Introduction TO Frequency

control and Automatic Load

Shedding

Presented by Eng. OSAMA MANSI

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• According to Jordanian Grid Code the power frequency should be maintained in
range between (49.95-50.05)Hz , that’s happened by making a balance between
Supply and the demand .

Figure 1 : relation between supply and the demand.

• Certain frequencies can harm important equipment and have the following effects
in the power system :
- Increasing vibrations in turbine blades and shafts.
- Heating of generators and transformers.
- Some loads might be disturbed.
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• Each generation unit has two types of operation depends on the change of grid’s
frequency :
1_ Primary frequency control “ speed droop characteristic” : The output power for
each generating unit will change related to the system frequency .
* Speed droop of 2% : means when the power frequency changes for 2% causes
100% change in power generation.

Figure 2: Liner speed droop for two generation units.

According to the figure2 : we notice that the generation unit with lower speed droop
delivers more power when the Frequency is changed.
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 * For example if the rated power for two generating units are 100MW for each
and the speed droop is 4% and 6% , the output power will be at 49Hz and 51.5HZ
for each will be:

Speed Droop 4%
- For 49Hz : (100/50)*(1/0.04) +100 = 150MW
- For 51Hz : 100 - (100/50)*(1 /0.04) = 50MW

Speed Droop 6%
- For 49Hz : (100/50)*(1/0.06) +100 = 133.33MW
- For 51Hz : 100 - (100/50)*(1 /0.06) = 66.67MW
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 Figure3 : Governor speed droop characteristic and maximum value for power generated.

• The frequency deadband can be defined as a specified value of the frequency

deviation from the nominal value , which doesn't have any change in the output
power delivered by each generation units , and that’s happened due to the
backlash phenomenon occurred in the governor circuit.

• The frequency deadband is selected to be 100mhz for each conventional

generation unit in the national grid. 5
Figure 4 : Flyball centrifugal governor.

Figure 5 : Backlash in gearbox

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 ±100mHz
±10mHz

Figure 6: Speed Droop characteristics for different deadbands.

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2- Isochronous mode : The output power produced by generating isn’t effected by system
frequency

Figure 7 : Isochronous governor mode .

An Isochronous governor works satisfactorily when a generator is suppling an isolated load or
When one generator in a multi generators is required to change in loads, Isochronous governor
mode of operation must be applied in case of black start operation. Isochronous governor circuit’s
uses PI controller to eliminate the steady state error (ess) in the rotor speed.

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 Frequency Control Reserve

A permanent balance between generation and the demand is an important

precondition for stable and reliable operation of the grid . For the purpose of
maintaining the previous balance between supply and demand , TSOs’ procure
control reserve ( also known as balancing power) .

• The objective of control reserve activation is to maintain the system frequency

within a narrow range around its target frequency of 50Hz . For this purpose,
different types of control reserved have to be used .

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Primary frequency response
• is the first stage of frequency control , primary frequency control operates automatically due to change in system frequency.

• Primary frequency reserve has two types of responses:

- Governor response
- Load response , loads depend on frequency can be classified in two categories :

* non sensitive frequency load change

• * Frequency sensitive load change Δp=D*Δf

where :
Δp : is the changing on the load’s power “ MW” .
D : the percentage of change in the consumed load power due to 1% change in system frequency , D is also called load reduction
factor .
Δf : the change in system frequency “Hz” .

For example if the nominal frequency is 50 Hz and D=1.5 and system load was 2500MW
System load will become 2510MW at frequency of 50.10Hz.

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Steady state frequency deviation can be calculated using the following equation
Δfss= -ΔpL/β
Where :
ΔpL : magnitude of power loss due to a contingency.
β : Frequency bias , frequency bias can be calculated using this equation
𝑛 1
β= 1/(σ1 + 𝐷) “MW/Hz”
𝑅
Where
R: per unit frequency regulation (Δf/Δp ) “ speed Droop” .

The benefit of Primary frequency reserve is to stabilize the frequency in a new

steady state value after occurring a contingency and required about 30 second to
activate. 11
Secondary Control Reserve

Also called Load Frequency Control, is a supplementary control loop, much slower
than the primary control, which re-distributes load among the various generating
units in order to restore the frequency back to its nominal value.

