and Tai (2001) have shown that high school physics course has
a positive relationship with the grade earned in introductory college physics. Karemera (2003)
showed that high school achievement is significantly correlated with college performance. A
study conducted by Tai, Sadler, and Loehr (2005) to examine the link between high school
chemistry pedagogical experiences and performance in introductory college chemistry showed
that several high school pedagogical experiences are linked with varying levels of performance
in college chemistry. Noble and Radunzel (2007) stated also that academically underprepared
students have to spend more time and money taking remedial courses in college, earn lower
grades and have lower retention rates. Adeyemi (2008) showed also that the junior secondary
certificate examinations were a good predictor of performance at senior secondary certificate
examination. Moreover, Falicoff, Castiñeiras and Odetti (2014), conducted a study to assess the
science competency of first year university students enrolling in the school of biochemistry and
biological sciences and examine the effects of these courses on their competencies of chemistry
proficiency. The results indicated that first-year students started with a low performance level
for all the sub-competencies assessed and performance levels on using scientific evidence
decreased.
Sawyer (2008) found that high school course work and high school grades are related
to achievement test (ACT) scores and encouraging students to take more rigorous college-
preparatory courses help to earn higher grades in these courses. Bone and Reid (2011) reported
that students who completed biology at the senior high school-level did perform better than
those who had not. Clark (2011) showed that taking higher level science coursework in high
school is also positively associated with final grade. Taking more semesters of higher level
science coursework does not increase the likelihood of doing well in college chemistry, as there
is no observable significant influence on final grade in chemistry.
Loehr, et al. (2012) studied the association between students’ high school science
education and mathematics experiences with introductory college biology the final course
grade in introductory biology courses. The result showed that advanced high school science and
mathematics coursework was positively associated with students’ achievement in introductory
college biology.
On the other hand, Wang (2009) claimed that there is little connection between
mathematical educational knowledge and the educational background. Tai et al. (2005) stated
that overemphasis on laboratory procedure in high school chemistry was associated with lower
grade in college.
There is also a debate that practical skill test scores varies among sexes. For example,
Ochonogor (2011) showed that there is a significant difference in performance level between
male and female undergraduate biology students in that the female students perform significantly
better than the males. However, Achor et al (2012) showed that male and female students’
performance in a test of theoretical knowledge in Chemistry does not significantly predict their
performance in Senior Secondary Certificate Chemistry theory examination. Jack (2013) argues
also that sex does not influence students’ acquisition of science process skills.
However, none of the studies have examined these variables to determine the relationship
between undergraduate biology students’ prior secondary and college preparatory school
biology laboratory background and their undergraduate laboratory skill performance. Hence,
it is important to establish if there is correlation between prior background in biology laboratory
at secondary and preparatory schools and the biology laboratory skill performance test scores.
This study, therefore, investigates the relationship existing between students’ biology
laboratory skill performance and their course achievement in undergraduate biology program.
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8 It also examines the relationship between high school laboratory experience and their
undergraduate biology laboratory practical skill performance at undergraduate level.
Research Questions
1. Does students’ prior achievement in higher education entrance examination

score relate to their course achievement in undergraduate biology program?
2. What is the relationship between high school laboratory experience and
undergraduate biology laboratory practical skills?
Methodology of Research
Research Design
A correlational research design was used for this study. A correlational research design
was appropriate because the study aims to examine the relationship between two quantitative
variables in order to explain or predict the results (Creswell, 2008). The independent variable
included students’ prior achievement in higher education entrance examination score, sex and
high school preparatory laboratory experience and maximum number of laboratory session
they took. The dependent variables are students’ course achievement in undergraduate biology
program and students undergraduate laboratory skill performance test scores.
Data Collection Instrument
The data were collected using laboratory practical task test developed by the researchers
and questionnaires from the sample of third year biology students in three universities to test
whether students’ prior high school laboratory background, students’ higher education entrance
examination scores, and their sex, (independent variables) relate to the students’ laboratory
practical skill performance test score and students cumulative grade point average (dependent
variables).
Sampling Technique
The research was conducted with sample of 55 students (32 male and 23 female students)
randomly selected from a total of 208 third year biology undergraduate students from three
governmental universities. The universities have different length of work experiences and
recourses. Third year biology students were selected as samples of the study because they had
already completed their intended laboratory works.
Instruments
The student course achievement in undergraduate biology program was measured by

cumulative grade point average (CGPA). Researchers around the world used the CGPA to
measure the student course achievement (Galiher, 2006; Darling, 2005). They used CGPA
to measure student performance in particular semester. The research method for this study
encompasses laboratory practical skill performance test for the third year biology undergraduate
students. Students’ prior achievement of higher education entrance examination score obtained
from students self-report before performing the laboratory practical skill performance test.
Individual laboratory practical skill performance test was implemented to 55 randomly
selected third year students from the selected universities. It was designed with a specific strategy
to assess three core manipulative laboratory skills: identifying the basic biology laboratory
equipment, accurate and precise use of light micropipette and measuring weights and volumes.
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The three laboratory skills were selected for the reason that they are the basic and 9
minimum laboratory practices for undergraduate biology students. The students’ laboratory
practical skill performances were assessed by a rubric. Every student was evaluated by two
raters. The raters were all biology instructors, who were trained by the researcher for two hours
how to evaluate the performance of each student and how to use the rubric.
Validity and Reliability of Instrument
Prior to administration, the laboratory practical skill performance test was submitted
to a group four biology professors for an assessment of its content validity. The purpose of the
content validation was to get the draft item moderated so as to be reliable.
To test the reliability of the laboratory practical test rating rubrics, the inter rater agreement
was computed by the Spearman correlation coefficient as shown in Table 1 below, rho=0.86
which is significant (p=0.000) at the 0.01 level and the intra-class correlation coefficient
between raters was 0.94.
Table 1. The inter rater agreement correlation coefficient and the intra-class
correlation coefficient.
Rater 1 Rater 2
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 0.858**
Rater1 Sig. (2-tailed) . 0.0001
Spearman’s rho N 55 55
Correlation Coefficient .858** 1.000
Rater2 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.0001 .
N 55 55
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Data Analysis
The collected data were transferred into the SPSS data file. Pearson correlation was used
to determine whether there was a significant relationship (association) between the independent
variables and students’ laboratory practical skill performance. One way ANOVA was used to
compare the students’ performance test scores of various activities who performed basic biology
laboratory skill performance test in the universities. Multiple Regression analysis with linear
function was used to find out the differential impact (causal-relationship) between third year
biology under graduate students’ cumulative grade point average (CGPA) and various potential
predictors such as sex, high school background, higher education entrance examination score,
and number of laboratory sessions they conducted.
Results of the Research
The Relationship between Higher Education Entrance Exam Scores and Undergraduate
Students’ Course Achievement
An examination of the results of the Pearson’s correlation analysis (Table 2) revealed

that cumulative grade point average (CGPA) is positively and significantly correlated with
higher education entrance exam score and biology laboratory test scores but not with sex and
prior high school and preparatory biology laboratory background.
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10 Table 2. Results of the Pearson’s Correlation matrix CGPA and Laboratory skill
performance activities test score.
Higher educa- Biology labora-

Cumulative High school lab
Sex tion entrance tory skill test
CGPA background
exam score score
Pearson Correlation 1 -0.042 -0.150 0.314* -0.192
Sex
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.762 0.274 0.020 0.160
N 55 55 55 55 55
Pearson Correlation -0.042 1 0.464 **
-0.049 0.372**
Higher education
entrance exam Sig. (2-tailed) 0.762 0.000 0.725 0.005
score
N 55 55 55 55 55
Pearson Correlation -0.150 0.464 **
1 -0.079 0.546**
cumulative CGPA Sig. (2-tailed) 0.274 0.0001 0.565 0.0001
N 55 55 55 55 55
Pearson Correlation 0.314* -0.049 -0.079 1 -0.143
High school
Sig. (2-tailed) 0.020 0.725 0.565 0.297
biology laboratory
background N 55 55 55 55 55
Pearson Correlation -0.192 0.372 **
0.546 **
-0.143 1
Biology laboratory Sig. (2-tailed) 0.160 0.005 0.0001 0.297
skill test score
N 55 55 55 55 55
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
An examination of the results of the Pearson’s correlation analysis (see Table 3) revealed
that there is a significant and a positively linear relationship between the students’ CGPA with
some of laboratory skill performance test scores, such as with identification of lab equipment
(ILE), handling of microscope(HM), setting of microscope(SM), estimation of diameter of field
of vision(EDFV), measuring liquid(ML) but not correlated with some of lab skill performance
activities such as function of lab equipment(FLE), mounting (M),staining, focusing, drawing
and measuring weight(MW). There is a significant relationship between higher education
entrance exam score (HEEES) and cumulative grade point average (p<0.009).
Table 3. Results of the Pearson’s Correlation Analysis of CGPA and Laboratory

skill performance activities test score.
Correlation r (correlation p significance level

N=55
coefficient
CGPA-ILE 0.362 0.009*
CGPA-FLE 0.204 0.152
CGPA-HM 0.312 0.026*
CGPA-SM 0.363 0.006*
CGPA-M 0.150 0.293
CGPA-Staining 0.057 0.094
CGPA-Focusing 0.213 0.133
CGPA-EDFV 0.000 0.000*
CGPA-Drawing 0.231 0.107
CGPA-ML 0.283 0.044*
CGPA-MW 0.254 0.072
CGPA-HEEES 0.458 0.009*
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level
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The Relationship between Undergraduate Biology Laboratory Practical Skills Performance 11

and Independent Variables Such as High School Laboratory Background
There is a significant correlation between higher education entrance exam score (HEEES)
and laboratory skill performance activities test score (p<0.005). However, biology laboratory
skill test score is not significantly correlated with sex and prior high school and preparatory
school biology laboratory background.
Table 4. One way ANOVA analysis of students’ performance test scores of

various activities among universities.
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 41.310 2 20.655 2.236 0.117
Identification of laboratory
Within Groups 480.326 52 9.237
equipment
Total 521.636 54
Between Groups 77.306 2 38.653 4.695 0.013*
Function of laboratory
equipment
Total 505.382 54
Between Groups 32.378 2 16.189 21.310 0.0001**
Handling of microscope Within Groups 39.503 52 0.760
Total 71.882 54
Between Groups 19.203 2 9.602 18.395 0.0001**
Setting of microscope Within Groups 27.142 52 0.522
Total 46.345 54
Between Groups 23.668 2 11.834 18.174 0.0001**
Mounting of specimen Within Groups 33.859 52 0.651
Total 57.527 54
Between Groups 1.941 2 0.971 .818 0.447
Staining of specimen Within Groups 61.668 52 1.186
Total 63.609 54
Focusing of a microscope Between Groups 8.808 2 4.404 8.939 0.0001**
from low to high power Within Groups 25.619 52 0.493
objectives Total 34.427 54
Between Groups .000 2 0.000 a. .a
Estimation of diameter of
Within Groups .000 51 0.000
field of vision
Total .000 53
Between Groups 8.922 2 4.461 9.320 0.0001**
Drawing of specimen seen
Within Groups 24.411 51 .479
in the microscope
Total 33.333 53
Between Groups 9.658 2 4.829 6.604 0.003**
measuring liquid in litre, ml
and µl
Total 47.682 54
measuring weight in gm,
Between Groups 7.436 2 3.718 6.957 0.002**
mg and µg
Total 35.227 54
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
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12 Correlation and multiple regression analyses were conducted to examine the relationship
between third year biology under graduate students’ cumulative grade point average (CGPA)
and various potential predictors such as sex, high school background, higher education entrance
examination score, and number of laboratory sessions they conducted. The multiple regression
model with all four predictors produced R² = .189, F (4, 163) = 9.257, p < .000. As can be seen
in Table 5, sex is negatively correlated with the third year biology under graduate students’
CGPA (coded as 0=Male and 1=Female), indicating that the male students have a larger CGPA.
Moreover, high school background is negatively correlated with students CGPA. Higher
education entrance examination score and number of laboratory sessions they conducted had
significant positive regression weights, indicating students with higher scores on these scales
were expected to have higher GPA.
Table 5. Multiple regression model summary of the predictor variable.
Unstandardized Standardized Coef-

Collinearity Statistics
Coefficient ficient
Toler-
B Std. Error Beta T Sig. VIF
ance
Constant 2.104 0.267 7.878 0.000
High school laboratory
-0.064 0.036 -0.127 -1.754 0.081 .980 1.021
background
Sex -0.231 0.078 -0.214 -2.945 0.004 .969 1.032
HEEES 0.003 0.001 0.291 4.041 0.000 .981 1.020
Maximum number of
0.027 0.018 0.111 1.551 0.123 .989 1.011
laboratory session
a. Dependent Variable: CGPA
Discussion
The results of the study have shown that gender has no significant effect on
students’ biology laboratory performance test scores. The laboratory performance skill tests
used in the study were identification of lab equipment, function of laboratory equipment, setting
a microscope, handling of microscope, mounting of specimen on slide, focusing from low to
high power, staining specimen, measuring weight in gm, mg and µg, measuring liquid in litre,
ml and µl, drawing , and estimation of the diameter of a microscope. Measuring is basic (lower
order) science process skills but is low. The result of this study is different from those of Moni
et al. (2007). The results of Moni et al.(2007) showed that students are demonstrating proficient
core laboratory skills on their first attempt for correct use of a micropipette, for preparation of
dilutions using a micropipette, for correct use of a light microscope, and for proficient use of
digital data.
The result of this study is in agreement with the results shown by Cushing (2002).
Cushing (2002) studied that the mean score of microscope assessment and task assessment
were low.
There was an assumption that students with better prior background in biology laboratory
at secondary and preparatory schools would have higher biology laboratory performance test
results than those without it but there was no significant correlation between high school lab
background and laboratory skill performance test result. The result of this study supports that
of Bone and Reid (2011).
Ochonogor (2011) stated that there is a significant difference in performance level
between male and female biology education students in that the female students perform
significantly better than the males. However, in this study, there is no significant difference in
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laboratory practical performance level of male and female students. But the result of this study 13
is in agreement with Jack (2013). A study conducted by Jack (2013), to find out the influence
of selected variables, such as sex, on students’ science process skills acquisition in Nigeria,
revealed that sex, does not influence students’ acquisition of science process skills.
Students’ course achievement (CGPA) is a significantly and a positively related with
laboratory skill performance test scores. The grade point average (CGPA) was also significantly
and positively related with higher education entrance exam score (p<0.000). This may be due to
students’ academic background and individual differences.
Biology laboratory skill test score is not significantly correlated with prior high school
and preparatory school biology laboratory background. This may be due to unstructured
laboratory activities or investigations at high school and preparatory schools. However,
correlation and multiple regression analyses revealed that students’ laboratory performance
skills are significantly positively correlated with higher education entrance exam score.
Conclusions and Recommendation
This research provides an overview of higher education entrance examination scores and
is a predictor of student success and students’ laboratory skill performance in undergraduate
biology program irrespective of gender. The finding of this study revealed that scores in theory
courses can be used to predict their scores in the practical courses. There is a significant and
positive linear correlation between students’ competences in practical skills and performance
in higher education entrance examination scores. There is also a significant and a positive
linear relationship between the students’ cumulative grade point average (CGPA) with higher
education entrance exam scores and biology laboratory skill test score. However, laboratory
skill performance test score was not correlated with students’ high school laboratory background
and sex. Therefore, there is a need for more of this type of study with a larger sample size to
examine why students’ high school laboratory background has no relation with undergraduate
laboratory skill performance. The study could also be extended to other programs such as
chemistry and physics. The findings implicated that the Ministry of Education should foster
secondary high schools and college preparatory schools to put greater efforts at preparing
undergraduate admitted students for students’ better outcome and their retention in universities.
References
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performance in MOCK-SSCE practical and theory chemistry examinations in some secondary
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Adeyemi, T. O. (2008). Predicting students’ performance in senior secondary certificate examinations
from performance in junior secondary certificate examinations in Ondo State, Nigeria. Humanity
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Aina, J. K. (2014). Student learning of physics in colleges of education: Analysis of performances.
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Bone, E. K., & Reid, R. J. (2011). Prior learning in biology at high school does not predict performance
in the first year at university. Higher Education Research and Development, 30 (6), 709-724. DOI:
10.1080/07294360.2010.539599
Clark, L. R. (2011). Examining the relation between high school science coursework and performance
in college chemistry (Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/
xmlui/bitstream/handle/1794/11966/clark_lakisha_rhea_phd2011su.pdf?sequence=1.
Creswell, J. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and
qualitative research. New Jersey: Pearson: Merrill Prentice Hall.
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14 Cushing, P. R. (2002). A comparative analysis of multiple choice and student performance –task
assessment in the high school biology class room (Doctoral dissertation). Available from ProQuest
Dissertations and Thesis Database. (UMI Number: 3052872).
Darling, N., Caldwell, L. L. & Smith, R. (2005). Participation in school-based extracurricular activities
and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Leisure Research, 37 (1), 51-76.
Falicoff, C. B., Castiñeiras, J. M. D., & Odetti, H. S. (2014). Science competency of Argentinian university
students in the first year of biochemistry and biotechnology courses. Problems of Education in the
21Stcentury, 62, 29-39.
Galiher, S. (2006). Understanding the effect of extracurricular involvement. A Research Project Report
M.Ed., Indiana University, South Bend. http://www.cscanada.org.
Hansen, J. B. (2000). Student Performance and student growth as measure of success: An evaluator’s
perspective. Paper presented at annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association
New Orleans, Louisiana, April 25, 2000.
Jack, G. U. (2013). The influence of identified student and school variables on students’ science process
skills acquisition. Journal of Education and Practice, 4 (5), 16-22.
Karemera, D., Reuben, L. J., & Sillah, M. R. (2003). The effects of academic environment and
background characteristics on student satisfaction and performance: The Case of South Carolina
State University’s School of Business. College Student Journal, 37,298-308.
Loehr, J. F., Almarode, J. T., Tai, R. H., & Sadler, P. M. (2012). High school and college biology: A multi-
level model of the effects of high school courses on introductory course performance. Journal of
Biological Education, 46 (3), 165-172, DOI: 10.1080/00219266.2011.617767.
Moni, R. W., Hryciw, D. H., Poronnik, P., Luka, L. J., & Moni, K. B. (2007). Assessing core manipulative
skills in a large, first-year laboratory. Advances in Physiology Education, 31, 266-269.
Nawaz, N. Mahmood, N., & Rana, R. K. (2004). Relationship between post-graduate science students’
achievement in theory and practical examination: A dimension to assess quality of higher
education. Bulletin of Education and Research, 26 (1), 41-47.
Noble, J., & Radunzel, J. (2007). College readiness = College success beyond the first year. Paper
presented at the Annual Forum of the Association for Institutional Research, June 2-6, Kansas
City, MO.
Ochonogor, C. E. (2011). Performance analysis of science education undergraduates: A case study of
biology education students. US-China Education Review, A, 5, 682-690.
Sadler, P. M., & Tai, R. H. (2001). Success in introductory college physics: The role of high school
preparation. Science Education, 85, 111-136.
Sawyer, R. (2008). Benefits of additional high school course work and improved course performance in
preparing students for college. ACT Research Report Series 2008-1.
Tai, R. H., Sadler, P. M., & Loehr, J. F. (2005). Factors influencing success in introductory college
chemistry. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42 (9), 987-1012.
Uwaifo, V. O. (2012). A comparative study of students’ performance in technology based theory and
practical subjects in Nigerian Universities. International Journal of Scientific and Technology
Research, 1 (1), 1-3.
Wang, L. (2009). Educational background and high school maths teachers’ specialism. International
Journal of Modern Education and Computer Science, 1, 28-34.
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Advised by Milan Kubiatko, University of Zilina, Slovakia 15
Received: June 09, 2016 Accepted: July 28, 2016
Getachew Fetahi Gobaw PhD., Assistant Professor, Team Leader, College of Natural and Compu-
tational Science Educational Quality & Audit, Ambo University, P.O. Box
19, Ethiopia.
E-mail: getachewfetahi@yahoo.com
Harrison Ifeanyichukwu Atagana PhD, Pr. Sc. Nat. FSB., Professor, Institute for Science and Technology
Education, University of South Africa, P.O. Box 392, UNISA 0003, South
Africa.
E-mail: atagahi@unisa.ac.za
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16
THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTANCED
E-LEARNING IN TEACHERS’ EDUCATION:
A CASE STUDY IN SLOVENIA
Milena Kerndl, Metka Kordigel Aberšek
University of Maribor, Slovenia
E-mail: milena.kerndl@zrssi.si, metka.kordigel@um.si
Abstract
In the last two decades a remarkable shift from conventional forms of teaching toward e-learning
happened on all levels of education. This shift included also teachers’ permanent, lifelong education.
The purpose of the study was to find and compare the effectiveness of conventional workshop and an
e-learning module in teachers’ lifelong/permanent professional training. A study included 30 mother
tongue teachers. The aim of the teachers training course curriculum was focused in their competence
for developing students’/reader’s reception metacognition (RRM), a competence which is a prerequisite
for differentiation/individualization in the process of implementation of literature curriculum in the
frame of mother tongue education. Pre- intervention and post- intervention teaching practice of both
groups of teachers were observed and compared to find out, which form of lifelong education influenced
participants’ teaching practice in a more effective way. The qualitative and quantitative analysis of data,
gained in e-module and compared with those, gained in the traditional workshop education, shows a
significantly bigger effect of education on the case study participants teaching practice for the group of
teachers, which participated in traditional educational form – a workshop.
Key words: distanced e-learning, lifelong learning, reader’s reception metacognition, teachers’ training.
Introduction
In the last two decades a remarkable shift from conventional forms of teaching toward
e-learning happened on all levels of education. The use of network technology for training is the
latest trend in the training and development industry and has been heralded as the ‘e-learning
revolution’ (Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, Yeh, 2008, Dolenc, Aberšek, 2015). E-learning is emerging
as the new paradigm of modern education. Worldwide the e-learning market has a growth rate
of 35, 6% (Welsh, Wanberg, Brown, Simmering, 2003) and the tendency is growing. According
to Bates (2005) there are seven reasons why governments, private sector and individual
students have given such a strong support to distance learning and e-learning: economic
competitiveness, the necessity for lifelong learning, social equity and access, better education,
cost effectiveness, geography and, probably most influential, commercialization of education.
In the frame of economic competitiveness e-learning is perceived as a new knowledge based
industry, able to create educational products and services, which can be marked internationally,
and as a means to improve the quality of education. Parallel to this a rapid development in
technology is happening. Consequently, the paradigm of learning for professional early years in
school and later using that knowledge for the lifetime doesn’t function any more. In the current
world jobs are changing very quickly and the knowledge, needed to perform the particular
job, is rapidly changing, too. Distance and e-learning provide the flexibility needed for adults
to continue their education while still working or family possibilities. Distance learning and
e-learning forms should grow also because they can generate social equity among learners
and guarantee the common access to knowledge. Especially if one considers high school fees
in the conventional school system. Under the right circumstances distance and e-learning can
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provide quality education and training to large numbers of learners at a lower cost than the 17
conventional educational system. “There is often the belief by key policy makers that in the
long term e-learning must be more cost effective, because it will replace high labor costs with
low-cost technology” (Bates, 2005, p.12).
The shift from conventional to distance and e-learning educational forms happened also
in the field of teachers’ education, especially teaches’ permanent, lifelong education. E-learning
in teachers’ training is more and more perceived as a very effective, highly motivational and
comfortable form of gaining new pedagogical knowledge, not to neglect its’ rather low costs
and the facts, how teachers save a lot of time (no travelling to the place of education), they can
choose the time of learning, but also that with one set of e-learning material almost unlimited
number of teachers can be reached (Flogie, Aberšek, 2015). The cost-benefit relation should
indubitably speak for replacing lectures and workshops with e-learning modules – if only one
could be convinced that this new form of permanent education form brings sufficient results
– an effective transfer of new knowledge into the teaching reality. As a matter of fact, some
doubts about this effectiveness have emerged lately (Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, Yeh, 2008, Welsh,
Wanberg, Brown, Simmering, 2003). Therefore, the necessity for closer research should be
performed on the effectiveness of distance learning education.
Based on the above literature the study aimed to compare the effectiveness of e-learning
educational form with effectiveness of conventional workshop educational form. For the study
teachers’ mother tongue and literature teaching competence was selected, a competence, which
includes also all forms of teaching literacy. Form so called 21st century literacies to online
literacies up to the (fiction) literature reception, which is, as all other literacies, rapidly changing
while moving from book to e-book on various reading devices. Being in line with the aim, the
following research questions were to be sought for answers within the scope of the current
study:
• Which of the educational forms, the conventional workshop or the distance

e-learning educational form, is more effective on teachers’ teaching practice?
Which group of teachers is going to use the new knowledge and differentiate
their literature class according previous investigation of students’ reception
metacognition?
• Which of the educational forms, the conventional or the distance e-learning

