Solid Waste: Treatment Technologies and Environmental Sustainability

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Solid Waste: Treatment Technologies and Environmental Sustainability
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DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4921-6.ch003
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Chapter 3
Solid Waste, Treatment
Technologies, and
Environmental Sustainability:
Solid Wastes and Their Sustainable
Management Practices
Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi

https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2398-1895
University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Abdul Kareem
Faizan Rafi
Shujahat Ali
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3760-9042
Mirpur University of Science and Technology (MUST), Pakistan
ABSTRACT
Waste has a long history of association with humans and other organisms. It is inevitable and has dif-
ferent sources right from crop residues (agriculture), food production and its movement through food
chain, industries and their processes. Waste has different environmental implications like leachate and
can contaminate groundwater. Emissions from waste burning cause air pollution, and its dumping in soil
cause soil pollution. There are different methods and technologies being used in the world to minimize
waste. All the technologies being used are reviewed and presented in it with their pros and cons of all the
technologies. This chapter will include all these technologies and associated environmental concerns.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4921-6.ch003
Copyright © 2021, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

Solid Waste, Treatment Technologies, and Environmental Sustainability
INTRODUCTION
Solid waste is every type of solid substance which arises from human and other organisms and considered
as unwanted. Solid wastes can be organic or inorganic fractions and generally do not carry any value to
any organism. Wastes can be kitchen refuse, packaging, clippings, cloth, bottles, paper, cans, and dry
batteries. There are different types of solid wastes on the basis of biodegradability, inertness, e-wastes,
composites and domestic. All these wastes are generated from industrial processes and domestic activi-
ties (Kumar et al., 2018).
BACKGROUND
Expanding population, growing economies and fast urbanization has incredibly accelerated the metro-
politan waste generation rate in developing nations (Guerrero et al., 2013). Cities typically are respon-
sible for waste generation (Burnley, 2007; Sujauddin et al., 2008). Solid waste is one of the important
byproducts of urban lifestyle, which is growing faster due to rapid urbanization. In the last 1 year, the
world population increased from 2.9 to 3 billion, but waste generation increased from 0.68 to 1.3 billion
tons, and per capita generation increased from 0.64 to 1.2 kg/day, which become almost double within
10 years. A prediction was made on the basis of increasing solid waste generation; about 4.3 of urban
population will generate 1.42 kg/capita/day of municipal solid waste by 2025. However, per capita solid
waste generation varied in different countries and different cities within a country (Mian et al., 2017).
There are different associated risks of solid wastes and their treatment technologies. Like leachates
in landfill sites cause soil and groundwater pollution, gaseous emissions from combustion, incineration,
pyrolysis and waste to energy processes cause air pollution and climate change, solid waste smell and
its presence in any area creates nuisance (De and Debnath, 2016).
MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER
To avoid all the risks associated with solid wastes, numerous technologies are devised to manage them.
Some are old and conventional (recycling, open burning, dumping into the seas) and pose further envi-
ronmental risks, some are new (landfilling, biomethanation, pyrolysis, composting, plasma gasification,
waste to energy and incineration). These methods also have some minor environmental implications
like pyrolysis, combustion etc. have gaseous emissions problems. So, there was a need of some ways to
manage solid wastes with sustainable way. This purpose was accomplished when 3Rs and agricultural
wastes disposal with agricultural wastes residues incorporation into the fields, composting of municipal
wastes, production of biofuels and biogas was invented. These practices are sustainable as well as profit-
able because they do not only reduce wastes but also generate biofuels, energy and electricity as well.
SOLID WASTES, TYPES, AND SOURCES:
There are different types of solid waste that are released from different sources and they are described
briefly in the following;
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Biodegradable Waste
This waste type include any waste organic material which can be degraded into carbon dioxide, water,
methane or simple organic molecules by micro-organisms and other living things. These wastes are
decomposed by composting, aerobic and in-aerobic digestion. These wastes are decomposed by the
above processes domestically as well as commercially with the purposes of reduction of waste volumes
with the aim to reduce harm to human health and impact on the environment and production of useful
products and use them wherever possible. It is important to choose correctly the composition of various
biodegradable wastes and ensure proper temperature regime (Kliopova et al., 2019).
Biodegradable waste is commonly damped, combusted or buried into the soil. As the biodegradation
rate of organic wastes is low, and also leads to the emission of gas which cannot be captures and con-
tribute to the greenhouse effect. The amount of gasses emitted through this process is estimated about
30% of the global methane emissions (Nowicki et al., 2016). To control the gaseous emissions from
degradation of biodegradable wastes, production of activated carbon adsorbents from this type of waste
has become a very interesting alternative to its combustion, recycling or composting (Biedenbach et al.,