In secondary control, the power setpoints of the generators are adjusted in order to
compensate for the remaining frequency error after the primary control function.,
the secondary response must be delivered within 15-30 minutes. Secondary control
is made either via automatic generation control (AGC) or Manual By TSO.

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Tertiary Control Reserve

The tertiary control reserves activated manually when requested by the TSO, and is
used for the relief of the secondary reserve, following the loss of large generation or
load power, or to correct forecast errors. As the power unbalances can be negative
or positive, the tertiary reserve is determined and activated for both the upward and
downward regulation. Tertiary reserve can be provided by both spinning and
nonspinning generators.

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f

𝑑𝑓
𝑑𝑡

Frequency
nadir

Figure 8: Frequency trend for a power system after disconnecting a generating unit

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The ROCOF ( df/dt) for a given event can be calculated using swing equation

= (Hz/sec)

Where
𝑃𝑔: the generating power
𝑃𝑙 : Load power
H : inertia constant which represents the kinetic energy stored in the rotor at synchronous speed
ωs divided by the rated capacity of the machine, measured in Seconds
H constant can be calculated for a group of coherent machines by:

Heq=
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The following table represent the inertia constant for each conventional units in the Jordanian grid :
Generator H(s)
AMMAN EAST GT 1 * 1.589
The overall system inertia if generating units marked with “*” are dispatching on
AMMAN EAST GT 2 1.589 The grid , using S base =2150MVA
AMMAN EAST STEAM * 4
QATRANEH GT 1 * 2.1
QATRANEH GT 2 2.1
QATRANEH GT STEAM * 2.1
RESHA GEN 4 *
RESHA GEN 5 *
5.35
6.322
Heq =
SAMRA GT 4 * 1.281
SAMRA GT 5 *
SAMRA GT 6 *
1.281
1.281
Heq = 2.65 sec
SAMRA GT 7 * 1.224
SAMRA GT1 * 4.828
SAMRA GT2 4.828
SAMRA STEAM 1 * 4.828
SAMRA STEAM 2 * 4.828
SAMRA STEAM 3 * 1.281
SAMRA STEAM 4 * 4.828
REHAB GT 12 4.828
REHAB GT 13 4.828
REHAB STEAM 4.828
ACWA STEAM * 4
ACWA GT 11 * 4
ACWA GT 12 4
ACWA GT 13 4
IPP3 0.848
IPP4 0.848
AQABA ST 3 1.379
AQABA ST 4 1.379
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AQABA ST 5 1.379
From the previous relation we can clearly notice that the magnitude of (df/dt)
increases When the overall inertia constant (H) decreases , and that’s happened by
replacing conventional generating units with renewable energy resources ( RES) .
50.05
50.00
49.95 High Inertia
49.90
df2/dt =0.02743 Hz/sec
49.85
49.80 Low Inertia
49.75
df1/dt =0.06643 Hz/sec
49.70
49.65
49.60 2
49.55
49.50 1
49.45
F(Hz) 50 53 56 59 62 65 68 71 74 77 80
time (sec)
Figure 9 :Frequency trend for a power system after disconnecting a generating unit with two different inertia
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The previous figure represents the frequency trend for two different events which
happened in a Ireland

First case : 837MW tripped Load was 23655MW with 27499MW conventional
units.

Second Case : 890MW tripped , Load was 49204MW with 55609MW conventional
units .

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Underfrequency Load shedding (UFLS)

Underfrequency Load shedding is implemented to restore power system stability If

system frequency drops below operational limits during major disturbance such as
Lost of generation .

UFLS protections are used for different reasons such as:

- Low overall system inertia .

- Low amount of spinning reserve .
- Poor interconnected system .

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Types of UFLS Protections
There are many protective relays can be used in UFLS Such as
- Underfrequency relay
- ROCOF relay
- Voltage vector shift relay

1- Underfrequency relay used to detect both nadir and steady state frequency , relay
needs at least (3-5) time cycles to operate .

2- ROCOF relay : examines the frequency at a point , comparing it over time to

derive an estimate of the change in frequency over time , this type of relays needs at
least (3-5) to operate , the setpoint of ROCOF is between (0.1-2) depends on the
inertia constant .
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3- Voltage Vector shift relay :

The Vector Shift protection algorithm is based on voltage angle measurements

performed on all three phase voltages . A measurement is taken from each of the 3
phase voltages after every half-cycle and the decision is made after a full cycle. In
general, a VS relay measures the same values as the under/over , however the
operating principles are different. The angle difference is calculated from the zero
crossing times between the present and the previous cycle. This gives six results at
the end of each power system cycle (2 half- cycles x 3 phase voltages). If 5 of those
6 results are above the setting threshold, a trip signal is initiated . Since the VS
relay compares only two consecutive results it provides fast decision making and
tripping in approximately 30ms .