educational form, was evaluated as a successful one by the participated mother
tongue teachers? Which of both groups of teachers evaluates higher their own
progress in establishing their students’ reception metacognition?
Students’ Reception Metacognition (RRM)
The literature didactic curriculum for teachers defines different competencies for teaching
literature in the classroom. It points out teacher’s scientific competences, their knowledge of
literature history and of literature theory, it mentions general pedagogic and didactical competence
and special literature didactic knowledge (Krakar Vogel, 2006). In the frame of the last one it
doesn’t mention teachers’ knowledge about the reception theory and connected – knowledge
about the importance of student’s horizon of expectations. As a consequence, observing the
school reality (see later in the text) shows that mother tongue teachers are very well trained to be
literature scientists (their knowledge of literature history and literature theory is excellent) but
they know very little about the reception theory and know hardly anything about the students’
horizons of expectations. Such situation dictates a new consideration about the mother tongue
teachers training curriculum and especially a consideration about the new literary didactic
competence: a competence for developing students’ reader’s reception metacognition (RRM)
and in this framework also a competence for detecting the quality of students’ horizons of
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18 expectations. To develop such competences a mother tongue teacher should get new knowledge
and new skills: he should gain knowledge about the aesthetic reception, about RRM, insight
about his own reception metacognition and about the importance of developing RRM at his
students. He should also learn strategies for developing students’ MMR and he should learn the
strategies for detecting the quality of students’ horizon of expectations. Knowledge about RRM
can be derived from the reception theory and the reader response theory. The reception theory
originated from the work of H. R. Jauss in the late 1960s and is a version of reader’s response
literary theory that emphasizes the reader’s reception of a literary text. According to Jauss
(1982) a literary work, even if it seems new, does not appear as something absolutely new, in an
informational vacuum, but predisposes its readers to a very definite type of reception by textual
strategies, overt and covert signals, familiar characteristics or implicit allusions. It awakens
memories of the familiar, stirs particular emotions in the reader and with its ‘beginning’ arouses
expectations for the ‘middle and end’, which can then be continued intact, changed, reoriented
or even ironically fulfilled in the course of reading according to certain rules of the genre or type
of text (Kerndl, Kordigel Aberšek, 2012). Realizing the importance of understanding how the
reader’s interpretation is produced, Jauss introduced the concept of “horizon of expectations”
in order to reveal the way in which the text interacts with the reader’s interpretation. Jauss
explains that the horizon of expectations is formed through the reader’s life experience, customs
and understanding of the world, which have an effect on the reader’s social behaviour.” (Jauss,
1982: p.39) In short: Students’ understanding of literary text is limited with their competence to
overlap their horizon of expectations with the literary text. According to all this, mother tongue
teacher should know that each of his students has his own, very specific horizon of expectation.
According to reception theory readers’ reception metacognition includes the awareness
of his horizon of expectations. Developing students’ horizon of expectation awareness is an
essential part of mother tongue teachers’ strategy for developing RRM competence. With
teachers’ help each student thinks (and talks) about his literature reading, about his reception
competence, about his intertextual experiences, about his attitude toward literature reading,
about influences, his environment has/had on his literature reading, what does he like to read
about, how is his reception competence changing/developing. This way a student becomes
aware of processes, activities, standpoints, environment and experiences that influence his
reception of literature and he is aware of his weaknesses and strengths in the process of reading
literature. A student is following his own thinking process, while thinking about literary text.
For the process of developing the RRM it is important that the student knows himself
and his own horizon of expectations – and it is equally important that the teacher knows the
horizons of expectation of his students. But in the literature class reality he usually doesn’t. Or
he knows some parts of horizon of expectations of very few students’ – the knowledge, he has
got accidently in interpretation conversations with his students. In the context of developing
RRM mother tongue teacher should learn some strategies for detecting and evaluating the
horizon of expectations of his students’. To mention only some: a questionnaire about the
literary aesthetic family environment, a reading portfolio, a questionnaire about reading habits
and attitudes, a check list, a reflexive letter, a guided interview, a poster of reading activities.
(Kerndl, Kordigel Aberšek, 2012). With this strategy can both, teacher and student, recognize,
monitor and evaluate horizons of expectations.
General Characteristics of Research
Methodology used for the examination was a case study, an approach of qualitative
research. A case study was chosen, because it is an in-depth approach, useful to observe and
evaluate a particular program, project or setting (Lichtman, 2009). The research design for the
case study explored the effectiveness of two forms of teachers’ lifelong/permanent education: a
workshop and an e-learning module.
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Each group of teachers was educated in a competence for developing students’/reader’s 19

reception metacognition (RRM), a competence which is a prerequisite for differentiation/
individualization of implementation of literature curriculum in the frame of mother tongue
education. The pre intervention and the post intervention teaching practice of both groups of
teachers was observed and compared to find out, which form of permanent education forms
influenced participants’ teaching practice in a more effective way.
First teachers’ existing competence for detecting students’ horizon of expectation was
examined. For defining the pre intervention knowledge about RRM and its implementation in
the class was a reactive observation of the literature didactic unit of both groups of teachers,
those, who chose a work shop permanent education and those, who chose e-learning module.
After establishing the initial level of RRM competence the intervention followed:
• for group one an especially designed training, where teachers’ knowledge about
students’ horizons of expectations and knowledge about strategies for establishing
horizons of expectations was developed in a form of traditional workshop (WS
group);
• for group two (e-group) the same knowledge about students’ horizons of expectations
and knowledge about strategies for establishing horizons of expectations was
prepared in a form of e-material.
After the intervention (participating in workshops/receiving e-material) the teachers’

competence for developing students’ RRM in WS group and e-group was investigated for the
second time – their literature didactical units were monitored and evaluated with the same
evaluation sheet. Additionally, teachers were asked to evaluate their own progress in a self-
evaluation essay.
Finally, the results of both groups were evaluated, compared and conclusions were made.
The study was carried out in the academic year 2012/2013.
Participants of Research
Selecting of the sample was connected with the previous research (Kerndl, 2013) in which
274 teachers were randomly chosen, mother tongue teachers’ RRM competence was assessed.
Teachers were asked if they establish students’ horizon of expectations before planning yearly
curriculum for literature teaching. At the same time teachers were asked, if they would be
interested in participating in the course, in which they would learn to determine their students’
RRM. In the second step from those teachers, who declared, they would be interested in gaining
more knowledge, 30 teachers were randomly chosen and divided into two groups – according
to their preferences: into the WS group (group 1) and into the e-group (group 2). Both groups
included 15 teachers.
Instruments of Research and Procedures
The research was performed in three phases: pre intervention teaching practice,
intervention phase and evaluation phase. For the pre intervention phase a didactic unit observation
sheet was used, for the intervention phase a curriculum training course was implemented and
for final evaluation two instruments were used: again the didactic unit observation sheet and a
participants’ self-evaluation essay:
• Didactic unit observation sheet

In both, WS group and e-group, teachers’ RRM competence was observed twice - in
the pre intervention and in the evaluation phase of the research. This observation
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20 was carefully planned, systematic and structured. A researcher attended the teachers’
literature class and observed their didactic unit according to criteria, selected
before the observation and listed in the for the observation prepared didactic unit
observation sheet. The observation scheme contained the following observational
categories: in which phase of the didactic unit the principle of individualization
and/or differentiation was included, which students were the target group of
individualization and/or differentiation, what was the aim of the individualization
and/or differentiation, which content was used to achieve this aim and which methods
were used for individualization and/or differentiation.
• Curriculum for training course: RRM competence

The second phase was the implementation of education for teachers. The training
course was performed according to the Curriculum for training course: RRM
competence. This curriculum was divided into three thematic sections. After each
training unit teachers were advised to test new acquired skills with the elements of
action research.
In the first workshop meeting reception theory was introduced to the teachers.
Reception aesthetics was introduced as a methodological direction that defines
the reception of a literary text as an interaction between the text and readers’
understanding of the world. Then the term horizon of expectations was introduced.
The dialog between the text and reader’s horizon of expectations can be spontaneous
or reflexive (Jauss, 1982). It was pointed out that reflexive reception is associated
with the distanced reader’s thinking and therefore his RRM. At the first training
teachers were taught what the horizon of expectations is, the factors which affect it,
and the focus on the reader/learner in connection with it. After the first training the
teachers were asked to study the literary aesthetic environment of their students. The
findings were presented at the second training meeting.
The aim of the second meeting was to link RRM and motivation for reading
literature. L1 teachers were instructed on the importance and impact of RRM on
motivation for reading. The workshop produced a variety of strategies through which
they examined their students’ attitude to reading according to their family’s attitude
towards literature, previous literature teacher (how they affected their motivation),
stress they experienced during literacy process (or have learned to read quickly, with
problems ...), the literary interest (thematic, genre, gender ...), intertextual experience
and impact of contemporary media. Based on these findings, teachers encouraged
students to observe and be self-reflexive in processing and understanding of literary
reading and thinking about the causes of motivation or lack of motivation for reading
literature. Teachers reported about these findings at the third meeting.
The third workshop meeting was designed for training L1 teachers to think
about their own RRM because knowledge about their own RRM is necessary if they
want to develop students’ RRM. In addition, mother tongue teachers were looking
for ways how to use their new knowledge on the horizon of expectations and RRM
in the curriculum for literature teaching and the teaching itself. To help, we offered
teachers a didactic reminder that encourages literature teaching according to the
students’ horizon of expectations and development of students’ RRM.
Teachers, who had chosen the e-education, received e-materials in three
packages – analogue to three workshop meetings of the first group. They studied
the e-materials in the time, they could choose by themselves and they were not
time limited (as teachers who attended workshops). Their e-materials included
recommendations (advices) to implement the in curriculum introduced and
suggested methods for detecting students’ horizons of expectation in their teaching
practice. In short: e-education was almost identical to that, received by the workshop
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participants. The only difference between them was the way, knowledge arrived to 21
the participant and the opportunity to discuss the experiences, the workshop teachers
had and the e-teachers did not have (Kerndl, Aberšek, 2012).
• Teachers’ qualitative self-evaluation essay

In a short qualitative self-evaluation essay teachers evaluated their didactic teaching
units and their experience with research performed during their participation in
training courses, and thus expanded their field of awareness on the importance of
developing students’ RRM. It was decided to give this essay some components of
semi structured interview and asked teachers to focus in their evaluation also on
some questions: does the RRM contribute to students’ motivation for reading fiction,
how important is to develop students’ RRM, do they intend to use new knowledge,
gained in the RRM curriculum in their teaching practice in future, what is their
opinion about the education form (work shop/e-education), would they choose the
same type of education next time.
Data Analysis
The data analysis was started by recording the presence or absence of observational
categories in literature classes for teachers educated, which participated the WS education and
for those, which participated in the e-learning education. The following data were recorded
for each group: in which phase of the didactic unit the principle of individualization and/or
differentiation was included, which students were the target group of individualization and/
or differentiation, what was the aim of the individualization and/or differentiation, which
content was used to achieve this aim and which methods were used for individualization and/
or differentiation. This data was summarized in six tables, which give the insight in which parts
of the didactic unit teachers used the differentiation and individualization, which was the focus
group for differentiation and individualization and which were criteria for differentiation and
individualization. The data collected before and after intervention were gathered in the same
table, which gives the possibility to observe the progress of teaching practice for each group
of teachers, those who participated in WS education form and those, which participated in
e-learning education form.
Results of Research
The results of the current study are presented in three groups. Firstly, the implementation
of differentiation in the literature class before and after intervention is presented – separately
for the WS group and for the e-group. Finally, the results for the two groups are compared. The
results of the observations regarding the targeted group for the differentiation are presented,
and finally the criteria, used for differentiation are presented. This group of results give the
insight into the teachers’ understanding of their students’ RRM and with this into the level of
effectiveness of educational form: WS or distanced e-learning.
Observation of the Literature Class
The results of observation literature education didactic units before and after the
intervention and the comparison of results of WS and e-group educated teachers are presented
in tables 1-6. Teachers, who participated in the workshop are marked as T1–T15 (T=teacher)
and teachers, who were educated in the e-group, are marked as T16‒T30. The observation
procedure consisted of a closed system of observation categories and was recorded on a
prepared observation sheet.
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22 Table 1. Phase of implementation - WS group.
Total Total
Phase T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6 T 7 T 8 T 9 T 10 T 11 T 12 T 13 T 14 T 15
f f (%)
a) Motivation ∆ 1 6.6
+ + + + + + + + + 9 59.4
b) Reception
and guided ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ 6 39.6
interpretation
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 15 100
c) Creative dis-
covery of deeper
meanings: (re) ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ 10 66.6
creative writing,
drama ...
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + 14 92.4
d) Evaluation 0
0
e) Homework ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ 5 33.3
+ + + + + + + + + + + 11 72.6
f) No differentia-
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ 4 26.4
tion
0
∆ observed at the initial observation (before intervention)
+ observed at the final observation (after the intervention)
The initial literature class observation revealed that two thirds of the teachers (66.6 %)
used differentiation approach in the phase of »creative discovery of deeper meanings«, 39.6 %
teachers used the principle of differentiation for the reception and guided interpretation, 33.3 %
teachers gave students different homework. Just in one case a differentiated motivation was
observed, the observation of four teachers (26.4 %) showed no traces of differentiation and
individualization.
The second observation – after the implementation of RRM curriculum – showed quite
a different picture. The principle of differentiation and individualization was used in the phase
of motivation by 59.4 % teachers, »creative discovery of deeper meanings was differentiated
by 92.4 % teachers, different homework gave 7.6 % of the teachers, and reception and guided
interpretation was differentiated in all observed literature class didactic units.
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Table 2. Phase of implementation - e-group. 23
T T T T T T T Total Total
Phase T 23 T 24 T 25 T 26 T 27 T 28 T 29 T 30
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 f f (%)
a) Motivation 0
+ + + + + 5 33.3
b) Reception and
guided interpre- ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ 5 33.3
tation
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + 13 85.8
c) Creative dis-
covery of deeper
meanings: (re) ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
8 52.8
creative writing,
drama ...
+ + + + + + + + + + + 11 72.6
d) Evaluation ∆ 1 6.6
e) Homework ∆ ∆ 2 13.2
+ + + + + + + 7 46.2
f) No differentia-
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ ∆ 6 39.6
tion
0 0
The pre intervention observation of literature didactic unit showed 52.8 % cases
of creative discovery of deeper meanings: (re)creative writing, drama, 33.3 % cases of
differentiated reception and guided interpretation, 13.2 % teachers gave differentiated homework
and only one case (6.6 %) of using differentiated evaluation methods. Not a single teacher
used differentiation in the phase of motivation. In 39.6 % cases no use of differentiation was
observed. After implementation of e-module RRM curriculum, a different situation regarding the
implementation of teaching paradigm was observed: 33.3 % of the teachers used differentiation
in the phase of motivation, 85.8 % teachers used differentiation in the phase of reception and
guided interpretation, 72.6 % in the phase of creative discovery of deeper meanings: (re)creative
writing, drama ... Also homework was differentiated in 46.2 % of literature classes.
Table 3. A group – WS group.
Total Total
Target T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6 T 7 T 8 T 9 T 10 T 11 T 12 T 13 T 14 T 15
f f (%)
a) Gifted students ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 4 26.4
+ + + + + + + + + 9 59.4
b) Students with
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
special needs 11 72.6
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 15 100
c) Other (not a
✓ ✓ ✓ 3 19.8
or b)
+ + + + + + + + + + + + 12 79.2
Before attending the workshop RRM curriculum the majority of the teachers gave the
attention (and differentiated approach) to the group of students with special needs – 72.6 %.
26,4 % performed differentiation/individualization for gifted students, only 3 teachers – 19.8 %
used special (differentiated) approaches in other students, according to their literature interests,
competences, learning style.
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24 After attending a workshop RRM curriculum teachers shifted their focus: if they
previously paid their attention almost exclusively to the students with special needs, they later
focused their attention also to other students. Table 3 shows: 79,2 % teachers differentiated
their didactic approach also for students, which did not belong to the groups a and b. Also the
bigger number of cases where teachers differentiated for gifted students was observed (59,4 %).
On the other hand, it was observed that also teachers, who didn’t differentiate at all before the
intervention, after attending the work shop RRM curriculum, used differentiation for students
with special needs (teacher T6, T8, T9 and T13).
Table 4. A group – e-group.
Total Total
Target T 16 T 17 T 18 T 19 T 20 T 21 T 22 T 23 T 24 T 25 T 26 T 27 T 28 T 29 T 30
f f (%)
a) Gifted ✓ ✓ ✓ 3 19.8
+ + + + + + + + + + + 11 72.6
b)
Students
with ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
8 52.8
special
needs
+ + + + + + + + + + + 11 72.6
c) Other
(not a ✓ ✓ 2 13.2
or b)
+ + + + + + + 7 46.2
The results of literature class observation before the intervention showed similar results
than in the WS group: 52.8 % teachers used differentiated didactic approach for students with
special needs. 19.8 teachers gave differentiated attention to gifted students, only 13.2 % of the
teachers used differentiated approach for students, which didn’t belong to the groups a or b. Six
teachers – 39.6 % – didn’t use any differentiated approaches (T17, T19, T20, T23, T24, T30).
Participation in e-module RRM curriculum brought changes: the most remarkable
change occurred in differentiation of didactic approaches for gifted students – 72.6 % adjusted
their methods for these students. Teachers also focused their attention to students, who don’t
belong to the groups of gifted students nor to the group of students with special needs, and have,
according to the reception theory, individual horizons of expectations ‒ 46.2 % of the teachers
used differentiated didactic methods chosen according to individual horizons of expectations.
Two teachers’ T17 and T23 didn’t use any differentiation also after participating in e-module
RRM curriculum.
Table 5. Criteria for differentiation – WS group.
Tot. Tot.
Criteria T 1 T 2 T 3 T 4 T 5 T 6 T 7 T 8 T 9 T 10 T 11 T 12 T 13 T 14 T 15
f f (%)
According to
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 11 72,6
the feeling
0
According to
horizons of
expectation/
0
reception
competence
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 15 100
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The first observation (before the intervention) showed that teachers used irrelevant 25
criteria for differentiation: they planed the differentiated approaches according to general
assessments (marks), according to which they divided students to the weak and a good group,
and concluded, that the weak students must have a low developed cognitive competence and
the good students must have a good developed cognitive competence. The second criterion for
differentiating literature class was the reading speed and reading fluency. None of the teachers
used as a criterion for differentiation information about students’ reception competence or the
horizon of expectations – all 72.6 % teachers, where differentiation was observed, made the
differentiation according to »the feeling«.
After attending the RRM curriculum and after using the introduced methods for horizon
of expectations on their students, the second observation of literature class showed a different
situation: teachers didn’t differentiate according to their feeling, for planning the differentiation
relevant criteria for differentiation of literature class they used students’ reception competence
and the horizon of expectation.
Table 6. Criteria for differentiation - e-group.
T T T T T T T T T T T T T T Total Total
Criteria T 30
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 f f (%)
According to
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ 9 59.4
the feeling
+ + + + + 5 33.3
According to
horizons of
expectation/
0
reception
competence
+ + + + + + + + + + 10 66.6
Also in e-group, similar than in WS group, no one used reception competence or horizon
of expectation as a criterion for differentiation before attending the RRM curriculum. Similar
than in WS group, a criterion “better/weaker student” was used, or, in short: if differentiation
was used, it was according to the teachers’ “feeling”.
The second observation of literature class showed two kinds of differences:
1. After the intervention 66.6 % of the teachers used reception competence and horizon
of expectation as a criterion for the differentiation,
2. After the intervention 33.3 % teachers still used »their feeling« as a criterion for
differentiation. Comparing this result with the WS group shows a remarkable
difference: in WS group all teachers have learned to use relevant criteria for
differentiation of literature class, in the e-group, the RRM curriculum was successful
only in two thirds of cases.
Teachers’ Self-Evaluation Essay
Teachers’ self-evaluation essays are in this study treated as a form of narrative inquiry. A
narrative is retrospective meaning making – the shaping and/ordering of past experience. It is a
way of understanding one’s one and the others’ actions. In addition to describing what happened,
narratives, in Denzin and Lincolns words »express emotions, thoughts and interpretations”
(Denzin & Lincoln, 2005, p.656).
The essays were carefully read and compressed records of each essay were prepared
according to five central questions: does the RRM contribute to students’ motivation for reading
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26 fiction, how important is it to develop students’ RRM, do they intend to use new knowledge,
gained in the RRM curriculum in their teaching practice in future, what is their opinion about
the education form (work shop/e-education), would they choose the same type of education
next time?
• Teachers’ opinions about contributing RRM to students’ motivation for reading

fiction and importance of developing RRM
All 30 teachers, who participated in a qualitative inquiry, expressed the opinion that it
is important for students to know their literary interests, to know, how they create the meaning
of the literary text and that the teacher discuses with them the topic and therefore develop their
reading reception metacognition (RRM).
The answers to the question about correlation between developed RRM and reading
fiction motivation are similar: 27 teachers (81 %) agree that developed reading metacognition
contributes to the fiction reading motivation. We illustrate these findings with some opinions
expressed by teachers (names are changed):
In my opinion it is highly important for a student to be aware about his own attitude toward
reading and to be aware, why he likes reading a particular type of literature and why he doesn’t
like other type of literature. Students must be aware of their reading strengths. Only in this case
they can reach a higher level of their reception competence. (Karmen)
I think a developed reading metacognition contributes to the motivation for reading literature.
In discovering his own meaning making process of literature a student is discovering himself. It
will become clear to the student, what he is interested in and what he dislikes. Reading reception
metacognition is guiding him to discover himself and to discover his own attitude toward reading.
It helps a student to discover why his attitude toward reading is a positive or a negative one and
to find out what he can do (together with his teacher) to raise his reading motivation. (Vanja)
I think it is very important for students to know their reading interest and how they create their
literature world. Only in this case they can monitor and positively develop their reception process
– alone or with the help of someone, who is trying to help him in that process. This someone can
be a parent, a peer or a teacher. And it is also important for me as a teacher to know the reading
interests of each particular student in my class. Only this way I can define goals I want to reach in
my literature class for each of my students. At the same time, I can help each student to recognize
his personal reading curricular goals. I can help him to find out what kind of reader he wants to
become. Knowing students’ RRM makes possible to reach highest possible goals at each student
regarding his reading motivation. (Irena)
• Teachers’ intentions regarding using new knowledge, gained in the RRM curriculum,
in their teaching practice future
All 30 teachers, who participated in the RRM curriculum, those, who attended workshops
and those, who had chosen the e-module expressed the intention for using the new gained
knowledge in their teaching practice. They said the content of the education program was very
useful. They admitted, they didn’t know, what horizon of expectation was, before participating
in the RRM curriculum, they didn’t know what is influencing the horizon of expectation, which
strategies could be used for discovering students’ horizon of expectation and above all: they
didn’t know that knowing of students’ horizon of expectation is a pre requisite (pre-condition)
for monitoring of students’ reception competence and planning of its’ developing process:
I will definitely use my new knowledge in my teaching practice. It is now clear to me, that for
a successful literature class, for a successful literature education of my students and for their
positive attitude toward literature I definitely have to know horizons of expectation of each of my
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students – because this is a starting point for the differentiation and individualization of literature 27
education. As a teacher I have to know, what to differentiate for each group of my students and
how to differentiate it - which students need differentiation in the phase of motivation, which in
the phase of reception and guided interpretation and which for the phase of creative discovery
of deeper meanings: (re)creative writing, drama ... Now I know, how to observe differences in
horizons of expectation and reception competence in my students. In the RRM curriculum I have
learned how to find out the differences in horizons of expectations in my students. I found some
methods very promising: for instance, the reading story, which helps me to get acquainted with
students’ literary aesthetic environment, a questionnaire about reading interests, reflection letter
or reading time belt, comic reading, exhibition of favourite books ... (Mira)
The essential knowledge I gained is the fact that the horizons of expectations must be examined
– for each of my students. The student cantered literature class is possible only, if the teacher
knows each students’ horizon of expectation – which depends from his intertextual experience
and his extrotextual experience. Planning of literature class differentiation is possible only after
examination macro and micro horizons of expectation. (Danica)
• Teachers’ opinions about the education form (work shop/e-education); would they
choose the same type of education next time?
All 15 teachers, who attended the RRM curriculum in WS group, expressed a positive
opinion about the educational form. They appreciated the carefulness of the selection of
themes in theoretical part of the workshop and were very pleased with the fact that no theory
was lectured because of itself. Everything, what was “lectured”, was clearly connected with
the teaching reality. Also, the workshop group teachers pointed out the positive effect of
»homework« - a chance for evaluating the suggested methods for examination of students’
horizons of expectation on their own students and the positive effect of confronting their
experiences with the findings with other participants in the group.
This type of education is one of those, from which you don’t go home »empty«. You get only the
amount of theory that you understand, only what is necessary. All the next steps origin from your
own teaching practice. That is important because you immediately see why that is useful in your
own classroom. Also the research of one’s’ own students (as a homework) was important – this is
the only way you see the relevance of new knowledge for your pedagogical work. (Mojca)
On the other hand, in e-group only 11 teachers were satisfied with the educational form –
as they pointed out, because they could avoid travelling and because they could choose the
time of studying the e- materials of RRM curriculum. But the careful reading of essays of
teachers which generally expressed, they had been satisfied with the e- learning form, shows,
they missed the opportunity to participate in the work with other colleagues and exchanging
their experiences with them.
I missed the collaboration with colleagues – the opportunity I would have had in a workshop.
There is no doubt I have learned a lot with my individual work in front of my computer at home.
But this first experience with e-learning didn’t convince me. I missed the exchange of opinions,
I missed the opportunity to discuss my experience with experiences of colleagues and I missed
to hear about concrete examples in my colleagues’ classes. I the process of studying »theory« I
had doubts regarding my correct understanding. It would have helped, if I could ask the lecturer
immediately in the work shop. (Sabina)
• The intentions to repeat the just experienced education form next time
All 15 teachers in traditional workshop educational form expressed the intention