2015). Activated carbon act as efficient adsorbents used for purification of gases and liquids because
they have large surface area and micro-porous structure, ensuring very good sorption capacity towards a
wide range of gasses and other substances. It also advantage that activated carbon also produced from any
waste substance containing carbon in it. Therefore, taking into regard the high cost of activated carbon
production from fossil coals along with the economic and ecological aspects, recently much attention
has been paid to the use of organic waste for this purpose. The post-agricultural production waste is
easily available, renewable and inexpensive, that is why the activated carbons obtained from this type
of waste have been subjected to adsorption tests from gas and liquid phases.
Recyclable
Any waste material which can be used again for beneficial purpose is often called as Recyclable waste.
It is the method of renovating waste materials into new and useful materials and objects or reusing them
as a whole. It is best alternative to conventional waste disposal method as it saves natural resource mate-
rials and help in lowering greenhouse gasses. It can prevent the wastage of potentially useful resources
and materials, and reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, thereby reducing energy usage, air
pollution (from incineration), and water pollution (from landfilling). Recycling is a major constituent of
modern waste reduction strategy of 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle). Thus, it aims at environmental
sustainability by substituting raw material inputs. International Standardization Organization also set
some standards related to recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics waste and ISO 14001:2015 for
environmental management control of recycling practice (Hohenthal et al., 2019; Roychoudhuri and
Debnath, 2020).
Materials which can be recycled include glass, paper, cardboard, metal, plastic, tires, batteries, and
electronic equipments. These materials are either delivered to recycling center and sorted, cleaned, and
reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing new products. Due to rapid economic growth
and population increase, problems of environmental pollution, climate change, and resource depletion
have become increasingly serious in the world. Recyclable waste recycling is becoming one of the key
approaches to simultaneously respond to the above issues, and governments have begun to regulate
and promote source separation and urban waste recycling in recent years. There are three main types of
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recycling: primary, secondary, and tertiary. In primary recycling, wastes are recycled into same things
i.e. like paper into more paper. In secondary recycling process, wastes are modified to use for any-other
way i.e. cutting plastic bottle to use it in garden, and tertiary recycling include complete transformation
of the waste into a new product by chemical processes, burning or any-other process (Zhang et al., 2016;
Zhao et al., 2018; Zink et al., 2018; Shi et al., 2019).
Inert
Any type of waste which cannot be decomposed biologically or chemically reactive and does not de-
composed. It is the major part of the waste and covers up to 50% of the total generated wastes which
poses a challenge of its management. It also has major contribution in affecting human health and the
environment as it contains many types of secondary pollutants trapped in it. Inert wastes include demoli-
tion waste, plastic, rubber, ceramic and debris etc. Its management only include its recycling as filling
and base material for floors, concrete aggregate, building material and tiles, etc. (Mendoza et al., 2017;
Tatsuno et al., 2019).
Many Governments has set up storage facilities for inert waste management i.e. French Ministry
of Environment workgroup defined three types of storage facilities according to the nature of the inert
waste viz:
1. Type F facility stores plaster, asbestos-cement and certain inert industrial wastes.
2. Type G facility stores demolition waste mixed with certain industrial wastes.
3. Type H facility stores non-polluted soil from works and sorted demolition wastes and technically
separable plaster certain industrial wastes (Emmanuel et al., 2002).
E-waste
It is electronic waste of discarded electrical devices. Used electronics are refurbished, reuse, resale,
or metals used in their mother and circuit boards are recovered for reuse in new equipments. Casual
management of e-waste in developing countries can lead to environmental pollution and adverse human
health effects as electronic scrap components such as CPUs contain potentially harmful materials such
as lead, cadmium, beryllium, or brominated flame retardants. Recycling and disposal of e-waste may
involve significant risk to the health of workers and their communities. Electronic Equipment Directive
has classified e-waste into ten categories: Large household appliances (including cooling and freezing
equipments), small household appliances (computers), consumer electronics (television), lamps, toys,
tools and medical devices, monitoring and control instruments, and Automatic dispensers. On the other
hand, some categorize e-wastes into six categories, namely: (1) Temperature exchange equipment (air
conditioners, freezers), (2) Screen and monitors, (3) Lamps, (4) Large equipment (washing machines,
electric stoves), (5) Small equipment (microwave, electric shaver), and (6) Small IT and telecommunica-
tion equipment (mobile phones, printers). Products in each category vary in longevity profile, impact,
and collection methods, among other differences (Ilankoon et al., 2018; Narbón-Perpiñá and Prior,
2020). In 2016, Asia imported significant amount of the most extensive volume of e-waste (18.2 Mt),
accompanied by Europe (12.3 Mt), America (11.3 Mt), Africa (2.2 Mt), and Oceania (0.7 Mt). The
smallest in terms of total e-waste made, Oceania was the largest generator of e-waste per citizen (17.3
kg), with hardly 6% of e-waste gathered and recycled. Europe is the second largest e-waste generator
38

