General Biology 2

Quarter 3 - Module 2
GENETICS

Prepared by: Ms. MARIA GLAIDYL P. FLORES

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 Module 2
Genetics

This module demonstrates your understanding of the characteristics of

Earth that are necessary to support life, particularly on the essential components
of this planet that drives all living things or biotic factors (plants, animals,
microorganisms) to exist. It also emphasizes on the different
subsystems(geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere) that make up
the Earth and how these systems interact to produce the kind of Earth we live in
today.

This module will help you explore the key concepts on topics that will help
you answer the questions pertaining to our very own, planet earth.

This module has two (2) lessons:

 Lesson 1: History of Life on Earth
 Lesson 2: Mechanisms that Produce Change in Populations

Objective;

After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Describe general features of the history of life onEarth, including generally
accepted dates andsequence of the geologic time scale andcharacteristics of
major groups of organisms presentduring these time periods. (STEM_BIO11/12-
IIIc-g-8)

2. Explain the mechanisms that produce change inpopulations from generation to

generation (e.g.,artificial selection, natural selection, genetic drift,mutation,
recombination) (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-9)

3. Show patterns of descent with modification form

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 Pre-Activity

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: Definition of Terms

1. Precambrian
2. Paleozoic
3. Mesozoic
4. Cenozoic
5. Epoch
6. Cambrian
7. Ordovician
8. Silurian
9. Devonian
10. Carboniferous
11. Permian
12. Triassic
13. Jurassic
14. Cretaceous

1. What is the age of the Earth?

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2. What was the Earth like million years ago? Describe.
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3. Watch a video clip on YouTube. Geo
logical Time Scale and Fossils (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3EfewdEC8bk)

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 History of Life on Earth

INTRODUCTION:

https://clarkscience8.weebly.com/geologic-time-scale.html

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The Geological Time Scale (GTS)
A. Four eras - Precambrian; Paleozoic; Mesozoic; Cenozoic
B. Periods under the Paleozoic era - Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous,
Permian
C. Periods under the Mesozoic era - Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous
D. Periods under the Cenozoic era - Tertiary and Quaternary

CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION is the belief that there was a sudden, apparent explosion of diversity in
life forms about 545 million years ago. The explosion created the complexity of multi-celled
organisms in a relatively short time frame of 5 to 10 million years. This explosion also created
most of the major extant animal groups today.

TYPES OF FOSSILS DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES

Molds Impression made in a Shells
substrate = negative image
of an organism
Casts When a mold is filled in Bones and teeth
Petrified Organic material is Petrified trees;
converted into stone Coal balls (fossilized plants
and their tissues, in round
ball shape)
Original Remains Preserved wholly (frozen in Woolly mammoth;
ice, trapped in tar pits, Amber from the Baltic Sea
dried/ region
dessicated inside caves in
arid regions or encased in
amber/
fossilized resin)
Carbon Film Carbon impression in Leaf impression on the rock
sedimentary rocks
Trace/ Ichnofossils Record the movements and Trackways, toothmarks,
behaviors of the organism gizzard rocks, coprolites
(fossilized dungs), burrows
and nests
THE SIX WAYS OF FOSSILIZATION
1. Unaltered preservation - Small organism or part trapped in amber, hardened plant sap
2. Permineralization/ Petrification - The organic contents of bone and wood are replaced
with silica, calcite or pyrite, forming a rock-like fossil
3. Replacement - hard parts are dissolved and replaced by other minerals, like calcite, silica,
pyrite, or iron
4. Carbonization or Coalification - The other elements are removed and only the carbon
remained
5. Recrystalization - Hard parts are converted to more stable minerals or small crystals turn
into larger crystals
6. Authigenic preservation - Molds and casts are formed after most of the organism have
been
7. destroyed or dissolved

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DATING FOSSILS

Knowing the age of a fossil can help a scientist establish its position in the geologic time scale
and find its relationship with the other fossils. There are two ways to measure the age of a fossil:
relative dating and absolute dating.