of selecting the same educational form (=workshop) also next time. Their argument was
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28 predominantly the circumstance that they could get all their answers they needed immediately,
they praised the opportunity to exchange the experiences, the possibility to get more new ideas
or (in teachers’ words) “because the life interaction gives opportunity for more productive,
qualitative and pleasant work”.
In e-group teachers’ opinions were more diverse. 10 from 15 teachers expressed the
intention to select a workshop educational form next time. The e-module RRM curriculum
experience with e-learning seemed not to suit them. Remaining 5 teachers, who expressed,
they would like to repeat the experience with e-learning, underlined that saving the time and
deciding, when they are going to learn, was the most important criterion for evaluation of the
educational form.
Discussion
E-learning in the frame of distance learning is education, where the instructor and the
student are geographically dispersed and the technology is used to facilitate the education.
The main advantages of distance education are availability, reduced costs, flexibility and
integration (Neal, 2000). According to early theoretical thought (Brown, Champione, 1996) the
predictions for such form of transferring knowledge should be very optimistic. Also, empirical
research showed the same directions (Winne, Perry, 2000; Zimmermann, 2000; Pintrich,
2000). Yet a meaningful amount of research brought doubts. Bernard et. all. (2004) conducted
a meta-analysis of comparative distance education and compared 232 studies containing 688
independent achievements, attitude and retention outcomes. Overall results indicated effect
sizes of essentially zero on all three measures and wide variability. This suggests, as the authors
point out, “that many applications of DE outperform their classroom counterparts and that
many perform more poorly (Bernard et al, 379)”. Similarly, Moore et all. (2011) answer the
question of their research E-Learning, online learning, and distance learning environments:
Are they the same? With serious doubts, since their research shows the opposite direction.
Differently Allen et all. (2004) could find no serious doubts in the effectiveness of distanced
e-learning: in their study they used the meta-analysis to summarize the quantitative literature
comparing the performance of students in distance education versus traditional classes. Their
results demonstrate no clear decline in educational effectiveness when using distance education
technology.
The results of the research, which had been performed, give no clear answer. In such
context also the results of presented research have to be interpreted: participated teachers in of
both groups, those, who had chosen the workshop educational form and those, who had chosen
the e-module have expressed the positive opinion of the curriculum of their educational program,
which is the consequence of the fact that the chosen topic was tightly connected with the real
problem of their teaching practice – differentiation and individualization in literature education.
Teachers had gained new knowledge and new competences, needed for implementation of
differentiation and individualization didactic principle in their daily classroom work. The results
of the didactic unit observation show that all teachers in the workshop group gained the new
competence for detecting students’ horizons’ of expectation and use it as a criterion for selecting
an adequate didactic approach in their student cantered literature class. On the other hand,
e-learning was not equally successful. Also teachers (self) evaluation essays showed that they
liked the workshop educational form better than the e-educational form. They clearly expressed
their high opinion of the combination of theoretical knowledge with experienced self-learning –
they liked working in workshops, they liked reflection, they liked group discussions, they liked
qualitative research on their own teaching practice and they liked »live« communication, where
they could exchange experiences, showed their creativity, where they had the opportunity to
learn from each other.
Workshop learning had shown in our research better results. The reason for that is
probably the successful connection between theory and the systematic didactic procedure for
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learning the new didactical competence with the elements of qualitative research on existing 29
teaching practice.
Conclusions
Despite the fact that the e-learning forms seem to replace conventional forms of learning
on all levels of education, also teachers’ permanent – lifelong education − the results of our
study point out the necessity for rethinking the unavoidability of this process.
There is no doubt: e-learning is very effective, highly motivational and comfortable form
of gaining new pedagogical knowledge, it is not expensive (as are traditional educational forms),
the participants can save a lot of time (no travelling to the place of education), they can choose
the time of learning and that with one set of e-learning material almost unlimited number of
participants can be reached. The cost-benefit relation indubitably speaks for replacing lectures
and workshops with e-learning modules.
The qualitative analysis of results, gained in e-module and compared with those,
gained in the traditional workshop education shows a significantly bigger effect of education
on participants’ teaching practice for the group of teachers, who participated in traditional
educational form – a workshop. Perhaps the results cannot be generalized for all areas of
teachers’ permanent education, but for literature education there could be concluded: if the
changes really want to be achieved in teaching practice, teachers’ permanent education has to
be organized in educational programmes in which the primary goal will not be the limitation of
costs. The focus should be on the cost benefit relationship: and in case of literature education,
positive effects of traditional educational forms (workshop education) are with the present
study explored and proven. The positive shifts in teaching practice can be only expected if a
high quality education for teachers is organized, if educational forms are chosen, in which new
knowledge is combined with workshops, with creation of motivation for evaluating (in the
workshops self-developed teaching strategies) in teachers’ own professional environment (their
class) and in which we create opportunities for confronting new gained experiences with their
professional social environment.
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30 Krakar Vogel, B., (2006). Književna vzgoja in ključne kompetence [Literature education and key
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Advised by Laima Railienė, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Lithuania
Received: June 02, 2016 Accepted: August 05, 2016
Milena Kerndl University of Maribor, Slovenia

E-mail: milena.kerndl@zrssi.si
Metka Kordigel Aberšek PhD., Professor, University of Maribor, Slovenia.

E-mail: metka.kordigel@um.si
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INVESTIGATING THE MOST NEGLECTED 31
STUDENT LEARNING DOMAIN IN

HIGHER EDUCATION: A CASE STUDY
ON THE IMPACT OF TECHNOLOGY ON
STUDENT BEHAVIOUR AND EMOTIONS IN
UNIVERSITY MATHEMATICS LEARNING
Samuel Olugbenga King

Pittsburgh, USA
E-mail: king.samuel@outlook.com
Abstract
Do students’ emotions and behaviours influence their learning in mathematics classes, and if yes, how and
why? Based on a qualitative research design, evidence on how the use of Electronic Voting Systems (EVS)
has influenced students’ emotional and behavioural engagement with university mathematics learning is
presented. The results show that the use of EVS enables students to diagnose their level of understanding
of learning material, relative to the rest of the class. EVS use also helps, in real time, to stimulate,
maintain, and re-focus student attention during mathematics instruction. A favourable perception of the
learning environment as being altruistic appears to have influenced students to emotionally identify and
align themselves with mathematics learning goals. There is enhanced interactivity in EVS-facilitated
lectures, including positive student competitiveness, while the EVS anonymity utility also enhances
increased student participation rates. However, a major disincentive to student engagement is the use
of EVS-based mathematics questions with low cognitive demand. This research is a contribution to how
specific educational technology-based interventions influence student engagement.
Key words: emotional/behavioural engagement, digital natives, EVS/Clickers, engineering mathematics.
Introduction
Technology is transforming the student learning experience. Across Europe, Africa,

Asia and North America (e.g., Howard, 2012; Jaschik & Lederman, 2014; Keppell, Suddaby
& Hard, 2015; Parr, 2013; Nkurunziza, 2013; Akue-Kpakpo, 2013; OECD, 2013, 2015a), and
through innovative platforms, such as virtual schools and universities (Guo, Kim & Rubin,
2014), open educational resources (Nikoi & Armellini, 2012), big data and learning analytics
(Oblinger, 2012; Petersen, 2012), and interactive polling (Voelkel & Bennett, 2014; King &
Robinson, 2009a,b), technology is transforming both the student experience or engagement
and associated learning outcomes (Stover et al., 2015; Bryne-Davis et al., 2015; Brady, Seli
& Rosenthal, 2013; OECD, 2015b) across all subjects and disciplines (Puschmann & Bastos,
2015; Dalbello, 2011; Shapero, 2015; Thomson, Purcell & Rainee, 2013; Olive & Makar, 2009;
Di Blas et al., 2014).
Moreover, the current and future generations of students or digital natives, who do not
know what it means to live without the internet have ‘a completely different type of relationship
to the media’ (Wong, 2015). The students we teach and can expect to teach are emotive and
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impact of technology on student behaviour and emotions in university mathematics learning
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32 have an ‘engrained instinct to share everything, including their personal data’ (Elkin, 2015). For
example, ‘blogs have led to a complete reversal of the “diary” phenomenon – whereas once kids
kept their feelings locked up in a book, today they (or at least many of them) prefer to post them
online for all to see and share’ (Prensky, 2012, p. 91). Other examples of digital natives’ social
media activities include “liking”, “unliking”, selfies (personal photographs), and interactive
commenting on friends’ feeds or activities. Hence, the engagement mode of the digital native
student population with technology has a quite visible emotional component.
In contrast, the default mode of technology integration in undergraduate education
eschews overt displays of emotion, while prioritizing cognitive engagement with learning, thus
inadvertently enabling ‘flight from feelings’ (Gibbs, 2013, p. 12; see also Suarez-Orozco et al.,
2015, and Zins & Elias, 2006) classrooms, especially at the university level. Yet recent research
studies strongly indicate that the affective learning domain is indispensable to catalysing
learning transfer or sustainable learning (Salcito, 2012; Stover et al., 2015; OECD, 2015b;
Heckman & Kautz, 2014), and that considerations of student emotions and behaviours can
create a “gateway to learning” effect on student learning outcomes (Cazzell & Rodriguez,
2011). So the goal in this article is to demonstrate through a qualitative research-based case
study, how an educational technology such as interactive polling can be used to catalyse student
engagement with learning mathematics through a description of the impact of the use of the
technology on students’ emotions and behaviour (i.e., the affective learning domain).
Case Study on the Impact of Technology on Affective Learning
This case study is therefore presented to highlight the potential and critical role that
technology can play in catalysing digital natives’ emotional and behavioural engagement with
learning in both future classrooms and informal, out-of-school-or-university contexts. Therefore,
this article will be focusing on the most neglected aspect of university student learning – the
affective domain (Cazzell & Rodriguez, 2011). Specifically, the article will highlight, through
a case study, the impact of interactive polling (clicker) technology on students’ behaviour and
emotions, as a measure of student engagement with learning mathematics.
Introduction: Electronic Voting Systems
EVS is an educational tool that can be used in a class, at its most basic level, in the
same manner polling devices are used on the television programme, ‘Who Wants to Be a
Millionaire’ (Ask the Audience section). The EVS technology typically consists of handsets,
which are similar in shape, design and function to small television remote control units; a
receiver or dongle that is essentially a USB device that is plugged into a computer port; and the
enabling software which has to be downloaded to a computer. A lecturer uses the software on
the computer to create (usually multiple choice) questions, which can be presented to students
in class. The students answer the questions by clicking the corresponding alphanumeric answer
choice on their EVS handsets (Figure 1).
Student responses are then displayed, also in real time, in the form of a suitable chart
(Figure 1). The lecturer may then decide to elaborate on any relevant issues arising out of the
question and answer display session.
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34 Further, research indicates that the use of EVS could significantly increase student
engagement (e.g., Brady, Seli & Rosentahl, 2013; Byrne-Davis et al., 2015; Caldwell, 2007,
Simpson & Oliver, 2007; Fies & Marshall, 2006). One study concluded that the most significant
benefit of EVS use is the catalysis of student engagement with learning (King& Robinson,
2009a).
However, student engagement, specifically in relation to EVS use, has often been
defined narrowly; with studies purportedly evaluating engagement mostly focusing on the
impact of EVS use on student attitudes or participation in class (e.g., see Simpson & Oliver,
2007). Consequently, this article will highlight the relationship between the use of EVS and the
affective learning domain in stimulating student engagement with learning by focusing on the
following more comprehensive emotional and behavioural engagement constructs:
 Student Attention
 Student Comparison of Academic Performance
 Surface (Lecturer-Student), Peer and Technical Interactivity
 Instruction to Stimulate Positive Learning Challenge
 Student Perception and Response to Altruistic Instruction, and
 Anonymity
 Disadvantages of Using EVS
 Engagement Interconnectedness
Significance of Research
One of the conclusions of the comprehensive review of engagement literature was the
need for ‘studies of interventions’ (Fredricks, Blumenfeld, & Paris, 2004, p. 87) that may help
illuminate the ‘development or malleability of engagement’ (p. 87) to specific educational
interventions. This study meets this need by highlighting the use of EVS and associated
questions to facilitate emotional and behavioural engagement within the disciplinary domain of
university mathematics.
Further, the authors also called for the adoption of a qualitative approach to measuring
engagement, which would provide ‘thick descriptions of classroom contexts’ about the factors
that influence engagement (p. 86). Again, this study meets this criterion as the descriptions of
engagement provided are based on evidence from interviews with students, supplemented by
classroom observations and observations of students working on specific tasks in the interviews
conducted.
Table 1. Aspects of student learning that have been influenced by high levels of
student engagement (Source: Fredricks, Blumenfeld, and Paris (2004),
Boyle et al., (2001), and King and Robinson (2009a).
#1 Academic achievement
#2 Student boredom and disaffection
#3 Attendance and retention rates
#4 Attitude to learning
#5 In-class participation
To answer the research question, ‘How has the use of EVS impacted (or otherwise)
student engagement with respect to the learning of mathematics at university?’, a research
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study predicated on a qualitative research methodology was conducted. Further, a semi- 35

structured interview approach was employed to interview 10 volunteer students. As a result of
the preliminary studies conducted (e.g., King & Robinson, 2009a,b), substantial knowledge on
the ways that EVS use may influence student learning had been acquired. However, there were
still gaps in that knowledge. Therefore, the semi-structured interview approach was adopted
as the most effective means of addressing these ‘gaps’ (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p.
354). Further, this research assumes an interpretivist approach because this study is focused on
presenting the interpretations of respondents about learning mathematics with EVS. Therefore,
the research accounts presented are constructions rather than definitive conceptualisations of
respondent learning experiences with EVS.
Sample and Sampling
The target population for the research was second-year Automotive and Aeronautical
Engineering students (n = 150) who were taught an engineering mathematics module in the
2008/2009 academic year; an explanation about why this research is still relevant seven years
later is presented in the Discussion section. Six male and four female Automotive/Aeronautical
Engineering students volunteered for the interviews (the synonyms, K1 to K10, have been
adopted to protect the privacy of the 10 student interviewees). The Engineering students
were identified as the primary target for purposive sampling principally because this cohort
of second-year engineering students had been introduced to the use of EVS in their first year
mathematics modules. It could thus be expected that their views on EVS use would be more
mature or at least be immune to an extent from the novelty effect of EVS use, than students who
had just been introduced to EVS. Therefore, the sampling approach that was implemented was
purposive sampling (Bryman, 2008, p. 458).
Method
Semi-structured interviews were adopted to interview the 10 Engineering students who

volunteered to participate in the research. This approach is sufficiently structured to enable
consistency, i.e., all interviewees were presented with the same sets of questions, and yet flexible
enough to capture nuances and unanticipated students’ comments and insights (Bryman, 2008,
p. 438). A sample of the interview questions is presented in Table 2.
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36 Table 2. The interview questions.
#1 GENERAL QUESTIONS
• What are the disadvantages/problems (if any) of using EVS in lectures?
• What are the benefits (if any) of using EVS in lectures?
• Were there times you did not vote in class?
• Does EVS help you think more about a question or topic? How?
• How do you feel when an EVS question (i.e., because it’s too hard or easy) puts you on the spot?
• Any other comments?
#2 QUESTIONS ON FEEDBACK
• What happens when you get questions wrong? What do you (usually) do then or later?
• What are your views about the [instructor] feedback you get? Does it help you identify clearly where you went
wrong, show you how you can get it right the next time, enough time for feedback?
• Multiple select effect?
• Response range effect?
#3 SPECIFIC EVS MATHEMATICS QUESTIONS
• What’s your approach to solving maths questions? To EVS-type questions?
• Do you recall this question (e.g., Figure 3)
• How would you solve this problem?
• What happens when you see a question on double integrals?
• Which aspect (if any) of the questions did you have difficulty with?
The interview questions also included specific EVS questions (e.g., see ‘#3’ in Table 2,
and also Figure 1) that had been used during lectures for the engineering mathematics module
class, on which all the interviewees were enrolled. The questions were based on the topics that
had been covered in class, including Multiple Integration, Fourier Series and Vector Calculus.
The main rationale for the inclusion of the questions was to assess whether and/or how the
use of EVS questions had influenced student engagement with learning on the engineering
mathematics course.
Analysis of Interview Data
To analyse the data from student interviews, thematic analysis was adopted, and
this facilitated the identification and grouping of relevant themes and sub-themes, with the
organisation, structure and presentation of the themes dictated, on a macro scale, by the
research question, and at the micro level, by the interview questions. Using questions to guide
the analysis ‘is a very useful way of organising data, as it draws together all the relevant data
for the exact issue of concern to the researcher, and preserves the coherence of the material’
(Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007, p. 468). The analytical structure adopted is presented in
Table 3.
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Table 3. A simplified description of the analysis structure adapted for this study. 37
Overview of the Data Analysis Protocol

• #1 Research and interview question-guided thematic analysis approach (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007:468;
Bryman, 2008:554)
• #2 Data collection intentionally structured to meet research objectives via adoption of semi-structured interview
approach and design of interview protocol
• #3 Exhaustive reading and manual annotation of individual interviewee transcripts
• #4 Coding of interview data with respect to the three macro themes – Cognitive, Behavioural and Emotional
Engagement
• #5 Coding of interview data with respect to the constituent micro themes under each of the three macro themes
(e.g. micro themes under Cognitive Engagement – Deliberate Practice, Relative Performance, etc; Behavioural
Engagement – Attention; Emotional Engagement – Perception of Learning Environment)
Trustworthiness
To determine the reliability and objectivity of the research, the following Trustworthiness
criteria (i.e., Lincoln & Guba, 1985): Dependability (which parallels Reliability) and
Confirmability (which parallels Objectivity) were adopted (see also Bryman 2008, p. 377).
To ensure dependability and confirmability, an audit approach, i.e., ‘keeping complete
records of all phases of the research process’ (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 317), was adopted.
These records include the spreadsheet/table used in recruiting interviewees, the interview
protocol consisting of all the materials and questions used during the interviews, audiotapes of
the interviews in virtual formats, transcripts of all interviews, documents detailing the thematic
analysis techniques used in making theoretical inferences and the documents (i.e., analysis
templates) produced as a result, and draft copies of this article. Further, draft versions of this
article have been submitted to relevant academic personnel for review, with the manuscript
updated based on the feedback received.
Other Validity Measures
To ensure face validity for the interviews, the interview materials were submitted to
senior faculty members for review. Sections of the data analysis protocol had also been piloted
with another group of students (Sports Technology) at the host university.
To minimise bias due to the acquiescence factor (Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2007,
p. 151), interviewees were reassured at the beginning of each interview session that all their
contributions would be treated with confidentiality. For example, all student interviewees had to
sign a Consent Form that guaranteed their privacy, and freedom to withdraw from the research
study at any time during the research process. Further, it is essential to clarify that the researcher
who interviewed the students had not taught or planned to teach them or their class, and also
did not have direct access to these students As indicated in Table 2, the interview protocol often
directly required students to elaborate on the perceived disadvantages of using EVS, and not
just focus on the benefits.
Results of Research
Behavioural Engagement - Student Attention
The research results that are presented in this section will focus on how the use of
electronic voting systems has influenced three dimensions of student attention.
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38 Stimulating Student Attention
In the excerpt below, K9 talked about how the sight of EVS handsets at the beginning
of a lecture and the association of the handsets with questions to be asked in class created a
feeling of ‘anticipation’ or eagerness about the lecture. In fact, s/he prefaced this by implying
that the atmosphere or ambience around a ‘voting system lecture’ was remarkably different
from conventional lectures in a positive way:
K9: You can tell when, we’ve had, like, a voting system lecture, because everyone comes into
the room and sees the voting system. And everyone’s sort of a bit more on edge, and, you know,
anticipation about, ‘oh, I’ve got to pay attention because, like, there’s going to be a question
coming up’. Whereas before, it was just, like, ‘oh, I’m just copying down this note, and the next
note, and the next note’.
K8 also talked about how EVS use made students ‘focus on the lecture’, and contrasted this
with the scenario in other lectures where students were in the habit of falling asleep in class (and
implied that this did not happen in EVS-enabled lectures):
K8: Mm, when you compare a similar scenario with another lecture where they don’t use voting
systems, people just come to the lecture and sleep, you know? To be honest. And during voting
systems, at least that doesn’t happen, you know? Even if they’re not listening when the lecture’s
going on…
I: Yes. [“I” is the interviewer, i.e., the author]
K8: When they see a question, they start working it out, you know? As in, they start, you know, on
the paper, they start something, you know? So it’s better than not doing anything at all.
Maintaining Student Attention
The results indicate that EVS use, especially when the questions are spread throughout
a lecture, may help maintain student attention. In the excerpt below, K1 implied, in a positive
way, that the instructor often deliberately asked students questions just ‘to make sure you’ve
been listening’, in order to ostensibly maintain student attention:
K1: Yeah, just at any time during the lecture, [instructor]’ll just spring us, bring a question up,
so, to make sure you’ve been listening.
Similarly, K4 talked about how the timing and the use of EVS questions helped ‘break the
lecture up a bit’, and how this helped his/her concentration in class or to put it another way, got
‘his/her mind active again’:
K4: They break it, they break the lecture up a bit and I find, that obviously your concentration
can then be distracted away from the visual, from learning on the board. And then you can
actually do something, do something yourself, get your mind active again and then obviously you
can listen for the next 20 minutes again.
Meanwhile, K2 stated that s/he found that the usually limited time allocated for voting often
helped him/her to concentrate on a question in order to get the right answer:
K2: It can only help for you to concentrate. Because the thing is you know that you’re being
given 30 seconds to solve this, for example. You’re being given 30 seconds and you have to
concentrate and then you have to vote. So it is related. ‘Cause you... Because of the time limit
you have to concentrate on the question and then you have to vote quickly so that you get it right.
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Re-Focusing Student Attention 39
In the excerpt below, K4 talked about how getting a question wrong was a sort of reality
check that brought home the message, ‘I actually haven’t listened at all today’, and how this
tended to make him/her feel more accountable about paying attention in class:
I: ... but this one, you’re given a question maybe after A’s just done a topic and A wants to find
out how well you got it.
K4: Yeah. It makes you realise, like, if you’ve actually been listening or if you’ve just been sitting
there, and, you know, on auto-pilot. And, like sometimes when A’s put a question up, I’m like
‘I actually haven’t listened at all today’. Like, what am I doing, why am I here if I’m not going
to listen. Like, it kind of makes you, like, it kind of holds you accountable in a way, like, your
attention span.
Getting a question wrong in class seemed to have the same effect on K7 as it had on K4.
K7 stated that getting a question wrong would make him/her think, ‘I should have paid more
attention’. However, s/he pointed out that this was usually followed by the desire to make up
for the inattention by reviewing his/her notes alongside the feedback from the instructor:
I: What about, if before a question came up, for one reason or another, you were switched off
and thinking about something else. You were not paying attention to that particular topic and a
question comes up – what happens?
K7: Um, I always think ‘I should have paid attention’, but then it helps because I’ll have to look
through the notes I’ve taken, and if I still don’t quite get it, then A will go through it and then, it
just makes it really.
Summary: Student Attention
In summary, the use of EVS for mathematics instruction in real time has helped to
stimulate, maintain and re-focus student attention in class in the following three ways:
• EVS use helps to stimulate student attention. EVS use makes students pay attention
during a lecture because they know they are going to be asked a question, usually about
the topic presented in class.
• EVS use helps to maintain student attention. EVS questions may be used as a way of
managing a lecture by presenting the questions at carefully selected intervals in order
to defuse boredom and monotony.
• EVS use helps to re-focus student attention. If a student had not been paying attention
prior to the administration of a question, this serves as a wake-up call to the student i.e.
highlights the inattention and also what is required to remedy the situation.
Behavioural Engagement - Student Comparison of Academic Performance
Another feature of EVS usage, the display of answers to a question in a format that is
viewed by the whole class (e.g., Figures 2 and 3), helps illustrate how an individual student may
use this statistic to diagnose their level of understanding and performance relative to the class.
In his/her submission, on the pre-interview questionnaire for instance, K1 talks about the power
of the EVS answer display spread to illustrate relative performance:
K1: Allows you to answer questions to see if you are at the same level as the rest of the group.
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40 This information about relative performance provides a powerful diagnostic tool to the
student – a reference point. It could be argued that a feedback type that includes this reference
score is much more useful to students than those without (e.g. individual test scores or grades
without any reference points, teacher claims about student performance without any referential
benchmarks, etc.). For example, K2 stated that information about relative performance was
critical because the ‘competitive’ nature of the class required this knowledge:
I: You said, ‘It lets you know where you need to work more’, for instance – why is that important?
K2: It’s important that you... you know, if you’re doing engineering, it’s very competitive, so you
always have to know how the other students are doing. And by that you actually know, and then
sometimes you actually feel good about yourself that you did well.
Similarly, K4 clarified the importance of having information about how the rest of a class
performed on an EVS question, by commenting that access to this information would either
bring reassurance or highlight the need to take corrective measures:
K4: It just, like, ‘cause if you’re constantly getting a different answer from everyone else, you’re
the one with the little bar going ‘4% answered this’ and it’s wrong, or then on the other hand,
like, say, you’re the right answer and only a few people have got it, it makes you kind of, like,
feel good about where you are.
I: Yes
K4: But like, in general, like, most of the time you all get the same answer and it makes you
feel. It reassures you that you’re, like, on the same pace as the rest of them. I think if you were
struggling, say, if you were constantly getting a different answer to everyone else. It would make
you, like, It’s kind of anonymous as well, it would make you, it would make it easier for you to go
and approach the teacher and say ‘look, you know, I’m struggling here’.
Moreover, K4’s comments seem to suggest that information about areas of ‘struggle’
would trigger proactive action from the student with respect to approaching the instructor outside
the classroom. This is perhaps an indication of how information about relative performance,
which is predicated on deliberate practice, may be a catalyst (Draper, 2009) for learning beyond
the classroom, especially to address gaps in understanding.
Behavioural Engagement - Interactivity
Interactivity in EVS-enabled lectures refers to the use of questions to actively engage

