Stoichiometry in Solution Reactions

One of the reactions that you will encounter in the laboratory

Section Objective:
is acid-base titration. Acid-base titrations are often carried out in
At the end of this section, aqueous solutions.
you should be able to:

1. Perform acid-base
titration to determine
concentration of
Activity: Titration
solutions and
2. Perform
Objective: To perform an acid-base titration
stoichiometric
calculations for
Materials: NaOH solution, HCl solution, phenolphthalein
reactions in solutions indicator solution, buret, beaker, Erlenmeyer flask, volumetric pipet,
funnel, dropper, googles, gloves and clean white paper
Procedure:
1. Clean and dry all glassware, and assemble them as demonstrated by your teacher. Put on
your goggles and hand gloves.
2. Fill your buret with the sodium hydroxide solution of known concentration up to the
0.00-mL mark. Use a small beaker to avoid spillage. Do not overfill the buret.
3. Be sure that the solution in the buret is free from air bubbles and that the buret is free
from leaks.
4. Practice using the valve control of the buret. Allow some of the base solution or titrant to
drip into a beaker to ensure that the buret tip is filled with the solution. Rinse out the
beaker when you are done and dry before using.
5. Read the volume of the base solution in the buret and record with the proper number of
significant figures in your laboratory notb0ok. Record exactly as you read it; do not
subtract from the total volume of the buret. Record also the exact concentration of the
NaOH solution.
6. From the flask marked "Unknown HCl" in the laboratory, dispense exactly 10.0 mL of
hydrochloric acid solution to a 250-mL Erlenmeyer flask using a volumetric pipet.
7. Add two or three drops of phenolphthalein indicator to the solution and mix well by
gently swirling the flask.
7. Add the titrant or base solution, drop by drop, to the acid solution in the flask Swirling
after each drop. You can observe the indicator change color when the base solution hits
the surface of the solution being titrated and the color disappears upon swirling. As the
endpoint is approached, observe the change of color after addition of each drop of the
titrant and stop adding when the solution in the flask becomes permanently tinted (the
color does not disappear upon swirling). To see the color change easily, keep a sheet of
clean white paper under the flask during titration. Record the final volume of the base
solution in the buret. (Note: A buret measures the amount of liquid dispensed.)
8. Repeat for a total of three trials.
 Data
Trial # 1 Trial # 2 Trial # 3 Trial #4
Vi of HCl __________ __________ __________ __________ mL
Vf of HCl __________ __________ __________ __________ mL
Vi of NaOH __________ __________ __________ __________ mL
Vf of NaOH __________ __________ __________ __________ mL
[NaOH] __________ __________ __________ __________ M

Questions:
1. Write the balanced equation for the reaction of sodium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid.
Include the correct products.
2. Calculate the average concentration of the acid. Part of your grade will be based on how
accurate and precise your results are. (Attach all sample calculations for Trial #1)
3. Why are aqueous solutions used in this laboratory activity?
4. What did you observe as you added each drop of base to the solution?
5. How many moles of sodium hydroxide would be required to neutralize 1.5 mole of
hydrochloric acid?
6. How many millimoles of acid are present in 150 mL of 2.0 M HCI solution? 4 5 6.

Titration is carried out to obtain the unknown concentration of a solution. A solution whose
concentration is known, called a standard solution, is added to the solution of an unknown
concentration until the chemical reaction between the standard and unknown solution is complete.
If the volumes of the solutions are known, then the concentration of the unknown solution can be
calculated.
In an acid-base titration, the standard solution can be a strong base, or a strong acid, depending
on the nature of the unknown solution. A pH indicator is used to signal the completion of the acid-
base reaction. The pH indicator changes color to indicate completion of the reaction, which is the
end point of the titration.
In an acid-base neutralization reaction, it is important to note the relationship between the
number of moles of the acid and the base at the completion of the reaction. This is called the
equivalence point Let us consider the reaction between a monoprotic acid and a monobasic base,
like HCl and NaOH,
Let us consider the reaction between a monoprotic acid and a monobasic base, like HCl
and NaOH,
𝐻𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

At the equivalence point, that is, when the reaction is complete,

𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 = 𝑛𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
 We can express the number of moles, n, of the standard solution as the product of its
concentration (expressed in terms of molarity, M), and the volume, V, used in the titration.
Choosing the base as the standard solution for this example.
𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 = 𝑀𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙
We can also express the number of moles of the unknown solution as the product of its
concentration and volume.
𝑀𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑉𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝑀𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙
Then rearranging the equation, we get
𝑀𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑉𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙
𝑀𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 =
𝑉𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛

Sample Problem
In a titration, you found that 50.00 mL solution requires 25.00 ml of 1.00 M NaOH. What
is the concentration of the hydrochloric acid solution?