per citizen with an average of 16.6 kg. America generates 11.6 kg and solicits only 17% of the e-waste
caused in the provinces, which is commensurate to the assortment count in Asia (15%) (Kumar et al.,
2017; Dutta and Goel, 2017).
Composite
Composite is aggregate of two or more materials. This type of waste creates tons of problems as it is hard
to deal with multiple type of wastes at a time. To date, there has been no successful attempt to recycle
the composite materials and hence the waste is increasing day by day. Composite waste include liquid
waste, organic waste, solid and recyclable rubbish, and hazardous waste.
Composite recycling has been an issue in research over the last decade and some methods were
proposed: pyrolysis, oxidation in a fluidized bed, and chemical recycling. Among them, pyrolysis is
currently the only process with commercial‐scale implementations (Hu et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017).
Domestic
Domestic waste means any no putrescible waste, consisting of organic and in-organic materials, such as
paper, cardboard, yard clippings, wood, or similar materials, generated in a dwelling, including the real
property upon which it is situated, containing four living units or less. Household waste, also known as
domestic waste or residential waste, is disposable materials generated by households. This waste can be
comprised of hazardous and non-hazardous waste. Non-hazardous waste can include food scraps, paper,
bottles, etc. which can be recycled or composted (Mian et la., 2017). Domestic waste is waste that is
generated as a result of the ordinary day-to-day use of a domestic premise and is either: collected by or
on behalf of a local government as part of a waste collection and disposal system. During the last decade,
a growing interest in recycling of domestic waste has emerged, and action plans to increase the recycling
of domestic waste have been agreed by many governments. The implementation of new systems and
equipment for the collection of domestic waste has been separated at the source. However, only limited
information exists on possible occupational health problems related to such new systems. Occupational
accidents are very frequent among waste collectors. Based on current knowledge, it appears that the risk
factors should be considered as an integrated entity, i.e. technical factors (poor accessibility to the waste,
design of equipment) may act in concert with high working rate, visual fatigue due to poor illumination
and perhaps muscle fatigue due to high workload (Ihedioha et al., 2017). Typical waste management
process used around the world is explained in the fig. 1.
SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND ASSOCIATED ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS
Around the world, waste generation rates are rising. In 2016, 2.01 billion tons of solid waste was generated
with the rate of 0.74 kg/person/day. It is estimated that annual waste generation will be increased up to
70% with rapid increase in population in 2050. In Pakistan, 5.5 million USD are invested in a compost-
ing project in Lahore. Due to this facility, 150,000 tons of carbon dioxide equivalents are reduced, and
compost production increased from 300 to 1000 tons/day (World Bank, 2019).
Solid waste is generated from 0.283 to 0.612 kg/capita/day in Pakistan and its growth rate is 2.4%/
year (Nintendo et al., 2019).
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Figure 1. Typical Solid Waste Management Process Flow
The following are the main problems regarding solid waste management in Pakistan:
• No existence of waste collection system.

• Waste is dumped or thrown into the streets.
• Wastes are not categorized properly.
• No existence of enough sanitary landfill sites.
• No awareness among citizens about waste management and associated environmental risks.
These all factors contributes in spreading human health diseases and environmental pollution.
Health Hazards
There are numerous environmental and human health impacts associated with solid wastes as described;
40

• Gasses originated from wastes cause skin and eye infections.