students in the learning process, instead of them being passive recipients of information
transmission from the lecturer. Based on classroom observations and interview data, EVS use
has the potential to catalyse two levels or modes of interactivity in mathematics classrooms.
These interactivity modes are: Lecturer-Student Interactivity, Peer Interactivity, and Technical
Interactivity.
Lecturer-Student (Surface) Interactivity
This is the interaction between the student(s) and instructor, i.e., instructor poses a
question which students respond to by answering, and which the instructor then responds to by
providing feedback. This sets up a chain of interactivity between student and instructor, which
is not a typical feature of contemporary university mathematics lectures. But this occurs at the
surface level because the mode of communication is limited, and mostly instructor-driven and/
or initiated.
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In the excerpt below, K8 talked about how the use of EVS ‘changed’ what usually 41
happens in a mathematics lecture, in that students had the opportunity of interacting with the
instructor, via the EVS question and answer sessions:
K8: Because of the others’ interaction, you know? There’s interaction between the students and
the teacher.
I: What kind of interaction?
K8: Um, answering. Like, what basically happens if A asks a question...... we’ll be asked to
answer.
So, directly, we may not be answering, but we use the voting system.
I: You’ve got that contact to give a response back.
K8: Exactly.
I: So, that doesn’t happen in other lectures?
K8: No, it doesn’t. Very few. It’s only when a person raises an arm and asks a question is there
interaction between the student and the teacher.
K5 had also written on the pre-interview questionnaire, that one of the ways that EVS
had ‘helped’ was that it provided an avenue for ‘more interaction with the lecturer’. More
evidence for surface interactivity is not presented here because research evidence (e.g., Simpson
& Oliver, 2007) clearly indicates that this is the most common form of interactivity enabled by
the use of EVS.
Peer Interactivity
This is the interaction between students. Class observations show that this interaction
occurs when students compare their answers with their neighbours after voting, talk through a
problem with a classmate before voting, or in a limited sense, on the few occasions when the
instructor asks the students to discuss their answers with their neighbours.
The instructor would often encourage students to talk to their peers in order to challenge
one another about the rationale for the answer choices selected in response to an EVS question.
However, the instructor would typically only instigate this kind of discussion when the class
response indicated a lack of consensus e.g. a question in which only 50% of the class got it
right, as K9 describes in the excerpt below. It should be noted that in this particular class,
students often sat with their friends, and so peer interactivity in this context is contingent on
existing group dynamics. Students were more likely to chat with their friends knowing that
they would not be ridiculed or embarrassed if their knowledge of the mathematical topic under
discussion was below par:
K9: Whereas if it’s more sort of 50/50, then occasionally I’ll say ‘ok, who voted for this, who
voted for this and then talk amongst yourselves...... to sort of try and convince the other person
why it’s that one’. And then we’ll go over it so you know roughly why, even if the answer was
wrong from your part, then you’ll know why the other person thought that answer was right
or... So it’s quite, it’s quite good talking about it every now and then, ‘cause even if the answer’s
wrong, you know why someone would have voted for that.
…….I found it, mm, quite helpful because normally I sit with my friends, so even if my answer’s
wrong, it didn’t really matter.
….Um, I don’t think it would work so well if, you know, you’re split into groups or anything,
because I don’t, I know other people in my class, in my group are cleverer than me, so it’s not
always nice knowing that they’re always right and you’re always wrong.
But when you, when it’s with your friends, it, it’s quite nice to think ‘oh well, they voted for that
one for a reason’...
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42 Generally, most interviewees appeared to talk to their peers about the EVS questions,
only after they had worked on a problem and submitted their own answers. K5, for instance,
describes how s/he would vote and afterwards ask a peer, ‘what did you get?’ S/he also alluded
to the group dynamics inherent in the classes where ‘it’s usually small groups of us [i.e. friends]
sitting together’ and ‘looking at each other’s work’ to discover if anyone had a different answer
and probably talking about why that was so:
K5: Um, usually I would vote first and then ask them ‘what did you get?’
………..Yes. I think most of the time what tends to happen in our lectures is – I don’t know
whether it’s just us – but it’s usually small groups of us sitting together...... usually we would
answer and then, um, if one of us, or if we get a different answer, we look at each other’s work
and work out how, you know, who has gone wrong and why.
K10 also talked about how s/he would vote first and only then talk to his/her peers to
avoid being influenced:
I: Are there times in class when you wanted to vote, you talked to the guy sitting next to you or
the guy sit, your mate or people who seem to be close to you before you answer the question or
after you answer the question?
K10: Um, I think, you kind of, I go and answer it first, and if you talk to somebody else, in case
you can change it, you’ve always got the option of –
I: So you’re just asking ‘what have you got?’
K10: You’re, like, being influenced by other people.
It should be noted that although some level of student-student interaction i.e. students
talking to each other in class occurs at least sporadically in most conventional mathematics
classes, EVS use assures a higher frequency/structure and more learning-focused occurrences
of this type of interactivity. In the excerpt below, K9 stated that although s/he usually sat with a
group of friends, s/he would ‘normally’ vote first, and only talk about how s/he voted afterwards
with his/her friends:
K9: Normally, normally we’d click...... and then, like, talk to the people next to us and say ‘oh, I
got, I said B’ Um, but normally we vote and then... ... talk about it afterwards.
Peer interactivity appears to infuse an element of positive learning challenge or

competitiveness into the voting process. In the excerpt below, K4 talked about how s/he would
often wait impatiently for the instructor to close the polling and for the results to be revealed
because of his/her anticipation or excitement at seeing whether s/he got the answer right.
Similarly, s/he talked about how s/he would ask for the answers that his/her friends selected as
a sort of competition to see whose answer would be revealed to be the right one:
K4: I want to know if I got it right or not, you know.

I: Yeah. Ok. So there’s anticipation to know whether you got it right or wrong.
K4: Yeah. It’s exciting, it’s like, ‘oh god’.
I: ‘I’d better get that right... how the rest of the class do?’
K4: Yeah. I’d be like ‘I got that right, yeah’. Or, like, before your friends are done, you’re like
‘what did you get or what did you get’ or you’ve got two different answers, it’s like ‘I bet I’m
right, I bet I’m right’ and it’s like ‘yes’.
K8 also talked about how this element of challenge when s/he stated that s/he would
often ask his/her friend, after voting, about the answer s/he had selected ‘just to see if s/he was
right or wrong’:
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I: Ok. After you’ve voted, you don’t ask them to see ‘what did you get, do you, what was your 43
answer?’ You don’t, you don’t usually ask?
K8: Um, before the answer comes up or after the answer comes up?
I: Before or after.
K8: After, I do.
I: You do.
K8: After. When it, suppose we get 75% for A and 35% for B... ... or something like that, you
know?
Then I’ll ask the person sitting next to me what he got, you know? Just to make sure, just to see
what he would have thought, you know? Just to see if he was right or wrong.
I: Ok. Why do you want to know that?
K8: Just ‘cause he’s my friend, so -
Technical Interactivity
This may be defined as the interaction between students and the EVS handset – the
students get to ‘do something’, although this usually translates into merely clicking a handset.
Its significance might be that the physical action of a clicking a handset could perhaps help
reignite student interest or attention. As this form of interactivity, has a limited impact on
behavioural engagement, no evidence of this interraction mode will be presented.
In summary, another facet of behavioural engagement that EVS use has influenced is the
level or mode of interactivity in lectures. The question-and-answer sessions provide a level of
instructor-student interaction that is otherwise absent in typical mathematics lectures. Moreover,
the question sessions are often structured in a way that allows students to interact with each
other. One expression of this is the element of challenge that peer interaction introduces into
classroom dynamics, i.e., students want to see if they can do better than their peers.
Emotional Engagement
How has EVS use influenced how students feel about engaging with university
mathematics instruction? In this section, evidence on how EVS use has impacted emotional
engagement, with reference to how students perceived the instructional environment, will be
presented.
Student Perception and Response to Altruistic Instruction
Research on EVS indicates that students typically have positive attitudes about the use
of EVS in mathematics lectures (e.g., Simpson & Oliver, 2007; Bruff, 2009), so this section is
not about that aspect of emotional engagement. Instead, I will focus on how students appear to
perceive an EVS-enabled instructional environment as one that is to a large extent intentionally
or altruistically designed to aid their learning.
For example, K7 implicitly alluded to this favourable perception of the altruistic nature of
the instructional environment when s/he stated that s/he would only adopt educated guesswork
in answering questions in class, so as not to provide the instructor with unreliable feedback on
student progress:
I: You don’t like selecting the ‘I don’t know’ option [i.e., to discourage guesswork].
K7: No I don’t. I’d rather, even if it’s an educated guess, I don’t like guessing unless it’s educated,
because, especially as [instructor] does use it quite often to see how we are doing and to see
what we need to put more work into in class...
I: Yes.
K7: ... um, I think if you luckily guess the right answer and you don’t know it, it could affect that if
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44 many people have done it. And [instructor] might think ‘oh, the class knows what they’re doing’
and we’ve guessed it. So I try not to guess if I can help it.
Similarly, K4 reiterated the position that it is important for the instructor to have accurate
feedback about student knowledge, based on an implicit assumption that the instruction is
directed at helping them learn and review areas they might be struggling with:
I: Suppose they have an ‘I don’t know’ option – do you go for that instead of guessing?
K4: No. I don’t think ‘I don’t know’ is very helpful on it. Like, not if you know anything. But I
guess it is, ‘cause, like, it shows [instructor] who, if, like, people actually don’t know. And it
would probably make [instructor] more likely to go through a question if lots of people don’t
know.
Further, the EVS systems are solely used for formative assessment. For example, K2
stated that s/he usually took the EVS tests i.e. answering the questions in class seriously because
‘that tells me where I’m standing in class’, although s/he acknowledged that not all students
emulated his/her approach:
I: And coursework too, if you do it well, it helps you with your final grade. But the [EVS-based
mathematics] questions that get put up in class, you don’t want to get graded for that.
K2: No, you don’t.
I: So does that affect your attitude towards the questions? I mean, do you take them seriously or?
K2: Yeah, I do take them seriously. Because that tells me where I’m standing in my class.
Anonymity
In the two excerpts below, K1 talks about how the anonymity aspect of EVS use helps
with confidence and allays student fears about being put on the spot:
I: And this question says ‘in what ways has the use of voting systems in MAB104 hindered or
helped your learning of additional calculus?’ And you said it helps you to answer anonymously,
so nobody needs to know what you... ... how you answered. Why is that important?
K1: Um, because you don’t always have the confidence to put your hand up if you don’t know
whether you’re right or not. But it lets you do it without anybody else knowing.
I: Or even, doesn’t that put you on the spot sometimes? It’s been so long, and then it’s something
you’re also going to do in the future, so you might not have enough information.
K1: It does. But because there’s the anonymous handsets, it’s ok. I wouldn’t like A to do this and
then come over to you and say ‘right, what’s the answer?’ Because that would put me on the
spot. Because it’s anonymous and also because A puts ‘I don’t know’ there as well as an option...
The deployment of new or interactive technologies in new situations, whether for

learning or other purposes, could be expected to evoke positive feelings due to the novelty
of the technology. So it is pertinent to point out that the students whose comments about the
emotional aspect of learning with EVS are being presented in this section are not new to the
technology, having been taught in a first year university mathematics module by an instructor
who used EVS in the class. Consequently, the novelty factor exerts much less influence on the
feelings of students about EVS use presented here.
In the excerpt below, K7 talks about how EVS use was introduced in a first year
university mathematics module, and how s/he initially found the technology ‘intimidating’, but
later became familiar with the technology because EVS was regularly used in class:
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I: What did you like? Don’t mention the names of the lecturers. What did you like about the two 45
modules? What stood out for you, I mean, the way they lectured?
K7: Um, they, um, the first one covered what I’d either done at A level, A level maths or Further
Maths.
I: So it was an addition?
K7: Yes. It was a nice break from the other subjects which were brand new, and it’s nice to recap.
Um, the second one was more new topics, which was nice, but also, um, we started using the
voting systems from then.
I: Ok. The one on voting systems, the one on voting systems, so this is not your first introduction
to voting systems...
K7: No.
S/he also stated that s/he had talked about EVS use with peers from other universities
who thought that classroom voting was a ‘good idea’:
K7: At first it was a bit intimidating ‘cause you didn’t know, the very first question, you didn’t
know how it was going to work... ... even though you’re pressing it anonymously and obviously,
it was anonymous. It was just things going through my head. But once we started using them
and I found them helpful, it was, the beginning of every class, pick one up and just use them
throughout.
I: So what do you think - you used voting systems in first year, you’re now using them in second
year – how do you feel about this? Is it something you’ve welcomed, in the sense that part of your
learning, I mean, you welcome it in a way now.
K7: Yeah. I like it and I’ve mentioned it to people studying similar courses at other universities,
and when I’ve mentioned that we vote in class, they’ve all been surprised ‘cause they don’t do it.
And they’ve said it sounds like a good idea and it’s definitely something I personally like.
Disadvantages of Using EVS
As part of the interview protocol, interviewees were asked to comment on any negative
aspects or disadvantages of using EVS in lectures that they had experienced or observed. In
addition, the interviewees also often commented during the course of the interviews, without
prompting from the researcher, about aspects of EVS that they considered to be potentially
disengaging or disadvantageous. Due to volume constraints, a summary of these disadvantages,
based on descriptions provided by interviewees and supplemented by interviewee observations,
is hereby presented:
1. EVS Malfunction: These include technical, i.e., EVS handset and software
malfunction.
2. Non-Voting: This includes issues surrounding the logistics of distributing handsets
before lectures, low student participation in some EVS QA sessions, and sufficiency
of voting time;
3. Usage: This includes issues around the perception of some questions/distracters
as being sloppy or ineffectual, guesswork, student swapping of answers, flippant
attitude towards voting, and the feeling that some lectures are ‘rushed’ due to EVS use.
The e n u m e r a t e d disadvantages, for instance, software and hardware malfunction,

occur sporadically. Moreover, technical expertise and confidence with using technology usually
increases with time (King & Robinson, 2009a). An aggregation of the student comments also
indicated that the time allocated for voting was usually sufficient, and that EVS use for voting
did not have a negative impact on lecture time, except towards the end of the semester. Further,
the cases of reported flippancy towards EVS use and swapping of answers seemed to have been
limited occurrences.
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46 In summary, the most important disadvantage mentioned or the one that could have
potentially high influence on student engagement with learning is the use of ‘sloppy’ questions
and/or distracters. In answering one of the EVS questions posed during the interview, which
had also been used in class, K2 pointed out that the distracters (i.e., answer options) were too
obvious, and that other options could have been used to make the question more challenging:
K2: Well, this is where the disadvantage of the voting system comes in ‘cause there’s only one
answer up there with 2 – y. Whereas I’m thinking, for the same example, the same question, was
up there with the 2 – y on the first integral, not on the second integral, I think you might get a few
more people going ‘ah’.
I: Which one?
K2: And making them think ‘do I switch it?’ But obviously for me looking at that I can say that,
but that’s the disadvantage to this method. Whereas if that was a little bit closer for this example,
number 4, um, the first integral was 0 to 2 – y, I think you’d probably get better results between
3 and 4 for that reason.
Discussion
The results that were earlier presented were based on research conducted in 2009. So this
is a pertinent question: Why was the research nor published before now, and is technology now a
significant lever in influencing students’ emotional and behavioural engagement with learning?
The reason the research presented here is more relevant now (i.e., in 2016) is because there
has been a significant shift and perceived value on the role that emotions play in influencing
student learning outcomes at both the school and university levels (Wong, 2015; Salcito, 2012).
Moreover, technology, especially web-based systems and social media, are now recognized as
primary influencers of young people and students emotions and behaviours. This is why some
of the research results presented are still relevant for understanding and designing learning
tasks that will facilitate positive student engagement with learning.
For example, the use of laptops and mobile phones during classroom instruction for
playful purposes that are separate from the learning goals for that class can be very distracting.
Therefore, attention still plays a pivotal role in (mathematics) classroom discourse. Various
researchers have examined, for example, the role of attention in helping students learn algebra
via specialised computer software (Hewitt, 2009) and the interplay between attention, instructor
pedagogical practices and student engagement with the learning process thus engendered (e.g.,
Mason, 1989; Ainley & Luntley, 2007; Wilson, 2009). Further, research evidence suggests that
it is hard to maintain attention, within the context of a lecture or presentation, beyond 15 to 20
minutes at a time (Middendorf & Kalish, 1996; BBC, 2010); although Wilson and Korn (2007)
disputed the supporting evidence, but not the reality of the attention span itself. Moreover,
the current generation of students also known as digital natives, or the Google generation are
notorious multi-taskers (e.g., JISC, 2007; Oblinger, 2008) who find it difficult to concentrate on
any one thing or task for a considerable length of time.
Similarly, the favourable perception of the EVS-enabled instructional environment as
being altruistic is significant because research evidence suggests that students are more likely
to engage with learning (and also refrain from cheating) when they ‘felt their teacher was more
concerned with investing in student learning than [in] certification via testing’ (Palazzo, Lee,
Warnakulasooriya, & Pritchard, 2010). In summary, a favourable perception of the learning
environment as being altruistic appears to have influenced students to emotionally identify and
align themselves with the goals and responsibilities expected of them in learning situations
within that environment.
Likewise, anonymity is still a valued pedagogical affordance because research evidence
suggests that, compared to conventional classes, a greater number of students actively
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participate in EVS-enabled classes, as measured by the number of students who respond to the 47
(EVS) questions posed in class (e.g. Fies & Marshall, 2006; Bruff, 2009). One reason for this is
that students could answer questions without their peers knowing how they answered or what
choices they selected. This anonymity feature thus helps increase the confidence of students in
volunteering answers to questions posed by an instructor.
Meanwhile, it is important to highlight the possible reasons for the favourable student
perception of the positive learning affordance of the use of EVS. The favourable perception
of the EVS-enabled instructional environment as being altruistic is perhaps attributable to two
reasons. First, students in the United Kingdom typically do not have to pay to use the handsets.
So the handsets are more likely to be seen from an altruistic perspective. In contrast, students
at many institutions in the USA typically have to pay to use the EVS systems (e.g., King&
Robinson, 2009a), and this often has a negative correlation with the perceived educational
value of using clickers for instruction (e.g., Bugeja, 2008).
Moreover, classroom observation of EVS use in lectures lends credence to the notion that
student interest in EVS use appears to have moved beyond the initial or transient, ‘situational’
interest phase, based on the novel attraction of the EVS contraption, to a more stable orientation
or ‘personal’ interest phase (Krapp, Hidi & Renninger, 1992). This is being inferred because
students apparently still displayed positive attitudes towards EVS use, despite having been
exposed to the technology for two academic years. More recent research (e.g., OECD, 2015b;
Stover et al., 2015; Voelkel & Bennett, 2014) also buttresses this claim.
One question that may be asked is how the different elements of engagement interact. A
valid response to that question would be that emotional, behavioural and cognitive engagement
are interrelated. The presence of one influences the other two and vice versa (Fredricks,
Blumenfeld, and Paris, 2004, p. 61). Moreover, students who are not engaged will not learn
(Watson, De Geest, & Prestage):
There is a connection between engagement and learning; students cannot learn unless they
are engaged, and engagement is a combination of social, emotional, intellectual and task
characteristics. Teachers had to work on all these facets to ensure engagement. All teachers
believed that learners’ concentration and participation could be developed (p. 12).
However, it should be noted that the interplay between engagement and learning is a
complex one and incorporates or necessitates a detailed consideration of themes such as beliefs
(e.g., teacher’s, student’s and self-efficacy beliefs), motivation and metacognition.
In addition, research in the field of engagement and mathematical thinking is considering
how ‘personal meaning, teachers’ emotional knowledge (emotional skills) [and] humour’
(Hannula, Panziara & Waege, 2009; see also OECD, 2015b) as engagement constructs may
influence mathematics teaching and learning. However, a detailed investigation of these issues
is beyond the scope of this article, although aspects of motivation, using goal theory, will be
employed in characterising student approaches to learning mathematics in a future study.
Conclusions
This research study was designed to provide insights on the research question: How has
the use of EVS impacted (or otherwise) student engagement with respect to the learning of
mathematics at university? This research question has been answered through the presentation
of evidence from interview data about the impact that EVS use has had on behavioural
(i.e., student attention; student comparison of academic performance; interactivity; learning
challenge) and emotional engagement (anonymity and altruistic instruction).
The results show that the EVS utility for students to be able to answer questions
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48 anonymously has an enormous impact on the numbers of students responding to questions

in class. Anonymity helps remove or reduce the fear of being labelled stupid or being
embarrassed in front of peers, in the event of getting a question wrong.
The findings also show that EVS use appears to help in stimulating student attention
because of the realisation that they will subsequently be asked questions after the presentation
of a topic in class makes them alert and to pay attention during instruction. Similarly, the results
of the question and answer sessions can help to re-focus student attention by highlighting areas
of learning deficiencies. Further, instructors can strategically use questions at definite intervals
during a lecture to maintain student attention.
Further, EVS use not only facilitates increased student participation in mathematics
lectures, it also enhances the mode and frequency of interaction that students have with their
instructor, one another, and the EVS tool. Hence interactivity is significantly increased. This
enhanced interactivity in turn catalyses a classroom atmosphere that is characterised by a
positive student competitiveness to get answers right and compare their answers with peers
during classroom voting on mathematics problems. Similarly, the display of answers to EVS
questions in a format that is viewed by the whole class enables individual student diagnosis of
the level of their understanding and performance, relative to the whole class.
Last, students appear to have a favourable perception of the EVS-enabled instructional
environment as being altruistic. This favourable perception in turn appears to have influenced
them to emotionally identify and align themselves with instructional goals.
But students’ comments show that EVS use is not entirely beneficial, as EVS technology
malfunction, instances of low student voting, and guessing on questions, can obviate or minimize
the learning engagement benefits of using EVS. Specifically, the use of m a t h e m a t i c s
q u e s t i o n s w i t h l o w c o g n i t i v e d e m a n d o r e a s y - t o - g u e s s a n s w e r s is seen as
being detrimental to enhancing student engagement.
Finally, this research has highlighted that although the behavioural, emotional (and
cognitive) engagement constructs have been separately examined, in reality, they are
interconnected. Hence, future research will investigate whether the impact of EVS use on
engagement, as reported in this study, is stable over time. It would be valuable to conduct a
longitudinal study on how (if at all), and the degree to which, the pedagogical alignment of EVS
with student learning outcomes catalyses learning beyond the classroom, e.g., in informal and
virtual learning contexts.
Note
The research described in this article was completed while the author was at Loughborough
University, United Kingdom
Acknowledgement
The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. Carol Robinson who supervised the
research project (case study) that was highlighted in this research.
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52 Wilson, K. (2009). Alignment between teachers’ practices and pupils’ attention in a spreadsheet
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Advised by Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Received: May 10, 2016 Accepted: July 30, 2016
Samuel Olugbenga King Ph.D., Senior Lecturer, Coventry University, Coventry CV2 4EH, UK.
E-mail: ac2644@coventry.ac.uk; king.samuel@outlook.com
Website: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=k-DOy14AAAAJ&hl=en
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ACCESS AND BARRIERS TO EDUCATION: 53
ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS OF

ETHNIC MINORITIES LIVING IN GEORGIA
Anastasia Kitiashvili, Tamar Abashidze, Irine Zhvania
Tbilisi State University, Tbilisi, Georgia
E-mail: anastasia.kitiashvili@tsu.ge, tamar.abashidze@tsu.ge, irine.zhvania@tsu.ge