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Previous types of relay may be used in generating units to protect them from island
operations , which is called Loss of Mains protection.

If the power system is equipped with ROCOF relays and the system has a low
inertia, due to high penetration of RES . the relays can also have a impact on the
frequency control. In case of a major load-generation imbalance (high ROCOF),
the relays will disconnect much of the installed distributed generation. Due to these
disconnections, the produced power will even further decrease and aggravate the
original frequency event .

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The setting of Under frequency relays are based on four parameters
- The under frequency level .
- The rate of change of frequency .
- The time delay .
- The amount of load to be shed .

Example : if the system load is 2150MW ,150MW is flowed through the tie line ,
and the following generating units are dispatched to the grid , assume that tie line
suddenly tripped what is the final value of frequency after operating UFLS ?

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Figure 10 : Generation summery on Monday 27-9-21.

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Solution
Heq = & β=0.7% of system load (MW/0.1Hz)
Heq = 2.65 sec
𝑝𝑔−𝑝𝑙 2000−2150
Overload = = = -0.075
𝑝𝑔 2000
𝑑𝑓 𝑂𝐿∗𝐹𝑛 −0.075∗50
= = = -0.7075472 Hz/sec
𝑑𝑡 2∗𝐻 2∗2.65
Stage 1 &2 will be tripped
Stage 1 & stage 2 covered around 10 % of system load
Load to be shed is 215MW
150
Fss before operating UFLS = 50 - ( ) = 49Hz
150.5
215
Fss after operating UFLS = 49+( ) =50.58 Hz
136

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According to previous example we noticed that UFLS tripped more than the
required value , in order to minimize the error in the load to be shed we can use the
following technique
- To distribute the load to be shed into steps “ more than the existed “
as the following sequence :
STAGE # Frequency Threshold value (Hz) Time delay (Sec)
STAGE 1 49.1 0.1
STAGE 2 48.8 0.2
STAGE 3 48.6 0.2
STAGE 4 48.4 0.2
STAGE 5 48.2 0.2
STAGE 6 48.00 0.2
STAGE 7 49.1 4
STAGE 8 49.3 6

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RECOMNDATIONS
• In order to improve the overall inertia in case of high penetration of RES .
BESS must be installed , also renewable energy station shall be operated below the rated
value “ using in frequency control mode “ .
• In case of high penetration of RES ,The ROCOF will be very High, so that to make
UFLS operating with permissible values of error ,the existing UFLS scheme MUST be
rearranged by adding new stages.
• To select different values of deadband depending on the rated power of each generating
units, the existed value in Jordanian grid is 100mHz.
• Installing new protection for UFLS such as voltage vector shift relay .
• In case of black start operation , Isochronous mode must be applied , or select generating
unit with minimum value of Speed droop.

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List Of Abbreviations and symbols
TSO : Transmission System Operator.
BESS : Battery Energy Storage System .
RES: Renewable Energy Sources.
UFLS : Under Frequency Load Shedding .
ROCOF : Rate Of Change Of Frequency .
VS : Voltage Vector Shift Relay .
SD : Speed Droop .
R : Per Unit Frequency Regulation.
Fss : Steady State Frequency .
Ess : Steady State error.
PI: Proportional Integration Controller .
ωs: Synchronous angular speed .
H : Per Unit Inertia Constant .
β: Frequency Bias .
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J: inertia constant .
References
- Power system analysis by Dr.Hadi saadat.
- Power system analysis by Gengar.stevnson.
- Fundamental of electric machinery by champman.
- Frequency and active power control by prabha kundur.
- Jordanian grid code .
- W. Freitas; Zhenyu Huang; W. Xu,,”A practical method for assessing the
effectiveness of vector surge relays for distributed generation applications ”, IEEE
- P. Anderson and A. Fouad, Power System Control and Stability. Piscataway,
US: Wiley - IEEE Press .

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THANKS FOR ATTENDEING.

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