1. RELATIVE DATING
 Based upon the study of layer of rocks
 Does not tell the exact age: only compare fossils as older or younger, depends on their
position in rock layer
 Fossils in the uppermost rock layer/ strata are younger while those in the lowermost
deposition are oldest
How Relative Age is Determined
 Law of Superposition: if a layer of rock is undisturbed, the fossils found on upper layers
are younger than those found in lower layers of rocks
 However, because the Earth is active, rocks move and may disturb the layer making this
process not highly accurate

Rules of Relative Dating

(From: http://staff.harrisonburg.k12.va.us/~esutliff/forms/Relative_Dating_1334236393.ppt)

A. LAW OF SUPERPOSITION: Sedimentary layers are deposited in a specific time- youngest rocks
on top, oldest rocks at the bottom
B. LAW OF ORIGINAL HORIZONTALITY: Deposition of rocks happen horizontally- tilting, folding
or breaking happened recently

C. LAW OF CROSS-CUTTING RELATIONSHIPS: If an igneous intrusion or a fault cuts through

existing rocks, the intrusion/fault is YOUNGER than the rock it cuts through INDEX FOSSILS
(guide fossils/ indicator fossils/ zone fossils): fossils from short-lived organisms that lived in
many places; used to define and identify geologic periods

2. ABSOLUTE DATING
• Determines the actual age of the fossil
• Through radiometric dating, using radioactive isotopes carbon-14 and potassium-40
• Considers the half-life or the time it takes for half of the atoms of the radioactive
element to decay
• The decay products of radioactive isotopes is stable atoms.

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 ACTIVTY 1

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. The largest division of the geologic time scale is the

A. Eon
B. Era
C. Period
D. Epoch

2. The Mesozoic Era was the Age of Reptiles while the current
Cenozoic Era is the Age of
A. Mammals
B. Birds
C. Humans
D. Technology

3. The layers in sedimentary rocks are also called

A. eras
B. epochs
C. strata
D. gaps

4. The movie “Jurassic Park” got its title from which era?
A. Paleozoic
B. Mesozoic
C. Cenozoic
D. Holozoic

5. During which era were the first land plants formed?

A. Cambrian
B. Pre-Cambrian
C. Paleozoic
D. Mesozoic

6. The era of middle life, a time of many changes on Earth

A. Paleozoic
B. Mesozoic
C. Cenozoic
D. Holozoic

7. What is the longest part of Earth’s history where trace fossils

Appeared?
A. Pre-Cambrian
B. Paloezoic
C. Mesozoic
D. Cenozoic

8. The geologic time scale is subdivided into 4 groups. List them

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from the largest to the smallest.
A. Eons, periods, epochs, eras
B. Eras, eons, periods, epochs
C. Epochs, periods, eras, eons
D. Eons, eras, periods, epochs

9. The end of this era was believed to be caused by a comet or

asteroid colliding with Earth, causing a huge cloud of dust and
smoke to rise into the atmosphere, blocking out the sun.
A. Paleozoic
B. Holozoic
C. Mesozoic
D. Cenozoic

10. Which geologic event occurred during the Mesozoic era?

A. Pangaea formed
B. Asteroids killed the dinosaurs
C. The Rocky Mountains formed
D. The Pleistocene Ice Age began

RECOMMENDED READINGS

1.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-life-science-
2.0/section/4.13/primary/lesson/timeline-of-evolution-ms-ls/
2.https://flexbooks.ck12.org/cbook/ck-12-middle-school-earth-science-flexbook-
2.0/section/15.7/primary/lesson/geologic-time-scale-ms-es/
3.https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-earth-science-concepts-for-high-school/section/10.7/
3.https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/intro-to-biotech-
tutorial/a/intro-to-biotechnology

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 Pre-Activity

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE:

1. Natural Selection
2. Mitigation
3. Mutation
4. Genotype
5. Genetic Equilibrium
6. Genetic Variation
7. DNA Sequence
8. Genetic Drift

A Picture Paint a Thousand Words

1. Observe the two pictures and Recognize thesimilarities and the differences between
individuals or animals belonging to the same species.

https://www.dogalize.com/2016/12/dog-breeds/
https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/the-concept-of-race-is-a-lie/

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 Mechanisms that Produce
Change in Populations
INTRODUCTION:

 Hardy–Weinberg law The law that states that in an infinitely large, interbreeding
population in which mating is random and in which there is no selection, migration, or
mutation, gene and genotype frequencies will remain constant from generation to
generation. In practice these conditions are rarely strictly present, but unless any
departure is a marked one, there is no statistically significant movement away from
equilibrium. Consider a single pair of alleles, A and a, present in a diploid population
with frequencies of p and q respectively. Three genotypes are possible, AA, Aa, and aa,
and these will be present with frequencies of p2, 2pq, and q2 respectively.
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/biology-and-genetics/genetics-
and-genetic-engineering/hardy-weinberg-
law#:~:text=Hardy%E2%80%93Weinberg%20law%20The%20law,
generation%2C%20with%20no%20overlap%20between

 The five conditions that must be met for genetic equilibrium to occur include:

1. No mutation (change) in the DNA sequence.

2. No migration (moving into or out of a population).
3. A very large population size.
4. Random mating.
5. No natural selection.
https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-life-science-concepts-for-middle-school/section/4.9/

 The Hardy-Weinberg equation is a mathematical equation that can be used to calculate

the genetic variation of a population at equilibrium. The equation is an expression of the
principle known as Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, which states that the amount of
genetic variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in
the absence of disturbing factors.
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1

where p is the frequency of the "A" allele and q is the frequency of the "a" allele in the
population. In the equation, p2 represents the frequency of the homozygous genotype AA, q2
represents the frequency of the homozygous genotype aa, and 2pq represents the frequency of
the heterozygous genotype Aa. In addition, the sum of the allele frequencies for all the alleles
at the locus must be 1, so p + q = 1. If the p and q allele frequencies are known, then the
frequencies of the three genotypes may be calculated using the Hardy-Weinberg equation.

https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/hardy-weinberg-equation-
299/#:~:text=Science%20at%20Scitable-
,Hardy%2DWeinberg%20equation,In%201908%2C%20G.%20H.&text=If%20the%20p%20and%2
0q,using%20the%20Hardy%2DWeinberg%20equation.

 Natural selection, genetic drift, and gene flow are the mechanisms that cause changes in
allele frequencies over time. When one or more of these forces are acting in a

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 population, the population violates the Hardy-Weinberg assumptions, and evolution
occurs.
 Natural selection occurs when individuals with certain genotypes are more likely than
individuals with other genotypes to survive and reproduce, and thus to pass on their
alleles to the next generation. As Charles Darwin (1859) argued in On the Origin of
Species, if the following conditions are met, natural selection must occur:

1. There is variation among individuals within a population in some trait.

2. This variation is heritable (i.e., there is a genetic basis to the variation, such that
offspring tend to resemble their parents in this trait).
3. Variation in this trait is associated with variation in fitness (the average net
reproduction of individuals with a given genotype relative to that of individuals with
other genotypes).

 Mutation. Although mutation is the original source of all genetic variation, mutation rate
for most organisms is pretty low. So, the impact of brand-new mutations on allele
frequencies from one generation to the next is usually not large. (However, natural
selection acting on the results of a mutation can be a powerful mechanism of evolution!)

 Natural selection. Finally, the most famous mechanism of evolution! Natural selection
occurs when one allele (or combination of alleles of different genes) makes an organism
more or less fit, that is, able to survive and reproduce in a given environment. If an allele
reduces fitness, its frequency will tend to drop from one generation to the next. We will
look in detail at different forms of natural selection that occur in populations.

 Gene flow. Gene flow involves the movement of genes into or out of a population, due
to either the movement of individual organisms or their gametes (eggs and sperm, e.g.,
through pollen dispersal by a plant). Organisms and gametes that enter a population

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 may have new alleles, or may bring in existing alleles but in different proportions than
those already in the population. Gene flow can be a strong agent of evolution.


on-infinite population size (genetic drift). Genetic drift involves changes in allele
frequency due to chance events – literally, "sampling error" in selecting alleles for the
next generation. Drift can occur in any population of non-infinite size, but it has a
stronger effect on small populations. We will look in detail at genetic drift and the
effects of population size.

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/her/heredity-and-genetics/a/hardy-weinberg-
mechanisms-of-evolution

https://www.ck12.org/section/dna-technology/

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