Abstract
The aim of this research is to analyse the attitudes and perceptions by Georgian Azeri and Armenian
ethnic minorities about the accessibility and barriers to acquire an education. The research includes three
types of education: general, vocational education and training (VET), and higher education. The survey
was carried out with 800 participants of both ethnic minorities in two regions of Georgia, Samtskhe-
Javakheti and Kvemo Kartli1. In-depth interviews were carried out with four experts working in the field
of education for ethnic minorities. Respondents believe that they have more equal access to general
education and VET while local Georgians have better access to higher education than ethnic minorities
do. Attitudes of Ethnic Minorities correspond to their limited participation in Higher Education. The
respondents identified poor knowledge of Georgian language (state language of Georgia) as the most
significant barrier that excludes them from educational opportunities. This research provides evidence
and a basis for formulating education policies for the Azeri and Armenian ethnic minorities living in
Georgia.
Key words: access to education, barriers to education, ethnic minorities.
Introduction
Education plays a crucial role in promoting knowledge-based economies and social

justice around the world. Studies show that education has positive impacts at the personal level,
on the country’s economy and for social inclusion (Vila, 2000; 2005; Feinstein, L., Budge, D.,
Vorhaus, J. & Duckworth, K., 2008). Education is a source of human capital development as
well as is a determinant of well-being of a society. Facilitating access to education is especially
important for disadvantaged groups, including ethnic minorities, as they often need more
time, services, finance and support for getting a quality education than majority groups do.
Supporting access to education is important for employment and the financial well-being of
minority communities and individuals, but also as an opportunity to successfully integrate into
society at large.
Current educational reforms worldwide emphasize equal opportunity, equity, democracy
and multiculturalism (Torres, 1998), especially for ethnic and racial minorities (Deer, 2005).
Yet in spite of different support programmes such as reception programmes, native-language
and second-language programmes that introduce targeted curricula for minority pupils and the
variety of integration initiatives in the EU and other countries, there are still inequalities in
access to education. In most cases the achievements of ethnic minorities lag behind those of the
majority groups (Luciak, 2004). Research shows that minorities tend to enrol in schools with
lower academic demands and finish school earlier, and have higher dropout rates. They are over-
represented in vocationally-oriented tracks. However, differences also exist between ethnic
minority groups, and sometimes they surpass the majority populations at certain educational
levels (Luciak, 2004; 2006).
1 The Georgian Foundation for Strategic and International Studies (GFSIS) funded the research
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Anastasia KITIASHVILI, Tamar ABASHIDZE, Irine ZHVANIA. Access and barriers to education: Attitudes and perceptions of ethnic
minorities living in Georgia
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54 For this research, an “ethnic minority” is defined as a group or community that has
different national or cultural traditions from the population at large. The well-known Cross
Model (1992) is used to describe obstacles to adult education. It identifies three types of barriers:
situational, dispositional and institutional.
1. Situational barriers include a lack of finances and time, having too many work-
related responsibilities, childcare, lack of transportation, etc.
2. Dispositional or motivational barriers include personal, academic, and job-
related motivations, the influence of past experiences, and community perceptions.
Such restrictions include negative attitudes and perceptions about education, the
usefulness or appropriateness of engaging in learning. Low self-esteem and poor
prior academic performance are also dispositional barriers.
3. Institutional barriers are linked to programs or institutions where there are
problems with scheduling, location, lack of interesting or relevant courses, poor
materials, and a lack of information about programs and procedures, etc. (Cross,
1992). A poor command of the state language and lower levels of previous education
are also included in institutional barriers. People who do not speak the dominant
language can feel excluded, invisible, or having an inferior status to other students
(Sparks, 1998).
Dispositional and motivational barriers (#2) are directly related to the learners themselves,
who may have some strategies to overcome them. However, situational and institutional barriers
(#1 and #3) are outside of a prospective student’s direct control. In this research, we studied
learners’ perceptions of obstacles to education. Understanding educational barriers will enable
educational specialists to address these problems (Khan, 2011).
The Georgian Context
About 16% of the population of Georgia are ethnic minorities, of which Azeris make
up 6.3% and Armenians 4.5% (Georgian Census, 2014). Ethnic minorities live in compact
settlements in specific regions of the country: Georgian Azeris often live in towns of the
Marneuli District in the direction of Azerbaijan, and ethnic Armenians live in southern Georgia
closer to the frontier of Armenia in the Akhalkalaki District. Many of both groups also live in
Tbilisi, often in specific areas of the city, and in other urban areas.
The Georgian government developed the National Concept on Tolerance and Civil
Integration in 2009 and an Action Plan for 2009-2014. The Concept covers six main education-
linked areas to be improved: better access to pre-school education, general education and higher
education for persons belonging to ethnic minorities; improved command of the state language;
protection of minority languages; and access to vocational training programmes and adult
education for ethnic minorities. The concept paper assessed the educational reforms carried
out in Georgia, with particular emphasis on their practical implications for minorities, and to
provide recommendations for future policies on education for minorities.
According to Georgian Law, basic education is compulsory for all citizens, who have the
right to receive a general education in the Georgian language or in their mother tongue. A good
command of the Georgian language is critical for ethnic minorities to participate in mainstream
cultural and political life of the country, and encourages civic integration and prevents the
isolation of minority populations. In 2011 a special program entitled “Georgian Language
for Future Success” was initiated by the Ministry of Education and Science that offers youth-
oriented projects:
• Georgian language teachers who live and teach in the schools of regions most densely
populated by ethnic minorities -Samtskhe-Javakheti and Kvemo Kartli;
• Eight “Georgian Language Houses” in the Kvemo Kartli region;
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• The opportunity for Armenian and Azerbaijani students to spend one semester of 55
school and in summer “Patriot” camps for youth.
In 2011, the Ministry of Education and Science also established eight preschool
institutions in minority areas, equipped with relevant materials and resources. Bilingual Study
Pilot Programmes started in 40 schools. The main challenges identified by this study were
the quality of manuals, teacher qualifications and financing. Though some reforms have been
initiated and implemented, an insufficient knowledge of Georgian language remains a main
challenge for the ethnic minorities and impairs their participation in the political, social and
cultural life of Georgia. The following Table illustrates the differences in language knowledge
according to areas where minorities attend school.
Table 1. Knowledge of Georgian Language 20132.
Armenian Tbilisi % Samtskhe-Javakheti % Kvemo Kartli %

Armenian 96.4 24.6 N/A
Azeri 95.6 N/A 16.9
Research also confirms a lack of command of Georgian language by Ethnic Minorities.

37.5% of Marneuli and 48.3% of Akhalkalaki pupils pointed out that they did not know
Georgian. 20.0% of Marneuli and 14.3% of Akhalkalaki pupils identified a lack of knowledge
of the Georgian language as a barrier to getting a University education (Sumbadze, 2015).
There are alternative education centres in Tbilisi and Rustavi called “Sunday schools”
which offer subjects that are not found in general public schools, yet the number of such schools
is limited. Courses include choreography, psychology, art, etc.
The Law on Vocational Education and Training (VET) emphasizes the importance of
access to VET for all interested persons. Similarly, the state Vocational Education Development
Strategy 2013-2020 encourages inclusiveness for the education of all categories of learners.
“Particularly relevant is the inclusion of disadvantaged and vulnerable populations in the social
and economic development of Georgia, strengthening a sense of participation and integration
in the country’s move towards a dynamic and prosperous society and economy.” (p.4)3. The
minimum requirement to access VET is a Certificate of Basic Education.
In 2015 new policy came into the force that gives opportunity to ethnical minorities
(people from Azerbaijan, Armenia, Russian language speakers) to conduct VET Institution
exams in their native language. After passing the exam in native language they get status of
VET students and they can go through two-year Georgian language preparation program. After
the language courses they can continue study as a VET student on a selected program.
Qualitative research carried out in 2015 on the access to VET by vulnerable groups,
including ethnic minorities, shows that ethnic minorities have more barriers compared to other
local populations in getting education. Main barriers are related to geography (isolated regions);
finances to pay tuition fees and transportation; and entry exams that are organized in Georgian
language.
To continue their studies in higher education, applicants must also have a Certificate of
General Education. The results of the final General Educational exams in Azeri and Armenian
languages shows that about 93% of the applicants received a general educational certificate in
Azeri language in 2012-14 and about 97% of the applicants in Armenian.
2 In United Nations Association Georgia, “National Integration and Tolerance in Georgia Assessment
Survey Report”, October 2008, 36
3 Government of Georgia. VET Reform Strategy 2013-2020. 2013
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56 Table 2. Results of the final exams of the Ethnic Minorities for at general
educational institutions 2012-14.
Language Participants Certificate %
1 Azeri 2316 2151 93.0
2 Armenian 1290 1257 97.0

Source: http://www.naec.ge
Since 2015 all students are required to pass National Exams for entering the higher
education. Research shows (Sumbadze, 2015) that the introduction of the National Exams
reduced the chances of ethnic minorities Continue studies at Universities as they were required
to pass National Exams in Georgian.
To increase access to University ethnic minorities were allowed to take exams in Russian.
Since 2009, unified national exams are available in Azerbaijan and Armenian languages that
support access to higher education for ethnic minorities. Students have two options: 1) To
continue studying at a university, applicants must pass three required exams: Georgian language
and literature; a foreign language (English, French, Russian or German); and a General Skills
Exam that can be taken in Georgian, Russian, Azeri, Armenian, Abkhaz, Ossetian or English.
Candidates must also pass one elective subject defined for the particular educational curriculum.
2) The second option is the “1+4 program”. Azeri and Armenian applicants for whom
Georgian is a second language can pass a General Skills Exam in Armenian or Azeri, and can
attend the 60 ECTS courses (one-year) in the respective university in Georgian. After successful
completion of this course, they can continue their studies in any educational program.
The enrolment rates of Armenian and Azeri students through the national entry exam
from 2008 to 2014 show a positive trend, especially among the Armenian applicants. However,
in 2014 the rate decreased for the Azeri applicants by 9% compared to 2012, and decreased for
Armenian participants by 5%.
Table 3. Results of National Entry Exams between 2008 and 2014.
Year General Skills Exam Azeri General Skills Exam Armenian
Attended the N and % of enrolled Attended the N and % of enrolled

exam students exam students
2008 225 40 (18) 105 54 (51)
2009 21 3 (14) 2 1 (50)
2010 303 185 (61) 188 128 (68)
2011 352 254 (72) 238 185 (78)
2012 541 390 (72) 262 200 (76)
2013 1083 714 (66) 248 186 (75)
2014 743 468 (63) 307 218 (71)

Source: http://www.naec.ge
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A poor command of the official state language is an obstacle for the Armenian and 57
Azeri populations; however there is no Armenian or Azeri language section in Georgian higher
education institutions. Sections in Russian at Georgian universities are also limited.
Geographical access is an important factor for access to education, especially for densely
populated rural areas in Georgia. However, modern means are providing more possibilities
through mobile and distance learning opportunities. Table 4 shows the educational institutions
in Samthskhe Javakheti and Kvemo Kartli with the numbers of students.
Table 4. Number of institutions in Samtskhe-Javakheti and Kvemo Kartli in

2014/15.
Samtskhe-Javakheti Kvemo Kartli
Institutions
Education Form Institutions
1 Schools 206 269

Institutions that have
2 7 (5 public and 2 private colleges) 7 (6 public and 1 private college)
VET programs
3 Universities 1 4
Source: Geostat, 2015
Research Focus
There is a lack of research on the access or barriers to education for ethnic minorities
in Georgia. Systematic research is necessary for developing an evidence-based education
policy for minorities. Research on perceptions, attitudes or barriers from the point of view of
the minority groups is crucial for providing targeted educational interventions. This research
focused on access to education for Georgia’s two main ethnic minorities: Azeris and Armenians.
Since there is a high concentration of these populations in Samtskhe-Javakheti (Armenian) and
Kvemo Kartli (Azeri) the research was carried out in these regions.
The main research questions were:
1. What are the attitudes of Azeri and Armenian minorities concerning access to
education in Georgia (general, vocational and higher education)?
2. How actively Azeri and Armenian minorities participate in education?
3. What barriers exist for Azeri and Armenian minorities to their obtaining an education
in Georgia?
Research Methodology
For data collection, a survey was carried out in targeted minority communities.
Researchers visited minority communities and interviewed 800 respondents at home for face-
to-face interviews. The survey interviews continued about 20-25 minutes. Before started the
interview every potential participant was given an explanation of all salient features of the
research as well as the opportunity to decline to participate in the research.
In-depth interviews were carried out with four selected experts working in the field of
education for ethnic minorities. In-depth interview with experts continued about 50 minutes.
Research sample
The 800 adult respondents (47% male and 53% female) were distributed according to
the data in Table 5: 400 were interviewed in the Kvemo Kartli towns of Marneuli & Gardabani
(49% male and 51% female); the same number (55% female and 45% male) were interviewed
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58 in Samtskhe-Javakheti in the towns of Akhalkhalaki and Ninostminda, and in six villages of the
region. There was used a quota sampling procedure. Step size of the sample was 4. The margin
of error was 5%.
The average age of respondents in Kvemo Kartli was 35 (SD=13.8; Min-18 and Max -71
years); while in Samtskhe-Javakhetiit was 50 (SD=19.06; Min-18 years, Max -88 years). They
were selected to represent their populations according to gender and age. Distribution of the age
groups according to population appears in Table 5.
Table 5. Age distribution of the participants.
# Age groups Azeri % Armenian %

18-24 19.6 8.8
25-49 55.2 35.8
50-64 21.4 17.3
65> 3.8 34.1
Total 100.0 100
Research Instrument
The survey used a targeted questionnaire with closed-ended questions and some open-
ended ones. The questionnaire was divided into 3 broad sections. The first section of the
questionnaire covered demographic characteristics of the respondents. The second section of
the questionnaire assessed attitudes towards the access to general, VET and higher education;
experience of participation in education, the role of education in social inclusion and etc. The
third section covered barriers of getting education; 2 open-ended questions were included to
define from the perspective of the respondents how the barriers of education can be solved;
experience of the participant about the issued related to inclusion through education. The
questionnaire was piloted with a sample size of 25 persons.
Interview guide was developed for in-depth interviews with experts. The interview guide
covered the issues such as access to education for ethnic minorities, barriers to education, how
to overcome barriers and etc.
Data Analysis
Quantitative data was analysed using SPSS 21. The data were interned in SPSS and
verified for accuracy and missing values. Descriptive statistics were tabulated for each of the
respondent-type variables. Answers to the open-ended questions were grouped by theme. Open
ended questions and interview data was analysed using content analysis.
Results of the Research
As Table 6 shows, just more than 1/3 of the Armenian and Azeri participants completed
their general education (Armenia 32% and Azeri 35.4%), followed by those who graduated
with a BA degree (26.2% and 20.5%) and then VET (17.4% and 21.3%).
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Table 6. Highest level of Education of the participants. 59
# Level of Education Azeri % Armenian %

Primary 1.5 3.3
Basic 7.3 10.6
Secondary 32.0 35.4
VET 17.4 21.3
Student 11.3 4.6
BA 26.2 20.5
MA/Ph.D. 4.3 3.3
In 2014 the 39.7% of the whole population had Secondary education, 20.5% VET and
27.5% has higher education4.
Demographic Data
The family status of 62.0% of the Azeri and 65.7% of the Armenian respondents
was “married”. The unemployment rate was high; it was much higher among the Armenian
population (18.1%) than the Azeri population (13.1%). The national level of unemployment
was 14.6 % as of 2014 (GEOSTAT). Azeri Georgian employment was higher than the national
level.
About 40.3% of Azeri and 33.2 % of Armenian populations were employed at the time
of the study, most as civil servants. Approximately 20% were self-employed in their own
businesses or farms.
Table 7. Employment status of respondents.
# Status Azeri % Armenian %

Student 12.1 3.3
Housewife 27.4 13.9
Pensioner 7.2 31.5
Unemployed 13.1 18.1
Employed 40.3 33.2
Not knowing Georgian language is a barrier for ethnic minorities to learn about what
is going on in their country. The state information channels broadcast mainly in Georgian, so
that ethnic minorities have access to information principally through non-Georgian sources of
information.
Access to Education
As the following table shows, more than half of the respondents think that a general
education and VET are equally accessible to ethnic minorities and local Georgians, although
many fewer respondents felt that way about minority access to higher education. Only 54.4%
of the Azeri and 42% of the Armenian respondents believe there is equal access to higher
education. Only a few ethnic Azeris think they have more access to education at any level than
Georgians do, about 7% of the Armenian group said that they have more access to VET than
other Georgians.
4 Geostat, 2015
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60 Table 8. Attitudes towards access to education of Minorities in Georgia.
# Azeri Minority% Armenian Minority %

Georgians Azeri Georgians Georgians Armenian Geor-
have more Minori- and Azeri have more Minorities gians and
access than ties have Minorities access than have more Armenian
Azeri Minori- more ac- have equal Armenian access than Minorities
ties cess than access Minorities Georgians have equal
Geor- access
gians
General
1 14.2 0.3 72.5 21.0 2.5 69.1
education
2 VET 18.8 0.5 62.1 19.3 7.1 61.6
Higher
3 24.2 0.5 54.4 38.2 2.0 42.0
education
The study revealed barriers for minorities to access education. The main general
obstacles evoked by Azeri adults to get an education (any types of) were the lack of Georgian
language skills (69.5%) followed by low teacher qualifications (41.8%) and the low quality
of education in general (37.3%). Armenian participants said barriers were a lack of Georgian
language skills (64.3%), the low quality of books (35.4%) and that certain subjects were lacking
in the Georgian curriculum (31.4%). Thus, both groups identify barriers related primarily to
institutional factors.
Table 9. Barriers to accessing education for Azeri and Armenian minority adults.
Barriers Azeri % Armenian %

1. Insufficient knowledge of Georgian language at all levels 69.5 64.3
2. Poorly qualified teachers in schools 41.8 31.2
3. Low quality of education 37.3 20.1
4. Low quality of books in schools 30.5 35.4
5. There is no problem at any level 19.0 7.5
6. That the particular subjects are taught in Georgian at schools 15.5 31.4
7. Other 1.8 5.8
Most of the Azeri group respondents say they would like their children to get a general
and higher education in Georgian (46.8% and 63.4% respectively). Others say they would
like their children to access education in Azeri (30.7% and 14.4%). For the vast majority of
Armenian participants, Russian is the preferred language for the education of their children.
For general education 80.2% believe Russian would be best, while Armenian (61.6%) comes
in second place and Georgian third place (37.1%). However, Armenian minorities would prefer
to get a higher education in Armenian (74.4%), followed by Russian (69.6%) and lastly in
Georgian (37.2%). These findings are significant since Georgian language skills are needed for
both education and employment. Although Azeri minorities would like their children to study
in Georgian for general and higher education levels, for Armenian groups in Georgia, knowing
Georgian is only a third priority (see Table 10).
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Table 10. Language that participants would like their children to be educated. 61
Azeri % Armenian %
General Higher Edu- General Higher
Language
Education cation Education Education
1 Georgian 46.8 63.4 37.1 37.2
2 Mother tongue (Azeri /Armenian) 30.7 14.4 61.6 74.4
3 Russian 17.6 12.0 80.2 69.6
4 English 4.9 9.9 47.5 53.8
5 Other 0.3 29.9 43.5
Even though the research findings show that 71.4% of Azeri and 52.1% of Armenian
agree that a good command of Georgian language would help integration into society, 13.9%
of the Azeri group and 22.2% of the Armenian group do not agree that it would help, and some
have no opinion.
Many more ethnic Azeris than Armenians (63.9% and 43.9%) believe that teaching some
subjects in Georgian would ensure equal access by adults to an education; 9.3% do not agree,
and others have no opinion. Azeri minorities more highly appreciate the value of knowing
Georgian as a means of social integration than the Armenians. Although 80% of Armenians
think that everything in Samskhe-Javakheti should be in the official Georgian language, 20%
believe that it should be in Armenian.
The study showed that compared to the Azeri groups Armenians referred more often
to dispositional barriers. They recognized the importance of knowing Georgian, although at
the same time didn’t see how that would contribute to the well-being of their children in the
future. This lack of knowledge of Georgian seems to be a factor causing out-migration of youth
to Russia or Armenia, or to Azerbaijan, to get an education, and the experts consulted said that
after getting an education abroad these individuals preferred to stay outside of Georgia to look
for work. The emigration rate of the Armenian population is slightly higher than for the Azeris.
In 1989 emigration was 5.7% for Azeri minorities and 8.1% for Armenians; in 2002 it was 6.5
% for Azeris and 5.7 % for Armenian minorities.
The study showed that knowing Georgian and having a Georgian education are very
necessary for employability. As Table 11 shows, the most important factors for both minorities
to get a job are first of all knowing Georgian.
Table 11. Factors important for getting a job in Georgia.
Azeri % Armenian %
Factors Not important Important Not important Important
1. Social Origins (wealthy family) 33.3 26.4 9.1 77.5
2. Talent and skills 10.0 70.7 15.1 75.1
3. Knowledge of Georgian 4.3 88.1 4.8 91.9
4. Industriousness 9.0 69.4 20.8 76.8
5. Useful connections 12.8 66.8 5.9 89.1
6. Gender 39.9 15.7 53.5 30.8
7. Age 23.1 33.8 32.6 55.8
8. Georgian Citizenship 9.1 59.8 4.3 91.9
9. Ethnicity 36.3 26.3 16.2 73.1
10. Good Education 7.1 79.3 11.6 85.8
11. Political Party connections/links 22.1 31.8 11.5 69.1
12. Appearance 30.7 25.0 37.2 43.1
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62 Discussion
The research covered access to all three levels of education such as general, vocational
and higher education. This report reflects the essential information that was collected from
members of these minorities in Georgia, and through secondary data.
As the research shows both ethnic minorities believe they have the same level of access
to general or VET education as the Georgian population as a whole, but that the local Georgian
population has better access to higher education than ethnic minorities do. General education is
compulsory for all citizens of Georgia, guaranteeing access to general education, yet although
the study concentrated mostly on the perceptions of the community statistics show that ethnic
minorities have less access to higher education than to general or VET education. Other
research shows that the image of VET is inferior to that of a higher education in Georgia.5
Most Georgians, including ethnic minorities, consider a university education a more prestigious
and desirable educational opportunity (Kitiashvii et al, 2015). Although VET institutions have
implemented some activities, they still suffer from a low image and a less-attractive educational
option than higher education in Georgia. Thus, our research added new findings to the topic
for the Georgian context that ethnic minority status is positively correlated with less attractive
educational options, that are in line with other research abroad (Luciak, 2004).
This study highlighted a lack of language skills as a critical barrier to getting an
education. As participants point out, this lack excludes them from VET and higher educational
opportunities and decreases their employability. Other research also shows that a lack of
command of Georgian language by Ethnic Minorities is perceived as a barrier to education
(Sumbadze, 2015). In general people who do not speak the dominant language can feel
excluded, invisible, or having an inferior status to other students (Sparks, 1998). The Ministry
of Education initiated and implemented a number of activities to increase levels of Georgian for
minorities, but this remains one of the biggest problems, and causes the out-migration of ethnic
minorities to Russia, Armenia and Azerbaijan.
The main barriers to education are institutional. Institutional barriers are outside of a
learner’s direct control who can have relevant strategies to overcome them. The institutional
barriers need to be addressed from an institutional standpoint as well as from regulating
governments. Policymakers should cooperate with stakeholders for overcoming institutional
barriers.
Language has other important functions than only as a means of communication.
Respondents considered knowledge of Georgian as a crucial factor for social integration that
needs more attention. For example, the majority of the respondents think that learning Georgian
would help them integrate into the wider society. The lack of knowledge of Georgian has a
negative impact on the level of satisfaction with education and it limits access to information
about educational or job-related opportunities. It inhibits integration by excluding them from
information on the issues happening in the country. This all affects their inclusion in political
and social life in the long-term. The experts said minorities living outside the cities have more
problems related to language and education than those living in Tbilisi. Language is among the
major barriers named by the participants in getting a job along with a good education or talent
and skills. Other research has also shown that unemployment is a big problem for Azeri and
Armenian minorities and related to a lack of language skills. Thus, it is crucial to provide more
systematic and continuous support to increase Georgian language skills for the participants.
The group of expert respondents raised issues related to the quality of bilingual manuals
and the qualification of teachers in Georgia’s general education system. The quality of books
should be improved and teachers should be required to receive continuing professional
development. Networking between ethnic Georgian children and minority ethnic children should
5 VET strategy situational analysis, 2013
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be encouraged, and short-term Georgian language courses of all levels should be available to 63
everyone, including adults, through VET colleges and universities. Educational programs and
activities should be flexible. Various combinations of formal, non-formal, and informal learning
should be enhanced in which learners themselves are involved in the preparation of programs
(Van der Kamp & Toren, 2003).
The experts point out that geographical access to VET and higher education is very
challenging for minorities living outside urban areas. The number of VET colleges and
universities is limited. It is important to expand the network of educational institutions so that
the needs of the minorities are considered. Today, even if they come to Tbilisi or large towns
to study, the cost of an education is prohibitive—not only for tuition fees, but for additional
transportation costs, for renting a room, etc. (Kitiashvili et al, 2015). Other options would be
more flexible approaches for improving education access, for example with mobile educational
teams, online and distance learning, etc.
This study was limited to two districts of Georgia; however, it provides a basis to formulate
evidence-based educational policy for ethnic minorities. More systematic research needs to
be carried out to target key issues and identify root causes for the differences in educational
achievement between different ethnic groups. Future education policies should take the needs
and interests of minority groups into account, and provide the means for advocacy, information
and policy dialogue with the groups themselves, and for increased awareness of these issues by
all Georgians - both by minority groups and by the population at large.
Conclusions
The aim of this research was to analyse the attitudes of Azeri and Armenian ethnic
minorities about the access and barriers to getting an education in Georgia. Facilitating access
to education is important for employment and the financial well-being of minority communities,
but also as an opportunity to successfully integrate into society at large.
Ethnic minorities believe that Georgian population have more access to higher education,
that is considered more prestige in Georgia than other forms of education - than ethnic minorities
while there is less difference regarding the access to general and VET education. Analysis shows
that though access to Higher Education for the ethnic monitories is improving, participation is
still limited. Thus, ethnic minority status is positively correlated with less attractive educational
options.
The barriers to education for minorities are primarily institutional ones that can be
challenging for learners because they are dependent on many other factors than the learners
themselves.
A lack of language skills is a central barrier to getting an education. It is crucial to
provide more systematic and continuous support to increase Georgian language skills for the
ethnic minorities.
References
Carré, P. (2000). Motivation in adult education: From engagement to performance. Vancouver, British
Columbia: University of British Columbia, Department of Educational Studies.
Cross, P. (1981). Adults as learners. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Deer, C. (2005). Higher education access and expansion: The French Experience. Higher Education
Quarterly, 59 (3), 230–241.
Feinstein, L., Budge, D., Vorhaus, J., & Duckworth, K. (2008). The social and personal benefits of
learning: A summary of key research findings. Centre for Research on the Wider Benefits of
Learning. London. UK.
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64 Gogsadze, G., Kachkachishvili, I., & Basheleishvili, L. (2014). Minority integration in Georgia: Main
challenges and opportunities (Case of Javakheti). Tbilisi, Georgia.
Government of Georgia (2006). Law of Georgia on Higher Education, 2006. Tbilisi, Georgia.
Government of Georgia (2010). Law of Georgia on Vocational Education, 2010. Tbilisi, Georgia.
Khan, I. (2011). An analysis of learning barriers: The Saudi Arabian context. International Education
Study, 4 (1), 242-247.
Kitiashvili, A., Sumbadze, N., & Makharadze, T. (2015). Access to VET for vulnerable groups, Ministry
of Education and Science of Georgia. Retrieved 10/04/2015, from http://www.inclusion.ge/res/
docs/2015071614133366745.pdf.
Luciak, M. (2004). Migrants, minorities and education. Documenting discrimination and international
in 15 Member State of the European Union- on behalf of the European Monitoring Centre on
Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities.
Luciak, M. (2006). Minority schooling and intercultural education - a comparison of recent developments
in the old and new EU Member States. Intercultural Education, 17 (1), 73-80.
Sordia, G. (2013). European Charter on Regional and Minority Languages and Georgia (in
Georgian language). Retrieved 1/03/2016, from http://www.tolerantoba.ge/index.php?id=
1281619861&kat=339.
Sumbadze, N. (2015). Access to university education: Barriers and ways of overcoming them. Tbilisi.
Georgia.
The National Concept for Tolerance and Civic Integration and its Action Plan. Retrieved 1/03/2015, from
http://www.smr.gov.ge/docs/doc173.pdf.
Van der Kamp, M., & Toren, K. (2003). Learning trajectories for groups at risk. In Schmidt-Lauff S.
(Ed.), Adult education and lifelong learning: An European view as perceived by participants in an
exchange program (pp. 69-89). Hamburg, Germany.
Advised by Angela James, University of KwaZulu - Natal, South Africa
Received: May 10, 2016 Accepted: August 15, 2016
Anastasia Kitiashvili PhD, Associate Professor, Tbilisi State University, 1 Chavchavdze Ave., 0179
Tbilisi, Georgia.
E-mail: kitiashvili@yahoo.com
Website: https://www.tsu.ge/
Tamar Abashidze PhD, Associate Professor, Tbilisi State University, 1 Chavchavdze Ave., 0179
Tbilisi, Georgia.
E-mail: tamar.abashidze@tsu.ge
Irine Zhvania PhD, Associate Professor, Tbilisi State University, 1 Chavchavdze Ave., 0179
Tbilisi, Georgia.
E-mail: irine.zhvania@tsu.ge
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STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF FACTORS 65
SLOWING DOWN THEIR STUDY