• Dust generated during wastes handling cause breathing problems.
• Bees and flies breed on rotting garbage and spread diseases like diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid,
hepatitis and cholera.
• Mosquitoes also breed on waste piles and transmit malaria and yellow fever.
• Dogs, cats and rats dwelling on waste spread diseases including plague and flea born fever.
• Waste collectors face different diseases like intestinal, parasitic and skin diseases (Lal et al., 2016;
Ihedioha et al., 2017; Mustafa et al., 2017).
SOLID WASTES MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR TYPES
Solid waste management is regarded as a centralized process and this is mostly based on the economic
status of countries (Srivastava et al., 2014). The first step in solid waste management is making strategy
and its monitoring. The modern waste management strategies are expensive and mostly used by developed
countries (Hassan et al., 2016). The following solid wastes management technologies are used generally
and divided into two types i.e., ancient and modern solid waste management technologies.
Ancient
The old solid waste management technologies include recycling, open burning, dumping into seas and
rivers, and plowing crop residues directly into the fields.
Recycling
One of the most sustainable means of solid waste management is recycling, as stated in the literature.
This process does not adversely affect human health, social conditions, and the environment. This sus-
tained technique does not diminish the quality of life due to poor economic conditions (Troschinetz &
Mihelcic, 2009). There is a clear difference between the research conducted on recycling in developed
countries as compared to the developing countries. The recycling facilities in the developed countries are
heavily industrialized that are produced as a result of the daily life activities of a citizen. The technical
applications are focused on the developed countries, including tools and models (Daskalopoulos et al.,
1998). In developing countries, the focus is on the research on recycling for direct factors, practical, and
elements related to waste management. The competency is the best indicator actual behavior of society
towards the different strategies of solid waste management. If the concept and the proper way to recycle
the waste is understood by any community, it is easier to persuade them to adopt it (Corral-Verdugo, 1997).
The plastic has contributed a lot in water and land pollution. The problem with it is its non-degrad-
ability and not degraded well. The primary recycling is employed to recycle plastic. First cycling is the
reintroduction of scrap, single-use plastic edges, and its parts to the extrusion cycle to make products
like the plastic. A material from scrap plastic has a similar feature to the original ones. This type of
recycling must be only done with semi-clean scrap, that’s why it is not mostly selected by the recyclers.
A significant number of our daily life products are produced by recycling like pipes, door profiles, win-
dows, grocery shoppers, and blinds (Al-Salem et al., 2009).
41