PROGRESS: THE CASE OF UNIVERSITY
OF LAPLAND
Kaarina Määttä, Satu Uusiautti
University of Lapland, Rovaniemi, Finland
E-mail: Kaarina.Maatta@ulapland.fi, Satu.Uusiautti@ulapland.fi
Abstract
Fast graduation, smooth studies, and fluent study progress are the goals of today’s university education.
How do students themselves perceive their study processes and what do they think about the factors
hindering them from succeeding? The purpose of this research was to find out from the first-year-students
of one Finnish university their experiences and opinions. The research investigated what the most difficult
issues the students have faced during their first year of university studies have been and what factors
have hindered their study progress according to their own perceptions. The students (N=186) answered
to an internet-based open-ended questionnaire. The data were analysed in a qualitative data-based
manner which resulted in seven most frequently mentioned hindrances in the questionnaire data. The
main hindrances were deficiencies in study skills, difficulties in adjustment to academic studies, unclear
directions in studies, difficulties in making study plans and scheduling, lack of guidance in studies and
difficulties in finding help, lack of community, and overlapping courses and busy study periods. Based on
the findings, it is possible to pay attention to the difficulties mentioned by students.
Key words: university education, study process, smooth studies, university teaching, study skills.
Introduction
Not only university administration but also students themselves hope and aim at smooth
progress in university studies. Prolonged study processes do not serve anyone: they decrease
students’ motivation to perform and complete studies and discourage university teachers.
Decrease in graduating students means decrease in universities’ funding, too, and therefore, it
is crucial to pay attention to the smoothness of studies from a student’s point of view. This is the
purpose of this research. The objective was to hear from university students themselves what
the most important factors hindering them progressing in their studies are.
A glimpse in previous studies and theories shows that success in studies is a sum of many
factors. We have previously presented four core factors that direct students’ study process: a
student, university community, study plan, and university teacher (Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012).
Although they may not explain successful study paths and learning comprehensively, they
function as the basis of theoretical outline of this research.
Perhaps, the most important factor in the study process is the student himself or herself.
Students’ study skills, self-regulation, and attitudes determine their studying styles and skills
and, thus, opportunities of succeeding (Dresel, Schmitz, Schober, Spiel, Ziegler, Engelschalk,
& Steuer, 2015; Phan, 2008). Likewise, students are heterogeneous, whose unique personalities
have their own influence on studies (Duff, Boyle, Dunleavy, & Ferguson, 2004). Success
in previous education levels (Busato, Prins, Elshout, & Hamaker, 2000), including even
experiences in elementary school, direct performance in university studies, as well (Hébert,
1993). These experiences in students’ learning and study history can either strengthen or
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66 sap their self-efficacy beliefs or self-confidence as learners (Furnham, Chamorro-Premuzic,

& McDougall, 2002). Therefore, for example, university entrance tests do not predict well
students’ study success at universities (Beenstock & Feldman, 2016). Previous experiences
have created students a conception of themselves as learners, who can become questioned at the
university (Cano, 2005; Nicol & Macfarlane-Dick, 2006). In addition, students’ expectations
and understanding about the length and demands of studies can be unrealistic (Brunello &
Winter-Ebmer, 2003).
Motivation to perform well and complete courses also makes an important ingredient
of study success. Students’ motivation reflects in their way of performing studies and their
persistence (Mills & Blankstein, 2000; Pintrich, 1999; Salmela & Uusiautti, 2015). Strong
intrinsic motivation makes coping with study-related challenges easier because then learning
and acquiring knowledge and skills are considered rewarding as such (see also Ryan & Deci,
2000; Salmela & Määttä, 2015). However, outer rewards can boost motivation, too: positive
and encouraging feedback is important as it improves one’s receptiveness to new learning
experiences and tolerance of failures (Aoun, Vatanasakdakul, & Ang, 2016). It is important
to remember that students do not just live for their studies, but their lives are filled with other
important areas, too, that are equally important for their comprehensive positive development
(see e.g., Lerner et al., 2011). Indeed, studies should also be in balance with other areas of life:
interesting hobbies, good human relationships and family life, versatile and relaxing leisure
time act as a good counterbalance to studying (e.g. Lowe & Gayle, 2007).
Students’ personal features are not, however, the only thing influencing their success:
they are always a part of the university community that surrounds them and that either enhances
or hinders their chances of succeeding. Many characteristics of university community influence
on their study process (Chamorro-Premuzic, & Furnham, 2003; Conard, 2006), and one of the
closest features to students is teaching. Numerous studies have outlined the features of teaching
that enhances the study processes the best (DePillis & Johnson, 2015; Uusiautti & Määttä,
2013; Äärelä, Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2016). Findings have shown the importance of a positive
study atmosphere (Shahidi & Sobhani, 2015), the level of face-to-face teaching (Symonds,
2014), the supervision of Master’s theses (Chogyi, 2004), the significance of the first study year
(Keup & Barefoot, 2005; Schellenberg & Bailis, 2015), and the level of interaction between the
teaching personnel and students (Bowman & Akcaoglu, 2014; Määttä, 2015).
When it comes to the curriculum planning and teaching arrangements, faculties and
departments vary from authoritative to democratic. The curriculum provides both teachers and
students with clear goals, and current renewals of university curricula aim at enhancing work-
life knowledge and skills across studies (Chappel & Johnston, 2003; Fallows & Steven, 2000;
Xu, 2004). Curriculum planning can also pay attention to the study progresses and their phases,
and therefore, turn curricula into more student-centred in nature (Valle et al., 2003).
Yet, the completion of an academic degree is the student’s responsibility because even
the most skilful teachers cannot learn on students’ behalf (Määttä & Uusiautti, 2012; Äärelä,
Määttä, & Uusiautti, 2016). Teaching skills, teachers’ ability to be in an appreciating interaction
with students and to guide students are still the bedrock of university education. Teaching skills
can be practiced and developed. Often, it is the students who are expected to perform more and
better (Stellmack et al., 2012), while the necessity of teachers’ development may be forgotten
(e.g., Hargreaves, 1997). Within the pressure of increasing extrinsic demands and personal
goals, students’ motivation becomes tested (Reiss, 2012). At its worst, bewilderment can result
in dropping out from education (Cortes, Mostert, & Els, 2014; Stratton, O’Toole, & Wetzel,
2008) or in fatigue (Galbraith & Merrill, 2015; Olwage & Mostert, 2014).
Problem of Research
University teaching and various teaching methods have been studied abundantly.
Likewise, university teachers’ perceptions of the developmental needs in university teaching
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is a much researched topic. The purpose has been to find out how to enhance smooth study 67
processes through various teaching arrangements and practices. This research contributes the
students’ viewpoint to the discussion.
The following research questions were set for this research:
What have been the most difficult issues the students have faced during their first year of
university studies?
What factors have hindered their study progress according to their own perceptions?
General Characteristics of Research
The main purpose of this research was to know what factors make studying and study
progress difficult. First-year students from the University of Lapland were selected as research
participants. This selection was based on the findings according to which the first study year is
the most important for the smoothness of forthcoming study years as well (e.g., McKenzie &
Schweitzer, 2001).
Sample of Research and Instrument
The data collection happened via an Internet-based questionnaire called “Webropol”.

The questionnaire was sent to 506 students who had registered as present students for their first
study year at the University of Lapland. Of them, 186 replied. The questionnaire was sent May
6, 2014 and a reminder note May 13, 2014 was sent to those who had not replied. The due date
for participation in the research was May 20, 2014. The participation rate was 36.8 % which
was considered sufficient for the purposes of this research. The timing of the research at the
end of the study year might have influence on the participation because in May already many
students return to their home places across Finland or start their summer jobs, and thus are not
actively involved in studies.
Those who participated in the research were mostly women: 74 % were female students
and 23 % male students (3 % of students, n=5, did not report their genders). The distribution
resembles the actual distribution of female and male students at the University of Lapland. Of
the participants of this research, 67 % were under 24 years old; 18 % were 25-29 years old; 4 %
were 30-34 years old; and 6 % were over 40 years old. The median of students at the University
of Lapland is 27 years.
The participants of this research also represented the four faculties (= departments) of the
university relatively well. 44 students (23.7 %) were from the faculty of education, 49 students
(26.3 %) were from the faculty of law, 27 students (15.5 %) were from the faculty of arts, and
66 students (35.5%) were from the faculty of social sciences.
The University of Lapland is the northernmost university of the European Union. It is
a small university with about 5,000 students. Even though small university enables open and
easy interaction between students and the teaching staff, university studies are still demanding.
In order to be able to develop teaching further, it is important to listen to students’ experiences.
Therefore, a qualitative research approach was chosen in this research. Due to the high number
of students, an open-ended questionnaire was considered the best research instrument for data
collection in order to address students and reach their perceptions and experiences (Denscombe,
2008). Even though loss was relatively loss, the number of participants and quality of data were
still considered satisfactory for the purposes of the research, because their answers were long
and profound. Excerpts from the data are included in the results section of this article. As the
objective was to give voice to students themselves, the main emphasis in the data collection was
to receive descriptions rich in content and variety.
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68 Data Analysis
The data were analysed with a content analysis method that was qualitative data-based
analysis (Kolbe & Burnett, 1991). First, the students’ statements were connected into several
subcategories. Then, the analysis continued with a more specific categorization into main
categories that would include items that resembled similar theme (such as deficient study skills).
Eventually through reduction, seven main categories could be distinguished. They form the
most important factors hindering smooth progress in studies according to students’ perceptions.
When it comes to reliability in studies like this one, some basic issues can be evaluated.
First, the reliability of the data collection method must be assessed. In this research, the internet-
based questionnaire was considered the most suitable way of contacting students: they could be
easily reached via email. Another advantage was that they could fill the questionnaire whenever
the most convenient for them. However, this always causes some disadvantages too: many
respondents may easily forget or ignore the request to participate in the research, or answers
can remain short and superficial. In addition, the researcher cannot be certain who has actually
answered the questions (although it is highly unlikely that someone else could answer in behalf
of a student) and how, for example, the circumstances of the answering moment (e.g., mood,
motivation, satisfaction of studies or latest courses, or other factors in students’ personal lives)
have influenced the students’ answers. The quality of research is, therefore, mainly based on the
quality of data, in this case the content of answers (Couper, Kapteyn, Schonlau, & Winter, 2007).
This evaluation showed that the students had contemplated profoundly their study experiences
and written about their difficulties and other adversities in an open manner. For example, their
ability to notice shortcomings in their study skills showed that they did not just blame teachers
or unpleasant teaching arrangements for the hindrances they had faced.
In addition, the reliability of this research was pursued to strengthen with collaboration of
two researchers (Wray, Markovic, & Manderson, 2007). This enhanced the analysis by making
sure that interpretations were not just based on one person’s preconceptions but on data. Yet, it
is still possible that some other researcher or research group could categorize or interpret the
data differently. However, for the purposes of the research, the analysis showed what the crucial
factors that hinder smooth study progress in students’ opinion are. The categories are therefore
strictly based on the frequencies of occurrence in the data.
Results of Research
Deficiencies in study skills required in university studies formed the main category in
the students’ answers. This was the main hindrance of smooth study progress during the first
year of university studies. Most of the students did not have previous experience of university
studies and, even if the university arranged orientation lectures that discuss relevant study skills,
adjustment to the new study environment did not happen immediately or even easily. In general,
study methods needed in university were reported unfamiliar, and therefore, the beginning of
the study process was slow and tangled for many first-year-students:
“At the beginning, it was difficult to get in to the various learning environments.”
“To learn new study methods; lectures, making notes from speech and not directly from
transparencies, preparing to exams with huge pile of literature.”
Sometimes, new students may find it difficult to find and learn new study techniques
that suit them best. They would like to know exactly how to prepare for exams or how to write
answers to essay questions, and what is an essay or learning diary.
“To find a reading style that fits. I have not been able make good plans of how to read to
exams. Neither have I found a suitable study method and therefore my success in exams has been
quite lame, and I have not obtained too much study points.”
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Adjustment to academic studies had been difficult at the beginning. The general university 69
practices were not familiar and adjustment to the academic atmosphere took time. Studies at a
university require more self-control, independence, and initiative than previous studies in upper
secondary education. Numerous students mentioned how hard it was to impel themselves to
study and find a study rhythm. The ability to carry on studies after failing in exams was also
mentioned as a very demanding situation that decreased motivation and required extra-effort.
“At first, finding a study rhythm (different / more relaxed / more responsibility than in the
general upper secondary education).”
“Familiarization with more freely and voluntary studying was simultaneously liberating
and, at times, problematic.”
“Too often have I started to read to an exam a couple of nights before it but toward the end
of the study year, I have tried to mend my ways.”
“Finding a reading rhythm in independent studies; maintaining self-confidence, and
spurring myself after getting an F and restarting studying.”
Unclear directions in studies had caused problems as well. Students reported that they
had found guidelines for exams unclear, insufficient, and confusing. Likewise, guidelines of
how to write essays and learning diaries were considered ambiguous and difficult to understand.
Students complained that teachers’ requirements for parts of a course had been diverging and
that they are not always aware of what kind of performances teachers actually expect.
“Unclear directions regarding exams. In my first exam, I wrote too long answers and lost
points. In the next one, I wrote more shortly, and then required information was missing. Each
exam should have their own separate directions of how to perform in that exact exam.”
Study plans and scheduling were mentioned as one of the core issues hindering smooth
studies. Independence in studies necessitates skills to plan one’s study schedules. Students
considered it difficult to perceive their study paths and the workload in their plans. Students
had encountered trouble sticking to their study schedules or sparing enough time for studies and
preparation for exams.
“The most difficult thing has been to realize how much work each task requires (essays,
exams, seminars, etc.) because different teachers demand different kinds of input.”
“You have to plan everything by yourself and, every now and then, you relapse into too
ambitious performing which tests your coping.”
“Adjustment to university studies, time management, and reasonable distribution of your
resources.”
Lack of guidance in studies was mentioned as a hindrance. Students reported that they
had not received enough guidance in how to select courses and minors as well as in planning
of their studies in general. They mentioned that they had not received sufficient information
beforehand about courses available and what the course contents are and what they should
select.
“Starting your studies was the most difficult at first. I felt that I did not get enough guidance
for planning my studies.”
“In the fall, I was not certain which courses I could already select [in my study plan].”
“There has not been much study counselling.”
Lack of guidance and difficulties in finding help at the beginning of studies are major
problems and can cause long-lasting trouble because some courses should be studied in a certain
order. There are also courses that are offered only every second year. Therefore, it would be
important to provide students with these kinds of information clearly and promptly straight at
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70 the beginning of the first study year. On the other hand, these are also details that students easily
have forgotten in the middle of the start of their studies when they have numerous other issues
to solve and think about, too. Therefore, guidance should be available through the school year
so that the students could return to these questions when they need help with them the most.
Many students were also disappointed with tutoring. Both student and teacher tutoring
were considered insufficient. Students considered group meeting important and they wished
that they would be regularly arranged and offer more help with study planning.
“Teacher tutors more efficient recruiting to motivate students and plan their future.”
Lack of community or one’s own group and loneliness were also commonly mentioned in
the data. Many students arrive to the university from across the country and therefore, they have
to start building new friendships and other relationships at the same time they start their new,
demanding studies. Student tutoring, in which older students guide the newcomers, has proven
a good way of getting new students to familiarize with their new study place, the university and
the city, and their new study groups. Still, experiences of the start varied among the participants
and the loneliness of university studies had surprised many of them.
“Studying is somewhat lonely business.”

“Adjustment to this new place, which I, however, knew already beforehand.”
“The most difficult thing for me has been to get to know my own group, the other first-year-
students. I took so many different courses than the others, and therefore, I met hardly anyone after
the orientation week in the fall. This is greatly my fault too.”
Finally, overlapping courses and busy study periods were reported to hinder smooth
progress. Students had found it difficult to determine when to take or attend courses if there
were, for example, two courses going on at the same time with partly or mostly overlapping
lecture times. Some courses did not allow absences, and thus, students had to make difficult
selections, especially if the ways of performing courses could not be negotiated with teachers.
Some periods had been extremely busy and toilsome because of numerous lectures, exams, and
other tasks. Another big problem was difficulty in getting exam books from the library; students
may have to queue for certain much used books for a long time.
“Teaching is accumulated. I have really full months with lectures and exams, and then
months that I have not have suitable lectures available at all. Many study groups have too little
space and I have not gotten in in them.”
Discussion
Students’ descriptions of the factors that hinder their smooth study progress were varied.
As the results show, they vary from their study skills to more general problems, such as overall
scheduling of courses at the departments. Most of these hindrances are as unnecessary, which
means that they can be addressed and that there already are suitable, well-known ways of fixing
these problems.
One of the ways to improve students’ study progress can happen through the university
teachers and professors. They are responsible for the development of their own disciplines
and fields of research, and that cannot happen without proper guidance and education of new
generations of students. The quality of university teaching can be evaluated with many criteria:
substance knowledge, breadth, topicality, theory versus practice-orientation, necessity versus
redundancy, interesting versus platitude, difficulty versus intelligibility, fragmentariness or
structure, hastiness or concentration. Ideal university teaching is based on research (Määttä &
Uusiautti, 2012) and shows students how university research interacts not only in the field but
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with the teaching at universities as well. Shulman (1987) argues that content knowledge should 71
merge with pedagogical knowledge in university teaching.
Määttä and Uusiautti (2016) have divided the resources of a good supervisor of doctoral
students into four dimensions that can also describe good university teachers and professors
when it comes to their abilities to interact with, pay attention to, care for, and teach university
students. The dimensions are knowledge (substance knowledge), proficiency (positive and
supportive methods and personality), will (commitment to teaching and guiding students), and
actions (pedagogically and scientifically qualitative teaching).
Still, just good teaching is not enough (Helmke & Schrader, 1988) and it might be even
more important to know how students perceive their education and how capable they are to plan
their studies and achieve their goals. Indeed, students’ worries are not just related to teaching.
For example, one reason for prolonged studies is that students want to study extensively and
this way guarantee their employment (Dolton & Sillos, 2008; Hartog, 2000). This kind of over-
education can also hinder the smoothness of studies in many levels, such as too burdensome
studies and consecutive fatigue, and imbalance between studies and other areas of life (Budria
& Moro-Egido, 2014; Sánchez-Sanchez & McGuinness, 2015; Tarvid, 2013). On the other
hand, for some students other areas of life may leave studies in the shadow (Chesser, 2015).
Finally, sometimes studies become hindered by financial problems (Dockery, Seymour, &
Koshy 2015; Reed & Hurd, 2014).
The findings of this research are supported by several earlier studies on the importance
of positive feedback, constructive evaluation, and mentoring or tutoring. At their best, they
improve students’ initiation and activity in their studies as well as their ability to self-reflection
and evaluation of their own learning and study skills (Boud & Molloy, 2013; Carless et al.,
2011; Ćukušić, Garača, & Jadrić, 2014). Students need endlessly feedback in order to develop
as students, learners, and members of an academic community (Winstone et al., 2016), which
sets demands on university education. Actually, Winstone et al. (2015) point out that many
students actually perceive feedback from teachers merely as luxury than necessity for their
studies. New methods of student counselling and guidance (see e.g., West & Turner, 2015)
can provide some means to address these needs but they necessitate plenty from teachers too.
Teachers can be seen as the service providers who have to serve the students and consider them
as customers. Actually, students need to be served: otherwise, the universities cannot fulfil their
obligations and responsibilities for producing certain amounts of graduates (Bunce et al., 2016).
Roughly stated, this is why universities have to be interested in hearing students’ perceptions of
the factors slowing down their study progress and prolonging their graduation.
Conclusion
As the conclusion, it can be stated that the most important thing in university studies
and study success are the students themselves. Without their own activity and commitment,
students’ studies are not likely to proceed and become completed. Without their own effort and
concentration, students’ study points will not accumulate. Feedback and counselling by teachers
are certainly important as well, but students’ own willingness to learn from the feedback, to reflect
their experiences are equally crucial. However, a university that fosters students’ development
as academic learners and pays attention to students’ needs, shows interest in learning from their
experiences and, first and foremost, shows willingness to improve teaching practices according
to students’ suggestions and feedback, may be regarded as a luxurious study place. Indeed,
universities should be competing which one of them provides this kind of luxury the most.
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Advised by Martin Bilek, University of Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic 75
Received: May 19, 2016 Accepted: July 14, 2016
Kaarina Määttä PhD, Professor, Vice-Rector, University of Lapland, Finland.

E-mail: Kaarina.Maatta@ulapland.fi
Website: http://www.ulapland.fi/KaarinaMaatta
Satu Uusiautti PhD, Associate Professor, University of Lapland, Finland.