Figure 2. Solid Wastes Management Technologies
There is another type of recycling known as chemical recycling. This is feasible for those hetero-
geneous and contaminated waste materials for those which cannot be separated, or their separation is
economically not suitable. This is one of the best ways to protect the environment from the plastics. It
may be done in closed-loop recycling or open-loop recycling based on the products made from differ-
ent types of plastics. In closed-loop recycling, the same products are manufactured from which they
were made. It may be made entirely from recycled products or a mixture of them. The PET packaging
products are its example. In open-loop, recycled plastics are utilized for different products than the one
they were made from (Ragaert et al., 2017).
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Open Burning
Open burning is one of the most common strategies to manage solid waste in the developing countries
of the world. This is mostly done in open places. The masses are not aware of its ill effects on humans.
The people find it the easiest way to get rid of solid waste. The problem of waste has been aggravated
by an increase in solid waste in Thailand. This problem was mainly due to change in client behavior,
growth in population, inadequate facilities to tackle waste, and economic expansion. These are the main
reasons causing every house to adopt their own techniques in the elimination of this waste. Open burning
is one of the main strategies adopted by many people (Pansuk et al., 2018).
One of the main concerns with open burning is its effects on the environment and human health.
There are a lot of emissions from open burning, which are very toxic to human health. The open burn-
ing has a direct role in air pollution and climate change due to greenhouse gases from solid waste due to
open burning. For example, in Thailand, 4.09 kilo tones/year solid waste is burnt by open burning and
emit 0.61 kilo tones of nitrous oxide, 499 kilo tones carbon dioxide, and 26 kilo tones/year of methane
in 2016. Sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, and many other air pollutants are added in the environment
by open burning in Thailand (Pansuk et al., 2018).
Dumping Into Seas and Rivers
It is a common practice to dump solid waste into the rivers and seas. This has played havoc for the ma-
rine and freshwater ecosystems. There is a significant concern about the pollutants being added in these
systems by the solid waste. This is mostly seen in developing countries where the authorities do not
have any mechanism to check the composition of solid waste. The only source for this kind of dumping
is the anthropogenic activities. The huge population growth along the seas and rivers have resulted in
increased spill in them. In a short-term period, the degradation of these activities has reached the health
of the population across the coastal areas. The pollutants included in them are heavy metals, hydrocar-
bons from oil, nitrate and phosphates, fertilizers, pesticides, and insecticides. Eutrophication is caused by
the nutrients in the waters and estuaries near the shore. In the river, the ecosystem is maintained by the
steady discharge of the water from the river with that of salty water of the sea in the estuary. The sediment
load from the river is balanced by ocean erosion in the delta and its adjacent coastal areas. Due to the
industrial zones, many persistent organic pollutants are added in the solid waste. This solid waste, when
dumped in the seas or rivers, directly affects the life in the water systems. The other significant source
of pollutants in the seas and rivers is sewage waste. The solid waste, along with the sewage sludge, is
also very damaging to the sea and river life. The sandstorms are one of the unique ways to pollute water
systems. The pollutants are carried by the strong winds into the river or the sea (Daoji & Daler, 2004).
The solid waste being dumped in the rivers also composed of papers, files, bottles, cans, bags, ciga-
rette packaging, and many other products. Most of the waste from the construction is thrown in nearby
water reservoirs. The primary mode of transmission of solid waste in rivers, canals, streams, and seas
is the drainage system of different cities. It is also observed that they may get stuck in the plantings
along the beaches. Most of it is dumped in rivers and seas. The drainage system is also blocked by the
solid waste leading to the more production of sediments due to absence of protection of surfaces, and
the natural discharge is maximized, the degradation of water quality and the entrance of pollutants in
the food chain (Salles et al., 2012).
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Ploughing in the Fields
Ploughing in the fields is related to waste management in rural areas. The ploughing is the physical
manipulation of soil in the field. Firstly, it is essential to note the type of solid waste being added in the
fields. It may be crop residues or any chemical wastes. Crop residues or any organic substance buried
in the fields by ploughing these in soils. The wastes added in soils should be degradable necessarily.
Ploughing and tillage is done in the fields after crop harvesting. It is also done by collecting wastes from
other areas and ploughing in fields. Many farmers in the developing countries also burn the crop stubbles
in fields that is the primary cause of smog in these areas. The major drawback of using ploughing is that
they mostly take out heavy objects from the field (Abdoli et al., 2008).
Modern
Many modern strategies are being applied to deal with solid waste. These technologies are mostly used
in the developed countries of the world. The advanced waste management strategies are presented in
fig. 1 and are discussed below;
3Rs
The 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle) strategy of waste management is widely used in developing coun-
tries. It is the strategy that is sustainable and acceptable in society. The developed countries are focusing
on the development of sustainable solid waste management. This is one of the best ways to conserve the
environment. But this is not adopted by the developing countries due to their expensive instrumentation
and installation. There are many concerns in the developing world on which they focus. 3Rs are way more
sophisticated systems as compared to ancient strategies. First, the awareness of a reduction in solid waste
is being created in developed countries. People are encouraged to use of disposable things. Many policies
are made to address the problem of reduction in solid waste. There are many analyses being done by the
researchers of this field. The reduction policy is made by keeping in view the waste generated from a
single household to the factory. The economic advantage of reducing waste may be an essential point to
raise the importance of this issue in the world. Reusing has been used for many years in the developed
world. The reusing must be done such that there is minimal use of the physical and chemical modifica-
tions. There are a number of economic, environmental, and social advantages of reuse. The reusing of
certain materials must be done under the proper conditions because they may require special requirements
for it. Recycling of the materials is the last approach in 3Rs. This is the most utilized technique for solid
waste treatment being applied in many developing countries (Mena et al., 2011).
Following are the benefits of using 3Rs
• The developing countries can attract foreign investment by emission reduction credits.
• The organic gas can be produced by adopting these methods, which can be used for energy pro-
duction purposes.
• The power generation can be efficiently done.
• It is eco-friendly approach and replenishes the nutrients in the soil.
• Reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
44

• These approaches may increase the GDP of the country by creating new jobs (Chowdhury et al.,
2014).
Composting
As the sizes of the cities and urban areas are increasing the solid waste production is also growing. This
has led to the development of modern strategies. Composting is one of the most critical strategy to tackle
waste. The organic waste produced by the landfills can be made into such a product that may be used to
enhance agricultural productivity. The volume of the waste is considerably reduced by composting. It
is a biological process that involves the conversion of much heterogeneous organic waste into organic
matter rich substances under the controlled conditions of oxygen, moisture, and temperature along with
the microbial population. The organic substances such as vegetables, leaves, fruits, manure, sludge, and
other waste are converted by microorganisms into humus like materials. These materials can be used as
an organic fertilizer in the fields. Fungi, bacteria, and actinomycetes are the decomposers employed in
the process of composting. The basic concept of composting is the microbial decomposition of organic
substances. The decomposers release enzymes which convert complex materials into simpler ones. The
composting, done in the presence of oxygen is called aerobic and the composting done in the absence
of oxygen is called anaerobic composting. Vermicomposting, in-vessel composting, biomineralization,
open windrows, controlled microbial composting and aerated static pile composting are other compost-
ing systems which are employed to convert wastes into useful soil fertility enhancing products (Atalia
et al., 2015).
Landfilling
Landfilling is one of the most economical strategies for managing solid waste. This technique is often
confused with open dumping. To avoid this confusion, scientists classified some conditions. The fol-
lowing conditions must be fulfilled by a site to be called as landfill site;
• There should be anaerobic environment.

• There should be one daily cover at least.
• There should be connected pipe system for collection of leachates.
• There should be natural ventilation facility (Hassan et al., 2000).
The second system of classification is based on operational purposes. Level (I) include controlled
tipping. Level (II) has a landfill having embankment and daily covering of soil. Level (III) has a leachate
recirculation system. Level (IV) contains a treatment system for leachate (Idris et al., 2004).
Incineration
It is energy producing process which is carried-out in engineered facility and employs thermal decom-
position at high temperatures to destroy and reduce waste volumes. Generally, combustible wastes or
wastes with significant organic contents are considered suitable for incineration. However, any solid
waste which pose hazards to environment can be incinerated. Different incineration technologies have
been developed for handling various types and physical forms of hazardous wastes. The significant
45

sub-systems which may be incorporated into a solid waste incineration system are waste preparation
and feeding, combustion chamber, air pollution control, and residual/ash handling facility. The selection
of an appropriate system combination of these components is primarily a function of the physical and
chemical properties of the waste stream or streams to be incinerated (Oppelt, 1987).
Fermentation
The organic fractions of the municipal solid wastes and other biodegradable solid substrates like ag-
ricultural wastes have to be conveniently treated to reduce their environmental impact and to recover
energy and material while massive disposal treatments e.g., landfill or incineration should be avoided.
An obvious choice to achieve this goal is given by the anaerobic digestion and co-digestion processes
for methane production. However, anaerobic fermentation processes can be used for the production of
valuable products. In fact, aerobic fermentation is an effective bioprocess for the production of volatile
fatty acids and other low weight organic compounds such as lactic acid and alcohols. These can used for
the production of methyl and ethyl-esters to be added to gasoline because of their high octane number
(between 103 and 118), as a low cost external carbon source for the production of biopolymers, like
poly-hydroxy-alkanoates, for sustainment of the biological processes for nutrient removal in waste water
treatment plants, still, for anaerobic fermentation with a high hydrolysis rate being the first step of the
anaerobic digestion process for biogas production when treating organic wastes with a high biodegrad-
ability (Bolzonella et al., 2005).
Pyrolysis
It is one of the most efficient and environmental-friendly strategies. It also has many operational
advantages over other approaches. If it is adopted at a large industrial scale, it has proven to be very
economical in terms of fuel pricing. The pyrolysis is defined as a procedure in which the degradation
is thermally achieved in an inert environment of long-chain organic substances either in the presence
of a catalyst knows as catalytic pyrolysis or in the absence of catalysis called Thermal Pyrolysis. The
long-chain complex organic compounds are converted into simpler molecules by control the flow of heat
and pressure. The by-products of this procedure are known as tars. The long residence time is required
to operate this process. The most common solid waste materials used in the pyrolysis are plastics. Due
to the utilization of plastic, it has gained much fame in the market. About 80% of daily life plastic is
composed of thermosets and thermoplastics. These are converted products like those of fossil fuels. The
setup of the pyrolysis may range from a micro-industry level to a large scale. It is dependent on the type
of reactors installed, and the kind of plastic added. The factors affecting the rate of pyrolysis are the
pressure, temperature, type of catalyst, heat transfer limit, and residence time (Al-Salem et al., 2017).
Biomethanation
It is the process of extraction of methane gas from waste burning (Yan et al., 2019). Different types of
feed-stock like rice straw and other crop residues, livestock dung and fruit and vegetable leaves remains
that contain high amounts of organic material in them, are used for methane generation and biogas pro-
duction (Negi et al., 2018). Anaerobic digestion is commonly used to extract methane gas from different
types of wastes (Donoso-Bravo et al., 2016).
46

Waste to Energy/ Refused Derived Fuel
Due to energy shortage and increased demands and rapid depletion of fossil fuels resources, researchers
are doing work on cheap, reliable and sustainable sources of energy. Different solid wastes are used for
energy production through burning and digestion (Kothari et al., 2010). As food is necessity of every
human, the wastes produced during food production, processing and consumption. About one third of
food produced globally is left as waste which allows the sustainable production of energy from the food
wastes through combustion, digestion and fermentation processes (Uçkun Kiran et al., 2014). In USA,
energy production from municipal solid waste management consists of recycling, composting and com-
bustion with energy production from them (Psomopoulos et al., 2009).
Figure 3. Process Flow of Biofuels and Energy Production from Solid Wastes here
Plasma Gasification
Plasma gasification is comparatively a newer advancement in existing technologies in which solid wastes
are changed to energy-filled products (Sanlisoy and Carpinlioglu, 2017). This technology is capable of
providing sustainable disposal for various wastes as well as providing the energy requirements of the
world (Favas et al., 2017). Different types of wastes like industrial and municipal wastes are used in
this process for energy generation. This process also have the advantages of reducing the chances of
soil and groundwater pollution because wastes are burned and used for energy generation. By using this
technology, up to 71.8% energy recovery can be obtained from feed-stock (Messerle et al., 2016; Wang
et al., 2019). Fig. 3 shows the waste collection and its conversion to useful products in a sustainable way.
SUSTAINABLE WASTE MANAGEMENT
There is an increased concern about the wastes management whose production is increasing day by
day. Increasing environmental concerns like soil and groundwater pollution, it is necessary to remove
47