E-mail: Satu.Uusiautti@ulapland.fi
Website: https://satuuusiautti.wordpress.com/
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76
INTERCULTURAL FEATURES AND THE
THEME OF TRAVELLING IN BILINGUAL
MATHEMATICS LESSONS
Zuzana Naštická
Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Nitra, Slovakia
E-mail: zuzana.nasticka@gmail.com
Abstract
The present qualitative research is focused on bilingual mathematics education. The research presents
findings of a case study of one bilingual Slovak and English mathematics 40-minute lesson within an
after school elective bilingual mathematics course running weekly since October, 2015. The lesson took
place in March, 2016, and was attended by nine learners aged 12-13, eight boys and one girl. The
learners are cases of successive school additive bilingual education. The elective course as a whole
is a case of immerse bilingual educational programme. In terms of sociolinguistic settings, the course
lessons are cases of bilingual education with external second language. The researcher designed and
realized the course lessons in terms of CLIL approach, i.e. Content and Language Integrated Learning.
The main aim of the case study was to examine if bilingual mathematics instruction does or does not
prevent learners from solving math word problems. Secondly, the analysis of transcription of the lesson
audio-record served for identification of intercultural features which might hinder the learning process.
The analysis of the transcribed audio-record indicates that the bilingual context did not prevent students
from solving math word problems, although each of the students worked at their individual rate. On the
other hand, some students were confused by the comma as a thousands-separator in multi-digit numbers,
and this actually hindered their learning and problem solving process. This fact has been identified as an
intercultural difference which had to be explicitly explained to the students. In order to lessen the possible
negative influences of bilingual context on mathematics education, teachers need to predict students’
responses to various intercultural differences which students are unfamiliar with.
Key words: bilingual mathematics education, CLIL, thousands-separator, land area, per cents.
Introduction
The present qualitative research analyses specific phenomena occurring in bilingual

mathematics education at a lower secondary level in Slovakia based on a case study of one
bilingual mathematics lesson within a long-term elective after-school course. Secondary
comprehensive bilingual schools have had quite a long tradition in Slovakia. However,
bilingual education at a lower secondary and primary level is just being developed in Slovakia,
and naturally attracts much attention of parents, teachers, researchers, and also representatives
of governmental institutions. This is assumably in concordance with nowadays common
requirement on European citizens to be fluent speakers of several languages. In relation to
this concerned bodies of the European Union (COM(95), 1995; COM(2003), 2003) as well
as the Slovak Ministry of Education (Conception of foreign language teaching at primary and
secondary schools, 2007) recommends CLIL, i.e. Content and Language Integrated Learning
(Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols, 2008), as an appropriate approach to bilingual education at a primary
and secondary level. Simultaneously, there is also the urgent requirement of mathematical
literacy, as defined by OECD (OECD, 2016, Mathematics Framework, p. 65). Following the
socioeconomic demands on individuals, it is just natural that the number of schools which
provide bilingual education starting even at pre-primary level is constantly increasing. Hand in
hand with this, there appear such phenomena in educational environments which catch and call
for researchers’ interest.
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In fact, bilingual or multilingual mathematics education has already been of scientific 77

interest for several decades. Most researches into bilingual mathematics education have
been conducted in such sociolinguistic settings where the main instructional language is the
majority language in wider society and students are speakers of minority languages (Khisty,
2001; Dominguéz, 2011; Moschkovich, 2002, 2007; Norén, 2011). In terms of the role of the
learner’s second language (henceforth abbreviated to L2, first language L1) Siegel (2003)
refers to such setting as a dominant L2 setting. Other researchers report findings about bilingual
mathematics education in such sociolinguistic settings where “the main classroom language
is an indigenous or imported language with wide range of official uses and students speak
several local languages and inhabit highly multilingual environments” (Barwell, 2005, p. 146).
In Siegel’s (2003) framework it is the institutional L2 setting, and is discussed in (Setati, 2003;
Bernardo & Calleja, 2005; Adler, 1995).
The present research is focused on a less explored case of bilingual mathematics
education, and that is in Siegel’s (2003) framework the external L2 sociolinguistic setting,
which means that “the main classroom language is a foreign or distant language” and “students
are speakers of the dominant language” (Barwell, 2005, p. 146). The learners who attended
the analysed lesson presented in this research are Slovak learners learning English as a
second language in Slovakia, where English is popular and the most frequently taught foreign
language at schools, although English is neither an official minority language in Slovakia, nor
a dominant language in any of the neighbouring countries. Closely related research in bilingual
mathematics education has been conducted in Slovakia by Lengyelfalusyová (2011, 2013),
Kubeš (2012), Pokrivčáková (2013), Guffová (2014), Naštická (2014), Vitézová et al. (2016),
and in the Czech Republic by Hoffmanová, Novotná & Hadj-Moussova (2003), Šteflíčková
(2012), Tejkalova Prochazková (2013), Moraová & Novotná (2016). The present research is
focused on examining if bilingual context does or does not prevent learners from solving math
word problems, and on identifying such intercultural features which might hinder the learning
process. This case study orderly complements worldwide research in bilingual mathematics
education, especially such bilingual mathematics education which is performed in external L2
sociolinguistic setting (Siegel, 2003; Barwell, 2005).
General Background of Research
In this research the lesson and the attending students are analysed in view of the
sociolinguistic perspective of bilingualism, which perceives bilinguals as members of social
groups who use their languages for various functions in their everyday lives (Grosjean, 1994;
Moschkovich, 2007; Valdés-Fallis, 1978). In the empirical research the researcher performed
as the teacher in the lesson and the leader of the long-term elective mathematics course. The
researcher designed the course, the analysed lesson and the applied worksheet for students in
terms of CLIL approach (Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols, 2008).
Previous related empirical researches were aimed at younger students (Pokrivčáková,
Menzlová & Farkašová, 2010; Kubeš, 2012) or, contrarily, on students at upper secondary
educational level (Lengyelfalusyová, 2011, 2013; Guffová, 2014; Vitézová et al., 2016), and
many of the researches dealt mostly with various language aspects rather than mathematics
educational aspects (Pokrivčáková, 2013). Other related empirical researches were much aimed
at how pre-service teachers perceive bilingual mathematics education and various teaching
methods, such as CLIL (Hoffmanová, Novotná & Hadj-Moussova, 2003). The latter researches
were supported by several theoretical researches (Moraová & Novotná, 2016).
Šteflíčková (2012) investigated difficulties of students with CLIL at lower secondary
education in Czech and English bilingual education. Particularly, Šteflíčková used a diagnostic
mathematics test (in English as L2) aimed at per cents. In Šteflíčková’s quantitative research
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78 the researcher did not analyse difficulties related to intercultural differences in thousands-
separators, nor was the researcher interested in use of decimal marker. In addition, Šteflíčková
provided a complex and detailed analysis of two students’ solutions to eight math word problems
related to per cents proposed within bilingual context. Šteflíčková’s two detailed analyses
support Bialystok’s (2001) inference suggesting that bilingualism does not have any negative
effect on mathematical problem solving providing that the learners’ language proficiency
is at least adequate for understanding the problem. Having in mind this prerequisite, in the
present research the researcher dared to use the math word problems in form of a worksheet, as
explained below and shown in Figure 1.
Sample Selection
The 40-minute lesson was attended by nine students, eight boys and one girl, aged 12-
13. The lesson took place in March, 2016, and was a part of an after school elective bilingual
mathematics course running weekly since October, 2015, in Nitra, Slovakia. The students are
cases of successive school additive bilingual education (Horecký, 2002; Horňáková, 2007;
Štefánik, Palcútová & Lanstyák, 2004). The elective course as a whole is a case of immerse
bilingual educational programme (Pokrivčáková, Menzlová & Farkašová, 2010). In the present
research the researcher focused the investigation on the group of lower secondary education
students, as it has been long neglected in current researches on bilingual mathematics education
in L2 external setting, as explained in previous section. Due to tight limitations of teachers’
possibilities to implement innovative educational approaches in Slovak school system, the
research was conducted in a small group of students who attended the long-term elective
course. As for the theme selection of the lesson, a geography-related theme was chosen, since
the students were also taught geography in CLIL approach within an obligatory school course.
Instrument and Procedures
In the lesson students were asked to complete a fill-in-the-gaps exercise, i.e. their task
was to fill in the gaps in texts which were part of the worksheet used in the lesson (Figure
1). Students worked in a form of a whole-class discussion. The researcher and teacher in one
person organized their work and decided who would be the next to read the text and fill in the
gap if necessary, which included solving a specific task in each of the cases. The lesson theme
was Iceland, which enabled the teacher/researcher to interlink learning objectives for several
subjects. Two primary objectives, in terms of CLIL, were focused on mathematics and the
English language. The interlinking theme covered secondary learning objectives of the lesson
focused on acquiring new geographic knowledge. Besides, the instruction and the main text,
the worksheet included a simple glossary in form of a footnote. In this case the glossary did not
contain any mathematical terms.
Based on the direct participant observation and on the analysis of the transcribed
audio-record of the lesson the present research analyses how students solved the proposed
mathematical tasks. Primarily, the research investigates in what manner students were affected
by the bilingual context while solving math word problems comprised in the worksheet. The
main focus of the research is to examine whether the intercultural differences between Slovak
(L1) and English (L2) mathematical notations – the difference between the English comma as
a thousands-separator in multi-digit numbers and the Slovak decimal comma functioning as
a decimal marker – in any way hinder the learning and mathematical problem solving process
of the students.
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Figure 1: Texts read and completed by students in the analysed lesson.
Data Analysis
Based on the analysis of the transcribed communication which emerged and was audio-
recorded in the lesson, the occurred mathematics-related parts of conversation were divided
into two main categories. The first category covers such utterances and conversations in which
students struggle with reading certain mathematical texts and proposing answers and results
in both instructional languages. More specifically, the text covered in this category includes
reading numbers, especially consisting of four and more digits (multi-digit numbers), and
reading the international abbreviation of square kilometres. Reading multi-digit numbers
requires the knowledge of the intercultural difference between decimal comma in Slovak
mathematical discourse (while in English it is the decimal point, which was not used in the
task which students were asked to solve in the lesson) and the comma between hundreds and
thousands, and between millions and hundred thousands etc. in English mathematical discourse
(comma as a thousands-separator). Acquiring this knowledge was one of the lesson learning
objectives, therefore frequent occurrence of students’ misunderstanding of the comma had been
expected. The second category covers such utterances and conversations in which students
negotiate their understanding of the math word problem, including their solutions, in both
languages of instruction. In the analysed lesson this category of utterances is elicited by two
types of tasks. The first type is related to multiples and parts of a whole. The second type is
related to per cents (see Figure 1). In the analysis the relationship between the type of the
math word problem and the students’ manner of solving them is not investigated. The research
focuses on the influences of the bilingual context on the students’ quality of understanding and
solving the math word problems.
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80 Results of Research
Nine students (S1 – S9) were reading the text, sentence by sentence, as they were asked
by the teacher (T), and if necessary, they had to find missing information in a simple map of
Iceland (four gaps), estimate (two gaps) or calculate (two gaps) numerical information. The four
cases in which students had to estimate or calculate the missing numerical information were,
actually, simple math word problems presented in a non-traditional form of a fill-in-the-gap
exercise. While reading the text in L2, students struggled with reading numbers, as illustrated
in Episodes 1 and 2. Both students and the teacher occasionally mixed the two instructional
languages, which is marked by italics in the transcription, and Slovak utterances are translated
into English in slash brackets.
/Episode 1, time 17:06/

S5: The size of Iceland is one hundred three thousand-
T: -one hundred and three thousand-
S5: -one hundred and three thousand square kilometres.

S7: Since the total area of Slovakia is
štyridsaťdeväť celá nula tridsaťšesť kilometrov štvorcových.
/forty-nine point zero thirty-six square kilometres./
Student S5 correctly read number 103,000 in L2, English, and did not mistake the
comma between thousands and hundreds for Slovak decimal comma (Episode 1). He managed
to read the number correctly before the teacher explained the intercultural difference. It cannot
be definitely stated if he had already known the intercultural difference, or he simply realized
that he was reading quite a big number since it referred to the area of Iceland. There is also
the possibility that he read the number correctly because he was not misled by digits after the
comma, as they were three zeros, unlike student S7 a few seconds later. Student S7 read number
49,036 incorrectly in L1, Slovak, and did mistake the comma between thousands and hundreds
for Slovak decimal comma (Episode 2). She might have been misled by the digits after the
comma, as they were not only zeros. We can, however, definitely say she neither realized nor
had she known the intercultural difference. In addition, she was not fully concentrated on the
fact she was reading about the area of Slovakia which cannot be counted in tens of square
kilometres.
Around five minutes later the teacher explicitly explained the difference between comma
as a thousands-separator and decimal comma used in Slovak mathematical discourses. The
teacher did so because she was aware that students were just about to solve a math word
problem about per cents and that she needed to avoid their let-down in case they would be told
their results are wrong despite correct procedures. After student S2 switched into Slovak, the
conversation continued in Slovak without language switching, therefore Episode 3 is presented
below in its translated form only. As it is shown in Episode 3 (the last line), student S2 already
started solving the task correctly. However, the teacher ignored him and decided to explicitly
explain the difference between the English and the Slovak meaning of the comma because of
the above mentioned reasons.

S2: Although …the glaciers in island...Iceland belong among the
largest
ones left in Europe, they cover only about ... ten per cent of the
Icelandic land, which is... Neviem, porozmýšľam.
/I don’t know, I’ll think about it./
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T: Uhm, so now we want to find out--- 81
S2: ---how many square kilometres it is.
T: ---how many square kilometres the glaciers in Iceland form.
We know that it is ten per cent of the total area.
S3: So, one per cent is ten point three---
T: Watch out, this is one hundred and three…thousand.
S1: Aha.
S3: I thought it is the decimal comma.
T: The comma---
S2: One thousand and thirty is one per cent.
Before the lesson proceeded to Episode 3 and the explicit explanation of the intercultural
difference between the commas and subsequently to the tasks about per cents, students first
easily managed to solve the tasks about a part of a whole and multiples (Figure 1, comparing the
total areas). As shown in Episode 4, four students, namely S8, S3, S4 and S6 (*whereas student
S7 was still wondering about the unexplained comma) had no difficulties when estimating the
ratio of the total areas of Iceland and Slovakia, i.e. their mathematical thinking was not hindered
by the bilingual context. They only were not absolutely sure how to propose their solutions in
L2. Unsurprisingly, one of the students (**S6) blended the two languages in his answer.

S7: We can say that Iceland is around...eee-
S8: - two times bigger.
T: No, čiže máme tam rozlohu Islandu,
/Well, we know the Icelandic area…/
the size or the area, the area of Iceland is one hundred and three
thousand, yes? The area of Slovakia is forty-nine thousand and
thirty-six. Takže áno, niekto to už povedal.
/So, yes, someone has already said it./
*(Then, addressing student S7 in L1.)
My musíme zistiť, koľkokrát je územie… je Island väčší ako Slovensko.
/We need to find out how many times the area is… Iceland is larger than Slovakia./
S7: Aha.
T: Približne. /Approximately/
S3: Dvakrát? /Two times?/
S4: Dvakrát. /Two times./
T: Yes. A jedným slovom- /In one word-/
S8: Twice.
T: Twice. It’s twice bigger.
**S6: Ja som napísal, že dva time. /I have written two time./
T: Two times is correct.
S3: Čiže máme iba doplniť hento, že is around twice?
/So, we should write that…/
T: Yes, is around twice bigger than Slovakia. (Addressing S8 by his name.)
S8: -or that Slovak area is approximately one half… one half of
Icelandic.
Later on, despite the initial obstacles that students faced in recognizing the comma as
a thousands-separator (Episode 3), they understood the mathematical problem hidden in the
text and were able to find the solution to the tasks about per cents without the teacher’s help,
though each student worked at their individual rate (Episode 7). After the teacher’s explicit
explanation, students individually kept on calculating the result. Several students used their
pocket calculators or cell phones, which, naturally, led into the following dialogue (originally
in Slovak only):

S3: Slovak pocket calculators are all made in England?
T: No, but it is rather international.
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82
The question of students S3 (Episode 5), as well as the remark of student S6 five minutes
later (Episode 6, originally in Slovak only), represents students’ understanding and acceptance
of the intercultural difference.

S6: My pocket calculator also displays the commas.
After the teacher explained the intercultural difference between the commas, students
continued with calculating ten per cent of the Icelandic area. As shown in Episode 7 (originally
in Slovak only), some students figured out the correct results very quickly (S2), some were
struggling with it and rather guessing (S3). Finally, after student S2 performed the calculation at
the blackboard, student S8 was asked to read the result aloud, and several students read it aloud
simultaneously to show, proudly, that they managed to calculate it too.

T: Ten per cent of one hundred and three thousand. Well, come here
and try
it at the blackboard.
S2: It is ten thousand three hundred.
S3: One million three thousand. One million thirty thousand.
Next, after student S3 read the sentence about glaciers in Greenland, the teacher asked
student S9 to calculate eighty per cent of the total Greenlandic area at the blackboard. Meanwhile,
other students were working individually at their desks. The teacher checked the student at the
blackboard and helped him use the comma as a thousands-separator correctly. Suddenly, one
of the students working at their desks (S2) proposed his result aloud in L1, and was correct,
which the teacher affirmed by reading the number in L2. As other students also finished their
calculations, they looked at the blackboard and S2 asked if that was the correct result. The
teacher affirmed the result again and asked students whether their calculators displayed the
same result. Other three students joyfully affirmed they arrived at the same number.
Another intercultural difference which students faced in the analysed lesson was
reading the international abbreviation of square kilometres. The official Slovak wording of
square kilometres is in the inverse order of the word classes, i.e. noun (kilometre) comes before
adjective (square). Reading the international abbreviation km2 in Slovak is extraordinary even
within broader Slovak context, since in the Slovak language it is more usual to denote adjectives
before nouns, except few cases, mostly technical terms. This intercultural difference revealed
its consequences in the way students read their texts. Some of them read the abbreviation as
kilometres square, one of the students translated it incorrectly as kilometre second. What seems
to be positive is that students were willing to experiment with the foreign language. In addition,
students were not resistant against the teacher’s help when she read the abbreviation correctly,
and they immediately accepted it and started using the correct linguistic form.
The crucial fact, however, is that neither struggling with reading numbers nor the inverse
reading of abbreviation km2 prevented students from solving the math word problems comprised
in the text of fill-in-the-gaps type. At first, they easily figured out the proportion of the land
areas in both directions. Next, students managed to solve the two tasks on per cents, yet, each
of them at their individual rate.
Discussion
In nowadays multicultural world it is just natural that bilingual and multilingual education
becomes more and more frequent. The scarcity of literature and scientific papers addressing
the issue of bilingual mathematics education in L2 external setting (Siegel, 2003; Barwell,
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2005) just intensifies the need to investigate various aspects of such education. For current 83
investigations of bilingual mathematics education in L2 external setting we can only proceed
from researches on bilingual and multilingual mathematics education in general, regardless the
mutual position of the target language and the mother tongue in given sociocultural setting,
regardless the learners’ age, and regardless types of mathematical tasks used in the researches.
Earlier researches focused highly on code switching and language switching within
bilingual education and discussed if language switching is as negative as it seems at first
glance. Although in this research we do not deal with the question of code- and language-
switching, we consider it natural behaviour of learners in bilingual mathematics classroom
(Moschkovich, 2002, 2007; Grosjean, 1994). Yet, a very important aspect of language-switching
for mathematics education is the influence of bilingual context on the bilinguals’ solution time
and error rate when solving mathematical tasks, since switching between languages naturally
slows down the solution process and may increase error rates. This issue was addressed by
many researchers (Marsh & Maki, 1976; McLain & Huang, 1982), whose investigations
were, however, conducted mostly among adult bilinguals, in experimental environment (i.e.
neglecting natural classroom practices, such as interaction between learners and the teacher)
and concerning only simple arithmetic operations, not math word problems. Still, their results
are of considerable importance for any type of bilingual mathematics education, since they
proved that bilingual context may slow down learners’ arithmetic computations, but the error
rates are not statistically significantly dependent on the bilingual nature of the educational
context. Their findings support the idea that learners should be allowed to use their preferred
language (including the mental, voiceless language use) for arithmetic operations, which we did
during the analysed lesson, and that is also in accordance with CLIL approach.
The results of the present research are limited by the sample size which was only nine
learners. On the other hand, the detailed analysis of the audio recordings elicits new ideas about
how learners might be approached and assisted in bilingual mathematics education in order to
reduce the negative influences and strengthen the positive potentials of bilingual or multilingual
mathematics education. Besides individual approach, also the efficient timing of explicit
explanation of intercultural differences might be inevitable in some cases, as indicated by the
present research. This issue requires further investigations. Another important aspect which
needs to be taken into consideration in bilingual and multilingual mathematics education is the
adequate choice of interdisciplinary themes and themes related to everyday life to be comprised
in lessons and mathematical texts in order to catch and hold learners’ interest in mathematics
and its role in human lives. The choice of context for mathematical tasks and word problems
is partially addressed by Libbrecht & Goosen (2016) who suggest that learning is much more
efficient when conceptualized within learners’ context. Similarly, Dominguez (2011) argues that
mathematics education for bilingual learners should capitalize on their experiences as cognitive
resources. CLIL proponents (Mehisto, Marsh & Frigols, 2008) also underline the importance
of interdisciplinary focus in language education. Implementation of context-based tasks in
mathematics education follows from the broad applicability of mathematics in everyday life
and numberless sciences.
Quite a rare case study was performed by Qi (1998) whose research subject was an adult
bilingual solving math word problems. The bilingual, as stated by the researcher, switched her
languages during arithmetic operations quickly and automatically, and it facilitated the math
word problem solving rather than inhibited. Bialystok (2001) suggests that bilingualism does not
have any negative effect on mathematical problem solving if the learners’ language proficiency
is at least adequate for understanding the problem. Considering Bialystok’s inference, it has
to be added that there is a significant difference between language proficiency and familiarity
with specific intercultural features within mathematical context. As shown in this research,
most learners in the class had no difficulty to understand the mathematical task comprised in
the worksheet, though they would not have arrived at the correct solution – despite correct
procedures – if the teacher had not explicitly explained the comma as a thousands-separator.
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84 The analysis of the situations which occurred in the audio-taped lesson does not serve for
investigation of how learners acquire new pure mathematical knowledge. The present research
focuses on how learners deal with solving math word problems related to per cents within
bilingual context including intercultural difference in mathematical notation of thousands-
separator. In the analysed lesson learners did not learn any unfamiliar (for them) mathematical
knowledge, nor were they exposed to or asked to use any new computational procedure. They
were practicing the procedure of counting given part of land area or glacier area in per cents,
i.e. they were asked to apply their previously acquired knowledge in order to solve math
word problems. The research question was if the intercultural difference in mathematical
notation of thousands-separator would prevent them from arriving at the correct solution. The
conducted research, however, investigates neither if, nor how bilingual context and the related
intercultural difference influences learning mathematical knowledge which would be new for
the learners. The situation investigated in this research is, however, a situation which can with
high probability often occur in bilingual mathematics class with L2 external setting.
As already stated, one of the tightest limitations of the present research is the L2 external
setting (Siegel, 2003; Barwell, 2005). Only little research has been done in L2 external setting
of bilingual mathematics education, none in the issue of covering the intercultural difference in
mathematical notation of thousands-separator. On the other hand, regardless the position of the
target language with respect to the learners’ mother tongue a few researches were conducted
in the issue of using information and communication technologies (ICT) in multilingual
mathematics teaching and learning in general. These are in some way related to the presented
case study. As shown in Episodes 5 and 6, learners realized the intercultural difference of
mathematical notation for thousands-separator and decimal mark when they used their pocket
calculators. This issue is also addressed in Hofstede (1991), Marcus (2008) and Libbrecht &
Goosen (2016). In relation to ICT tools and their language, Libbrecht & Goosen (2016) suggest
that usually learners need to be self- informed of such typographical aspects and differences.
We argue that in some cases self-informing of the learners may take too long and thus is rather
ungainly in school practice. Nevertheless, we suppose that with regards to the need of individual
approach of learners it is only the teacher who can make the best decision in this question.
In terms of the sociolinguistic view of bilingualism (Grosjean, 1994; Moschkovich, 2007,
Valdés-Fallis, 1978) students and the teacher attending the lesson acted as bilinguals, as they
actively used both of the instructional languages for various purposes. Yet, their bilingualism in
relation to their mathematical skills has proven to function individually. While some students
needed more time to solve the word problems, i.e. the bilingual context did actually hindered
their learning process, other students were very quick at solving the tasks. Among those
who solved the task correctly were students who proposed their answers in L2 and also such
students who proposed their solutions in L1. Unsurprisingly, some students “blended” the two
instructional languages when proposing their solutions. The present empirical research suggests
that the intercultural difference between the English and the Slovak meaning of a comma in
mathematical notation of multi-digit numbers may hinder the students’ process of solving math
word problems. The amount of the negative influence of the bilingual context depends on various
factors. One of the factors is the students’ background knowledge and personal intercultural
experience. Another factor is the timing of the teacher’s intervention in the students’ process
of grasping the meaning from the math word problem wording. Teachers have to decide if they
wait and let students struggle with negotiation of the meaning and discover it by themselves,
or they provide students with explicit explanation of the intercultural difference in question.
When deciding for the explicit explanation, teachers have to make another important decision –
when it is most appropriate to explain the difference, either early before students encounter
such situation when they need to be familiar with it, or right at that moment, or even certain
amount of time after encountering such situation. The influence of the timing of the teacher’s
intervention on the quality of students’ problem solving performance needs to be subjected to
further research. Also, it would be useful to investigate the influence of the form in which math
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word problems are proposed to students on the quality of their problem solving performance 85
within bilingual instruction. Similar intercultural mathematics-related difference is in large
extent represented in metric and imperial units of length, velocity, weight, temperature and
the like. This issue is of high importance in Slovak and English bilingual education – similarly
in Czech and English bilingual mathematics education, as suggested by Moraová & Novotná
(2016) – since in Slovakia metric units are used, whereas in English speaking countries imperial
units are preferred. Studying how students cope with such intercultural mathematics-related
differences would significantly enrich current research on bilingual mathematics education in
sociolinguistic setting with external L2, and in general.
Conclusions
Bilingual mathematics education is a very complex process covering both language and
mathematics education. Regarding the limitations of the presented research, the chosen research
design allows analysing in detail how students negotiate the meanings of specific mathematical
notations within bilingual context in L2 external sociolinguistic setting, which has concrete
applications in school practice. Undeniably, the issue of thousands-separator is very frequent
not only in bilingual mathematics education, but also in mathematics education where various
ICT tools are employed and most probably use the international mathematical notation. The
detailed analysis of audio-records obtained in a lesson, which was embedded within a long-
term elective after-school course, provides a deeper look in school practices and students’ and
teachers’ communication and challenges in bilingual mathematics school-set education. The
findings indicate that students cope with the intercultural difference in thousands-separators
in individual manner and at individual rate. Nevertheless, if students’ language proficiency is
sufficient for understanding the math word problem context, they are able to solve the proposed
math word problem. Yet, students need specific assistance of the teachers in order to understand
and accept intercultural differences covered in multilingual mathematics discourse.
Acknowledgements
The research was supported by national project KEGA 016UKF-4/2016 The

Implementation of Constructivist Approaches to Mathematics Teaching with a Focus on Active
Acquisition of Knowledge by Pupils in the Context of Bilingual Education supported by Ministry
of Education, Science, Research and Sport of the Slovak Republic, and institutional project UGA
VII/11/2016 Zvyšovanie kvality bilingválneho slovensko-anglického vyučovania matematiky v
nižšom sekundárnom vzdelávaní s dôrazom na rozvoj matematickej kompetencie (Improving the
quality of bilingual Slovak and English mathematics instruction in lower secondary education
with emphasis on the development of mathematical competences) supported by Constantine the
Philosopher University in Nitra.
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Šteflíčková, A. (2012). Diagnostika obtíží žáků při výuce CLIL. The diagnostics of students’ difficulties
in CLIL. (Diploma thesis). Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Education, Mathematics and
Mathematical Education Department, Czech Republic.
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in Bratislava.
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88 Advised by Paolo Bussotti, University of Udine, Italy
Zuzana Naštická M.S., PhD Student, Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Natural Sciences,

Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Tr. A. Hlinku 1, 949 74 Nitra,
Slovakia.
E-mail: zuzana.nasticka@gmail.com
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UNIFIED TAXONOMY OF COMPETENCES 89
FOR VERIFICATION OF STUDENT’S

SKILLS
Dragica Pešaković
Lower secondary school Destrnik-Trnovska vas, Slovenia
E-mail: dragica.pesakovic@guest.arnes.si
Andrej Šafhalter
Lower secondary school Anice Černejeve Makole, Slovenia
E-mail: andrej.safhalter@os-makole.si
Abstract
Skills, which students have to manage, are divided on a lower and higher taxonomic (»competent«) level,
which allows differentiation and individualization in the lessons. It also allows easier monitoring and
verifying of skills. The combination of taxonomies in all three fields, cognitive, affective and psychomotor
has been searched and combined in competent taxonomic levels, which allows development and
verification of student’s skills on a lower and higher taxonomic level. Special attention was on verification
and assessment of student’s knowledge, where it can be found out once more that the greatest emphasis is
on the knowledge, whereas skills are put in the background. Derived from introduced taxonomies, Bloom’s
cognitive and affective and Dave’s and Simpson’s psychomotor the lower and higher competent taxonomic
level were defined and unified taxonomy of competences was developed. The paraphernalia was made,
which allows monitoring and evaluating of student’s skills on cognitive, affective and psychomotor field at
technical subjects. Paraphernalia is transferable also on those fields of education, where student’s skills
are important.
Key words: unified taxonomy for competences, students’ skills, generic competences.
Introduction
In the field of education the concept of taxonomy was first introduced by Bloom in his
work Taxonomy of educational objectives: Handbook I, The cognitive domain (Bloom, 1956).
The concept was very well accepted mainly between curriculum developers, researchers and
teachers and other specialists in the field of education (Anderson & Sosniak, 1994). Besides
Bloom’s taxonomy, Gagnej’s, Harlen’s, Call’s, Timss’s and Biggs-Collin’s taxonomies, which
are very similar to Bloom’s one, have launched.
Why is taxonomy so important in the process of education? The answer is simple. We
do not only wonder how much students know, but also which skills they manage and when and
where can they use them. It is important, how they understand gained knowledge, how they
use it in novel situations and how they solve problems. The taxonomy classifies educational
goals due to the level of difficulty. With taxonomies we determine the amount and quality
of knowledge. The teacher forms descriptors, with which he concretes chosen taxonomy.
Descriptive measures must be superior to the taxonomy. We can use different taxonomies for
the same object, which depends upon goals, contents and activity (Lipovšek & Polšak, 2012).
The process of education necessitates to plan those exercises and activities, which lead to
understanding and usage, or that they lead to higher mental processes. Different classifications
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90 of taxonomic knowledge definitely help us. Taxonomies bring in the educational process order
and hierarchy. They are a principle at assembling activities. We can check different levels of
knowledge with them.
Bloom’s taxonomy of goals of education in Slovenia has influenced on curricular
development and verification of knowledge for decades. Some critics have also been said per
it. Justin (the leader of the centre for international comparative researches of knowledge at
Pedagogical institute Ljubljana) says that professional texts and even official school documents
often deform taxonomy. The original version of Bloom’s taxonomy is also controversial.
Authors of taxonomy are leaning towards the principle of students’ autonomy, however this
principle refers to their explanations only on psychological dimension of learning. Bloom’s
group equated knowledge with information, although simultaneous epistemic theories claimed
almost commonly that knowledge consists of concepts. Therefore, taxonomy does not consider
the fact that all knowledge is perspectival (Justin, 2008).
Marjanovič Umek (2008) finds out that teachers just copy taxonomic rates into the
criteria for assessment for several times.
Wintertn connects taxonomies and skills. He says that in the process of development of
European taxonomy of skills, competences, qualifications and professions occurs a frame, which
will allow surpassing of sectoral and national specialties, but at the same time it will harmonize
the fields of education and work. Taxonomy has to be suitably theoretically supported and
simple for practical use (Winterton, 2011).
The European Commission, which is developing a new European taxonomy of skills,
competences and profession, which will be describing the most relevant skills, competences and
qualifications for several thousand professions (European Skills, Competences and Occupations
taxonomy – ESCO), is also giving a big emphasis on developing skills.
It is typical for all taxonomies that authors divided them in three fields: cognitive or
epistemic, psychomotor and affective, emotional field. Fields are being interwoven between
themselves and they are not able to insulate. For example; when a student is making a product,
he must have certain knowledge about material and its characteristics. He also has to control
handling with tools, devices and machines. He is also expressing feelings of fear, joy, and
gladness on completed product. Therefore all three fields are intervolving. All taxonomies are
arranging levels hierarchically, from simplest to most complex. Every higher level demands
containment of lower. This level of usage is the indicator if the students have assimilated certain
knowledge and also understood it. This is the level to which every teacher should »lead« every
student (if we speak about competent student), regardless of his abilities.
It has been found out that it is very difficult to use only one taxonomy, which would
make that possible for us. With a research there was invented a combination between Bloom’s
taxonomy, which covers cognitive and affective field and the R. H. Dave, E. Simpson in A.
Harrow taxonomy, which covers psychomotor field and it is named Unified Taxonomy of
Competences (Table 1).
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Table 1. Unified Taxonomy of Competences (Pešaković, 2014). 91
Skills on a lower level are based on students’ repetition of shown skill from teacher’s
side. At the higher level students have to besides repetition of shown execution of skills,
also upgrade them independently. In the research it was starting from Unified Taxonomy of
Competences. On the base of Unified Taxonomy of Competences there were defined lower
and higher taxonomic levels as an intersection of all three fields, so: cognitive, affective and
psychomotor field.
The competent conceived taxonomic levels were defined as:
- lower: detection of shown and imitation of a teacher, preparation and leading
accurate response, at which cognitive activities like knowledge, understanding, use
and cooperative learning are being emphasized and
- higher: adaptation and development of new activity (shown activities to be
independently upgraded, improved), which are exposing the need to analyse
and evaluate shown activities and on the base of that making new activities. It is
obligatory to consider suitable values at this.
In the analysis the intentness was mostly on the subject Technique and Technology,
at which the skills are even more important and should be a part of an assessment. Table
was upgraded with criteria and descriptors, which allow developing and evaluating certain
competences – skills in all taxonomic fields (in cognitive, affective and psychomotor field).
Unified Taxonomy of Competences at the lower and higher competence taxonomic level was
the base for empirical research.
The empirical research was conducted in order to upgrade the process of evaluation of
pupil’s skills, which can be measured with direct observation and by the use of paraphernalia,
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92 which was developed during the work. This allows verification and transfer of the results also in
the other fields of education, in which student’s skills are important and are a part of evaluation.
With developed paraphernalia student’s skills were evaluated and verified on the level of lower
and higher cognitive and psychomotor goals. Paraphernalia and developed methodologies
of measurements are allowing optimal implementation of the learning process – on this way
the developed student’s skills in a relation to the choice of educational work can be verified
– for example, problem based approach and project way of work, which highly enable the
development of student’s skills. By verification the differences in the level of maintaining of
certain student’s skills between experimental and control group were being established.
General Background of Research
Experimental procedure was used, single factor experiment with departments as

comparative groups was made. The emphasis was on direct observation of a students at
execution of a certain task, so on the observation of students’ skills. Triangulation was used for
observation of the process and verification of achieving skills in the research.
With a pre-test, direct skill observation, there was found out in the experimental and
control group an initial condition of certain skill on the lower and higher-order taxonomic
level. In the experimental group four didactic approaches in the didactic procedure were
used: project work, experiment, technical analysis and research approach. The training and
demonstration of a certain skill was made. Students were practicing and drilling skills during
didactic procedure. Classical lesson went on in the control group, where frontal method and
methods like conversation, demonstration and work with a text were prevailing. There was no
training for a certain skill.
At the end of the didactic procedure there was a post-test, direct observation, with which
in the control and experimental group the final condition was found out, which consisted of:
- skills on lower level taxonomic level and
- skills on higher taxonomic level.
With comparison of pre-test and post-test we were finding:
- progress within skills on lower taxonomic level,
- progress within skills on higher taxonomic level,
- progress within skills depending from didactic approach.
Sample of Research
The research was held in the school year 2012/2013. 35 grade 6 students were included,
aged from 10 to 11 years. They were distributed randomly in experimental (17 students) and
control group (18 students). It was held from October to December 2012, altogether 14 lessons.
6 lessons were carried on as a Natural history day. The leading didactic approach was project
work, where students with experiment, research approach and technical analysis went through
paper materials and made a product.
Instrument and Procedures
The experiment was held in a classroom. The same teacher had a lesson for both groups,
students’ skills were evaluated by a supervisor from technical field. The observer has first
checked managing of skills on lower and higher taxonomic level with a pre-test on every student.
A student has shown how he would carry out certain skills. The observer enclosed the level of
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managing of skills on the observation sheet. In the following didactic procedure the teacher 93
made demonstration of a certain skill, which students practiced and drilled through guided
didactic process. Then the after-test and finding out about managing skills after didactic process
followed. The observer enclosed the rate of managing of a certain skill on lower and higher
taxonomic level. The work in experimental group was a project and it contained a problem and
a research lesson, experiment and technical analysis. Students trained and drilled certain skills
before evaluating. In the control group the lesson went on traditionally, frontal, it was based on
teacher’s explanation and work with a text. There was no training of a certain skill.
For observing student’s skills the metric instrument (observation sheet) was made.
Because of higher reliability of measuring the triangulation has been used, since three subjects
were included: the teacher, a student and a specialist from technical-didactic field.
Observation sheet (Table 2) was meant for direct observation of student’s skills at
executing certain skill. In the address part the name of generic competence is written. Then
follows a definition of observed skill and the manner, how this skill is observed and on what
they should pay attention. Containment of certain skill has been observed and assessed on
lower and higher-order taxonomic level. Descriptors are written in a way that they can adapt to
individual physical and thematic field. An observer enclosed the rate of containment of skill,
where 1 meant that he does not manage, 3 that he partially manages, 5 that he manages a certain
skill.
Table 2. Example of criteria with descriptors for observing student’s skills.
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94 The data was computationally treated with the program for statistical data processing
SPSS, on the level of descriptive and inferential statistics. On the level of descriptive statistics
the following procedures were used:
- frequency distributions (f, f %) of descriptive variables (gender and final score),
- measures of middle values, measures of variation and measures of correlation,
- index of difficulty (p %).
On the level of inferential statistics the following procedures were used:

- χ2-test of hypothesis of independence (skills considering gender and final score at
natural science and technique),
- t-test for independent samples of verification of differences in skills on lower and
higher taxonomic level according to student’s gender and group,
- t-test for dependent samples of verification of differences of initial and final condition
at skills on lower and higher taxonomic level according to gender and group,
- the variance analysis for verification of differences in skills on lower and higher
taxonomic level according to final score at subject Natural science and Technique.
The observation sheet was created by the help of science teachers and an expert from
didactic field. With this the validity of an instrument was assured. The observation sheet was
used twice before the research and the same results were gained. It can be assumed that the
instrument is reliable. Objectivity has been provided so that the teacher and the observer
did not affect on the implementation of the procedure, which was performed by the student.
The sensibility was ensured with the inclusion of student’s activities on the lower and higher
taxonomic level.
Results of Research
Natural science and Technique is a subject in the fifth grade of primary school, where
the contents of natural science and technique are interweaving. The difference between gender
and final score at subject Natural science and Technique was being found out (between both
groups). The highest final score was 5 (excellent), the lowest was 3 (good). Grades excellent
and very good were arranged in so called higher final score, grade good to lower final score.
Table 3. Frequencies and structural percentages of students according to gender

and group.
Experimental Control Total

f % f % f %
Male 11 64.7
12 66.7 23 65.7
Students’ gender
Female 35.3 6 12
6 33.3 34.3
Total 100.0 18 35
17 100.0 100.0
χ = 0.015
2
p = 0.903
It has been found out that there is no statistically important difference between
experimental and control group between genders (χ2 = 0.015, p = 0.903), which presents Table
3. Furthermore, it also was not at final score, since the average assessment of experimental
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group is 4.11, and control group 4,00 (χ2 = 0.23, p = 0.891), which is presented more in detail in 95
Table 4. Derived from this, both groups are equalized enough from this point of view.
Tabel 4. Frequencies (f) and structural percentages (f %) of grade 6 students

according to gender, final score and group.
Student’s gender Experimental Control Total

f % f % f %
Good 5 45.5 5 41.7 10 43.5
Final score Very good 5 45.5 5 41.7 10 43.5

Male
Excellent 1 9.1 2 16.7 3 13.0
Total 11 100.0 12 100.0 23 100.0
Good 0 0.0 1 16.7 1 8.3

Female
Excellent 6 100.0 4 66.7 10 83.3
Total 6 100.0 6 100.0 12 100.0
Good 5 29.4 6 33.3 11 31.4
Total
Excellent 7 41.2 6 33.3 13 37.1
Total 17 100.0 18 100.0 35 100.0
χ2 = 0.23 p = 0.891
The difference between pre- and post- test (progress) in containment of a certain skill on
lower and higher taxonomic level, according to student’s gender, presents Figure 1.
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It is very important for a teacher that he plans his work in the class very well, since only then 99
he can achieve desired progress with students (Cohen, 1988).
Conclusions
The research has some advantages. It was carried out in the class with randomly chosen
students and next to the presence of experts from technical and educationally – didactic field.
Made paraphernalia allowed verification of pre-containment of skills on both taxonomic levels,
verification of post-condition and pursuit of progress at containment of skills on both taxonomic
levels. Positive advantages of described research were shown:
- in designing of lower and higher-order taxonomic level of competences Unified
Taxonomy of Competences, as a combination of three taxonomies (Bloom’s, Dave’s
and Simpson’s) on three fields, on cognitive, affective and psychomotor;
- in making of paraphernalia, which makes possible to verify skills on lower and
higher-order taxonomic level, not only on technical, but also on other fields;
- in raising awareness of professional public – mostly primary school teachers, that
developing and verifying of student’s skills is urgent for an acquisition of competent
qualified students, that will know when, where and which knowledge to use at a
working place or in everyday situations.
The findings of the research can encourage Technique and Technology teachers that
they could use substantively unallocated lessons in class for entering contemporary teaching
methods of teaching and verifying in primary school lessons of Technique, with the emphasis
on development on student skills and assimilating of suitable competences. It was proved with
scientific method that this is the right way of teaching, therefore we wish that such teaching
would be more intensely present at primary schools.
References
Anderson, L. W., Sosniak, L. A. (Ed.). (1994). Bloom’s taxonomy: A forty-year perspective. Ninety-third
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, MA. Copyright 1984
by Pearson Education.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd edition). Mahwah, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dave, R. H., Armstrong, R. J. (Ed.). (1975). Developing and writing behavioural objectives. Arizona:
Educational Innovattors Press.
Justin, J. (2008). Taxonomies and knowledge. Retrieved August 5, 2013 from http://videolectures.net/
bzid08_justin_tiz/
Lipovšek, I., Polšak, A. (2012). Dileme geografov ob ocenjevanju ali vsak izgovor je dober [The
dilemma of geographers over assessment or every excuse is good]. Razvijanje in vrednotenje
znanja [Development and evaluation of knowledge]. Ljubljana: Institute of Republic Slovenia for
education. Retrieved Februar 18, 2014 from http://bit.ly/28NoFUw
Marjanovič Umek, L. (2008). Different ways of understanding knowledge: Connectedness to learning,
teaching and assessment. Journal of Contemporary Educational Studies, Special issue, 10-23.
Ljubljana: Zveza društev pedagoških delavcev Slovenije.
Pešaković, D. (2014). Verification of student’s skills with different methods of Technology lessons in
competently conceived curriculum (Doctoral dissertation). Maribor: Faculty for Natural science
and Mathematics.
Simpson, E. (1966). The clasification of educational objectives, psyhomotoric domain. Office of Education
Project, (5), 85-104.
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100 Advised by Muammer Calik, Karadeniz Technical University, Turkey
Dragica Pešaković Lower Secondary School Destrnik-Trnovska vas, Janežovski Vrh 45, 2253 Destrnik,
Slovenia.
E-mail: dragica.pesakovic@guest.arnes.si
Andrej Šafhalter Teacher, Lower Secondary School Anice Černejeve Makole, Makole 24, 2321 Ma-
kole, Slovenia.
E-mail: andrej.safhalter@os-makole.si
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Editorial Board
MSc., Renata Bilbokaitė, University of Siauliai, Republic of Lithuania (Editorial Assistant)

Dr., Andrea Bernhard, Universities Austria, Austria
Dr., Prof. John Gowland Mwangi, Egerton University, Kenya
Dr., Prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Re-
public of Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
Dr., Prof. Liviu Moldovan, „Petru Maior” University of Tirgu Mures, Romania
Dr., Prof. Kęstutis Pukelis, Vytautas Magnus University, Republic of Lithuania
Prof. Ramayah Thurasamy, University of Science Malaysia, Malaysia
Dr., Assoc. Prof. Dalius Serafinas, Vilnius University, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., Assoc. Prof. Adriana Tafrova-Grigorova, Sofia University St. Kliment Ohridski, Bulgaria
Websites: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/QIIC/Quality_Issues_Insights.htm
http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/qiic/
ISSN 1822-7864
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 72, 2016
104
PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st
CENTURY
ISSN 2029-8587
Problems of Psychology in the 21st Cen-
tury is an international, periodical, peer
reviewed scientific journal, issued by
the Scientia Socialis in cooperation with
SMC “Scientia Educologica”.
Problems of Psychology in the 21st Cen-

tury (ISSN 2029-8587) is abstracted and/
or indexed in:
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Editorial Board
Dr., prof. Ferda Aysan, Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey
Dr., prof. Serhiy Boltivets, Grigory Kostyuk Psychological Institute of the Ukrainian National
Academy of Pedagogical Sciences, Ukraine
Dr., assoc. prof. Irena Gailiene, SMC “Scientia Educologica”, Republic of Lithuania
Dr., prof. Irakli Imedadze, Dimitri Uznadze Georgian Psychological National Society, Georgia
Dr. Julia Lakhvich, Belarusian State University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., prof. Vladimir S. Karapetyan, Armenian State Pedagogical University named after Kh.
Abovyan, Armenia
Dr., prof. Vincentas Lamanauskas, Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Republic
of Lithuania (Editor-in-Chief)
Dr., prof. Mary Anne Lauri, University of Malta, Malta
Dr., prof. Maria Ledzińska, University of Warsaw, Poland
Dr., prof. Aleksandr Lobanov, Belarusian State Pedagogical University, Republic of Belarus
Dr., prof. Guna Svence, Riga Teacher Training and Educational Management Academy, Latvia
Dr., assoc. prof. Stanislava Yordanova Stoyanova, South-West University “Neofit Rilski”, Bul-
garia
Websites: http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/PPC/Problems_of_Psychology.htm
http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/ppc/
ISSN 1822-7864
PROBLEMS
OF EDUCATION
IN THE 21st CENTURY
Volume 72, 2016
2ND INTERNATIONAL BALTIC SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE 105

AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION (BALTICSTE2017)
„SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION:

ENGAGING THE NEW GENERATION“ 
12-15 June 2017, Siauliai, Lithuania
Dear Colleagues,
On behalf of the organizing committee, we are delighted to welcome you to Šiauliai,
Lithuania, for the II International Baltic Symposium on Science and Technology Education,
BalticSTE 2017.
The Symposium will be held in Šiauliai (Lithuania) in June 2017 during days 12-15.
We cordially encourage you to attend and contribute to one of the major events of
2017 on the field of science and technology education. We are confident that you will ap-
preciate the scientific program and the city of Šiauliai. We look forward to seeing you in
2017 in Lithuania.
Organizer of the Symposium
Siauliai University, Faculty of Education, Natural Science Education Research Cen-
tre, Lithuania, http://www.gutc.su.lt/
Scientific Methodical Centre „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania
http://www.gu.puslapiai.lt/indeks_en.htm
Ways of Participation Paper Submission:
• Paper Presentation Original unpublished short scientific papers (2 - 3
• Oral Presentation pages) written in English should be submitted in
• electronic form as WORD files and send to the sym-
Interactive Poster Presentation
• Workshop posium secretariat via e-mail: balticste@gmail.com
• Listener Information on paper submission, format and the
review processes is available on symposium web-
Topics and Areas site.
The BalticSTE 2017 will cover all Symposium proceedings will be published before
aspects of science and technology the symposium.
education. Authors of selected outstanding papers will be in-
vited to submit extended versions of their papers for
consideration of publication in the reputed Journals
(JBSE, PEC, GU/NSE, SPVK/EPMQ).
Important Dates
Abstract/Paper/Poster Submission 20 April 2017

Abstract/Paper/Poster Submission 30 April 2017
Registration and payment 20 May 2017
Camera-ready paper submission 20 May 2017
Announcement of the Final Symposium
01 June 2017
Program
12 – 15 June 2017
Symposium Dates
(11/12 - arrival; 16/17 - departure)
Symposium Website: http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/balticste

E-mail: balticste@gmail.com
Phone: +370 41 595736; Fax: +370 41 595710
© NSERC, Siauliai University, 2015
ISSN 1822-7864
VOLUME 72, 2016
Compiler Vincentas Lamanauskas (E-mail: v.lamanauskas@ef.su.lt)

Designer Jurgina Jankauskienė
Paste-up artist Loreta Šimutytė-Balčiūnienė
Contact person Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)
English language proofreader Ilona Ratkevičienė
30 August 2016. Publishing in Quires 6,625. Edition 200.
Publisher SMC „Scientia Educologica“,

Donelaicio Street 29, Siauliai, Lithuania
E-mail: gu@gu.puslapiai.lt
Phone: +370 687 95668
http://www.jbse.webinfo.lt/centras.htm
Contact person: Laima Railienė (E-mail: laimarailiene@yahoo.com)

Printing Joint-stock company „Šiaulių spaustuvė“

9A P. Lukšio Street
LT-76207 Šiauliai, Lithuania
Phone: +370 41 500 333.
Fax: +370 41 500 336
E-mail: info@dailu.lt

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Problems of Education in the 21st Century, ISSN 1822-7864 VOLUME 72, 2016

Scientific Methodical Center „Scientia Educologica“, Lithuania,

Index Copernicus List of Journals Recognized by Polish Ministry of

Index Copernicus (IC™ Value): 90.09 (2014)

TEACHER-EDUCATOR VERSUS TEACHER-LEADER

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS’ BIOLOGY LABORATORY SKILL

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF DISTANCED E-LEARNING IN TEACHERS’ EDUCATION:

INVESTIGATING THE MOST NEGLECTED STUDENT LEARNING DOMAIN IN HIGHER

ACCESS AND BARRIERS TO EDUCATION: ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS

STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF FACTORS SLOWING DOWN THEIR STUDY PROGRESS:

INTERCULTURAL FEATURES AND THE THEME OF TRAVELLING IN BILINGUAL

UNIFIED TAXONOMY OF COMPETENCES FOR VERIFICATION OF STUDENT'S SKILLS

INSTRUCTIONS FOR AUTHORS ............................................................................. 101

QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st CENTURY ..........................................103

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY ................................................104

2nd INTERNATIONAL BALTIC SYMPOSIUM ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Havard, A. (2007). Virtuous leadership. New York: Scepter Publishers.

Vincentas Lamanauskas PhD, Professor, University of Šiauliai, Faculty of Education Sciences

Getachew Fetahi Gobaw

Harrison Ifeanyichukwu Atagana

Higher education admission officials typically use higher education entrance

1. Does students’ prior achievement in higher education entrance examination

Data Collection Instrument

The student course achievement in undergraduate biology program was measured by

Validity and Reliability of Instrument

Results of the Research

An examination of the results of the Pearson’s correlation analysis (Table 2) revealed

Higher educa- Biology labora-

Table 3. Results of the Pearson’s Correlation Analysis of CGPA and Laboratory

Correlation r (correlation p significance level

The Relationship between Undergraduate Biology Laboratory Practical Skills Performance 11

Table 4. One way ANOVA analysis of students’ performance test scores of

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Table 5. Multiple regression model summary of the predictor variable.

Unstandardized Standardized Coef-

Conclusions and Recommendation

Advised by Milan Kubiatko, University of Zilina, Slovakia 15

Received: June 09, 2016 Accepted: July 28, 2016

• Which of the educational forms, the conventional workshop or the distance

• Which of the educational forms, the conventional or the distance e-learning

Students’ Reception Metacognition (RRM)

General Characteristics of Research

Each group of teachers was educated in a competence for developing students’/reader’s 19

After the intervention (participating in workshops/receiving e-material) the teachers’

Instruments of Research and Procedures

• Didactic unit observation sheet

• Curriculum for training course: RRM competence

• Teachers’ qualitative self-evaluation essay

Observation of the Literature Class

22 Table 1. Phase of implementation - WS group.

Table 2. Phase of implementation - e-group. 23

Table 3. A group – WS group.

Table 4. A group – e-group.

Table 5. Criteria for differentiation – WS group.

Table 6. Criteria for differentiation - e-group.

Teachers’ Self-Evaluation Essay

• Teachers’ opinions about contributing RRM to students’ motivation for reading

All 15 teachers in traditional workshop educational form expressed the intention

QUALITY ISSUES AND INSIGHTS IN THE 21st CENTURY ..........................................103

PROBLEMS OF PSYCHOLOGY IN THE 21st CENTURY ................................................104