the solid wastes or use them for any purposeful use. For this, different solid waste conversion to energy
technologies are being used for sustainable waste management and energy production.
Agricultural Wastes
Due to increased agricultural crop residues production, their management is necessary because these
are produced in huge amounts all over the world. Agricultural wastes are conventionally burned in the
fields, used as fuels in homes, or incorporated in the fields after chopping by rotavators. Agricultural
wastes contain different types of useful substances in them which can be used for different purposes
like biochar production for use as biosorbent, carbon sequestration enhancement, biofuels production
like biodiesel, and recovery of cellulose, fibers and biopolymers etc. which are used in medicine and
food industry (Mostafa et al., 2018). These wastes also used as removal agents of dyes from industrial
effluents. As depicted from the various experiments that up to 90% of removal efficiency of dyes from
industrial effluents can be achieved (Singh et al., 2017).
Production of biofuels from agricultural wastes also helps in reduction of greenhouse gasses by re-
ducing fossil fuels combustion and reduced emissions of different gasses when crop residues are set to
fire in the fields (Wang et al., 2018; Yilmaz et al., 2018). Bio-oil production from different agricultural
wastes are also practiced by pyrolysis which shows good potential to produce bio-oils from agricultural
crop residues (Hawash et al., 2017).
Industrial Wastes
Due to increasing industrialization, industrial wastes generation is also increasing. This increasing waste
generation polluting the soil and water pollution. To avoid the pollution, different technologies are be-
ing used for effective removal and management of these wastes. Bricks manufacturing from industrial
wastes is now being used as alternate of conventional bricks (Andreola et al., 2016; Wiemes et al., 2017).
By using combustion and digestion, energy is also produced from different types of industrial wastes.
Electricity is produced from sugarcane bagasse, different sludges and used in the industrial as well as
supplied for domestic use (Contreras-Lisperguer et al., 2018; Hassan et al., 2019). Green cements are
also produced by converting industrial wastes into geopolymers and using the product as replacement of
conventional cement. Geopolymers derived cement product is eco-friendly (reduction of 60% consump-
tion and carbon emissions as compared to conventional cement production) and also has the advantage
of industrial waste disposal (Zhang et al., 2017).
Domestic Wastes
Rapid urbanization has resulted in large amounts of municipal wastes generation. Increase in municipal
solid wastes results in increased pollution levels in environment, which must be managed accordingly.
So, there must be any effective way of municipal solid waste disposal (Polyakova et al., 2018).
Some strategies of their disposal are using them as fuel by mixing with other wastes, use them as
soil conditioners and fertilizers (Tıkız and Pehlivan, 2018). These wastes are also used as biosorbents
for heavy metals (Quintas et al., 2019), processing for production of composts (Jiya et al., 2019), use of
different fruit peel extracts for bio-control agents (El-Gendy et al., 2016) and production of electricity
(Ayodele et al., 2017).
48

E-Wastes
Electronic waste or E-waste is one of the growing waste stream all over the world. It posse different
hazardous environmental impacts. Heavy metals in e-waste cause soil and water pollution, piles of e-
wastes present a bad image of the area. In the world, 41 million tons of e-waste was produced in 2014.
It is increasing with the rate of 3-5% each year. This poses a challenge to the researchers to devise a
proper method to cope with this problem (Kumar et al., 2017; Tansel, 2017).
Recycling is the strategy which is being used since the ages. Recycling of e-waste is a necessity to
address the pollution problems and shortage of mineral resources for electronics industry as well as to
reduce the environmental pollution and human health risks (Zeng et al., 2017). Recycling and demol-
ishing is also done to recover the precious rare earth elements like metal recovery from printed circuit
boards, hard disc drives and displays (Garlapati, 2016; Işıldar et al., 2018).
COST TO BENEFIT RATIOS OF DIFFERENT WASTE

MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Fuel Production
Energy production from different solid wastes is now widely considered for a sustainable approach for
energy production and waste disposal simultaneously. This approach is very cost-effective as feedstock
is usually the wastes which are headache otherwise. Cost-benefit analysis for waste to energy was
done and it was revealed that it has more benefits than fossil fuels in combination with reducing global
warming potential of greenhouse potential (Wang et al., 2016). Waste cooking oil is used for energy
generation for production of biodiesel. By spending 0.946 USD, we can obtain benefits of 1.298 USD
(Mohammadshirazi et al., 2014; Singhabhandhu and Tezuka, 2010; Zhao et al., 2016). Landfilling and
energy recovery from the wastes is a beneficial industry. It can be depicted in the study in which authors
showed an estimated benefits of 1.92 million USD to 16.63 million USD earning in a single year by a
single landfill site in China (Zhou et al., 2015).
Recycling
Recycling is a win-win strategy in which, used or scrap products are reused or sold to the areas where
these products are needed. It has more benefits than the costs (Pickin, 2008). By recycling, different
types of resources are used again and again. Developed countries send their old equipments to devel-
oping countries adopting new technology by giving old technology to developing countries is a mode
of recycling e-waste. For example, old models of equipment’s are sold at cheaper prices to developing
countries. By adopting this method, they get rid of their e-wastes as well as earn some money by selling
their e-waste (Tanskanen, 2013).
49

SOLUTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
As indicated in the chapter, there are numerous ways by which solid wastes can be disposed-off in a
sustainable way. Wastes to energy, pyrolysis, biomethanation, combustion, incineration and fermenta-
tion techniques are extensively used for energy and biofuels production. Generally, above mentioned
technologies are thought to be useful and eco-friendly. But, there are some issues associated with these,
like air pollution levels may increase near pyrolysis, incineration and combustion facilities. Gasses emis-
sions can contribute in climate change and increase health problems in nearby areas. Some techniques
require sophisticated and costly equipment and setups like Biomethanation, pyrolysis and fermentation,
and some require labor to run the processes. These issues should be scientifically studied and addressed
accordingly.
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
Sustainable solid wastes management is an innovative approach by which solid wastes are collected,
treated, reused or processes for fuel and energy production. But due to the issues of air pollution in the
case of combustion, pyrolysis etc., research should be done to invent or modify the ways of fuels and
energy production without harming the air as it is already polluted due to excessive carbon and other
greenhouse gas emissions. Landfilling cause soil and groundwater contamination by leaching of heavy
metals and other contaminants. All these issues must be addressed to minimize these risks with continu-
ous and wise use of available resources for environmental health and its improvements along with fuel
and energy production.
CONCLUSION
Different types of solid wastes pose environmental threats. They cause environmental pollution by con-
taminating soil, water air and other biotic components. Solid wastes are of different types like agricultural
wastes (crop residues, animal dung, fruit peels, thinning and pruning wastes), industrial wastes (sewage
sludge, wastewater, ash, and miscellaneous solid wastes) and domestic solid wastes. Their management
is of great concern in modern era. There are different approaches which are used for solid waste man-
agement like dumping into sea, landfilling, and open burning. But these management strategies are not
eco-friendly and poses environmental threats. With the progress in science and technology, scientists
invented various sustainable methods to cope with problems associated with solid waste management and
energy shortage collectively. They devised the methods of fuel production from crop residues, sewage
sludge and animal dung. They produced biogas, biodiesel, and electricity from solid wastes by processes
like incineration, digestion, methanation, pyrolysis and plasma gasification etc. These methods are well
studied and cost effective. Future studies are being done to assess the more advance method of energy
recovery from wastes having less emission so that we can totally eradicate the climate change problems
originated by use of fossil fuels.
50

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Solid Waste: Treatment Technologies and Environmental Sustainability

Chapter · January 2021

Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi Abdul Kareem

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MAIN FOCUS OF THE CHAPTER

SOLID WASTES, TYPES, AND SOURCES:

SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND ASSOCIATED ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS

Figure 1. Typical Solid Waste Management Process Flow

• No existence of waste collection system.

• Gasses originated from wastes cause skin and eye infections.

SOLID WASTES MANAGEMENT TECHNOLOGIES AND THEIR TYPES

Figure 2. Solid Wastes Management Technologies

Dumping Into Seas and Rivers

Ploughing in the Fields

• There should be anaerobic environment.

Waste to Energy/ Refused Derived Fuel

SUSTAINABLE WASTE MANAGEMENT

COST TO BENEFIT RATIOS OF DIFFERENT WASTE

SOLUTION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

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