Solution:
The balanced equation for the acid-base neutralization reaction is:
𝐻𝐶𝑙 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 + 𝐻2 𝑂
Based on the balanced equation, you can see that the stoichiometric ratio between HCl and
NaOH is 1:1. Hence, the molar ratio indicates that at the equivalent point,
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑎𝑜ℎ
𝑀𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑉𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 𝑀𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑉𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝑀𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑉𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻
𝑀𝐻𝐶𝑙 =
𝑉𝐻𝐶𝑙
25.00 𝑚𝐿 𝑥 1.00 𝑀
𝑀𝐻𝐶𝑙 =
50.00 𝑚𝐿
𝑀𝐻𝐶𝑙 = 0.50 𝑀
What do you think happens when the stoichiometric ratio between the acid and the base is
not 1:1 like the one between the HCL and NaOH? Try solving the following problem. Write first
the balanced equation for the reaction and determine the molar ratio between the acid and the base
at the equivalent point.
Practice Problem:
A 33-mL solution of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is completely neutralized by 28 mL of 1.5 M
NaOH solution. What is the concentration of the H2SO4 solution?

Dilution
Often, solutions need to be diluted to conserve samples. In the dilution process, we take a
measured volume of a solution of known high concentration and mix it with a measured volume
of the solvent to yield another solution of lower concentration that we refer to as a dilute solution.
Take note that the number of moles of the solute in the concentrated solution equals the number
of moles of the solute in the dilute solution since only more solvent was added to the concentrated
solution. This condition can be described by the equation:
moles of solute in concentrated solution = moles of solute in dilute solution
𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 = 𝑀𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 =
𝑀𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
Sample Problem:
You are asked to titrate 60 mL of 0.5 M KOH using 1 M HCl. However, only 12 M of HCl
is available, so you prepared 100 mL of 1 M HCl first. How much 12 M HCl do you need for the
titration? Is the prepared amount of standard solution enough?
Solution:
Note that when diluting solutions, the number of moles of solute does not change. Hence,
𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 = 𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 = 𝑀𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑉𝑑𝑖𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐 =
𝑀𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑐
1 𝑀 𝑥 0.1 𝐿
=
12𝑀
= 0.00833 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 8.33 𝑚𝐿
𝑀𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑉𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑀𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙 =
𝑀𝑠𝑡𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙
0.5 𝑀 𝐾𝑂𝐻 𝑥 60 𝑚𝐿
=
1 𝑀 𝐻𝐶𝑙
= 30 𝑚𝐿
Answer: the amount of standard solution is enough.

Factors Affecting Solubility

Have you ever tried preparing a concentrated

Section Objectives
At the end of this section,
you should be able to:
1. enumerate factors that affect
solubility;
2. explain the effect of
temperature on the solubility
of a solid and of a gas
3. explain the effect of pressure
on the solubility of a gas; and
4. explain natural Occurrences
using knowledge about
solubility.
milk solution using cold water? What have you
observed? Have you looked inside a kettle or thermos
bottle? Did you see the white flakes that line the sides
of the pot and at the bottom? All of these can be
explained by studying the factors that affect solubility.
When going through this section, remember your
lessons on kinetic molecular theory and interparticle
forces.
Solubility refers to the maximum quantity of
solute that can dissolve in a given quantity of solvent
at a given temperature. The variation of solubility for
compounds is dependent on several factors.

Activity: More Sugar?

Objective: To investigate the effect of temperature on the solubility of sugar in water
Materials: 100 mL of distilled water, sugar, hot plate or Bunsen burner, spatula, thermometer,
and weighing scale (optional)
Procedure:
1. Measure 100 mL of distilled water at room temperature and record its temperature.
2. By means of a spatula, add sugar in a small amount at a time to the water while stirring the
solution after each addition of sugar, until the sugar no longer dissolves.
3. Heat the solution to 50'C. Record your observation. Add more sugar to the solution until
the sugar no longer dissolves. Stir after each addition.
4. Repeat step 3 at 60°C and 70'C. Record your observations. For a more quantitative
approach to the experiment, add sugar in 5-gram increments.

In the activity, we have explored the effect of temperature on the solubility of sugar in
water. We have observed that warm water dissolves more sugar than cold water and hot water
dissolves the greatest amount of sugar. From these observations we can infer that for the
dissolution of sugar in water, solubility increases as temperature increases. However, this is not
the case in the dissolution processes of all solids in liquids. In some solution processes, solubility
decreases as temperature increases. Figure 5.5 shows a graph of the solubility of some compounds

in water at different temperatures. We can observe that to some compounds like Na 2SO4 and
Ce2(SO4)3 solubility in water decreases as the temperature rises.

The different effects of temperature on solubility can be explained in terms of the energy
involved in the dissolution process. The formation of a solution involves breaking the solute-solute
interaction and solvent-solvent interaction that involves application of energy (E solute-solute and
Esolvent-solvent, respectively) and forming solute-solvent interaction that requires the release of energy
(Esolute-solvent). The overall energy requirement for the dissolution process depends on the
relationship between energy applied and energy released during the process. In liquid solutions,
the Elutg-solute is much greater than the Esolute-solute 5O that only the Esolvent-solvent considered. When
the forces of interaction between solute particles are stronger than the forces of interaction between
solute and solvent particles, energy absorbed (Esolute-solute greater than energy released (Esolute-solvent
and the dissolution process requires energy. This means that application of more energy dissolves
more solute and as temperature increases, solubility increases.
On the other hand, when solute-solvent interaction is stronger than solute-solute
interaction, energy released (Esolute-solvent greater than energy absorbed (Esolute-solute) and the
dissolution process releases energy. This means that the release or removal of more energy
dissolves more solute and as temperature increases, solubility decreases.

Activity: Bubble, Bubble, Cauldron Trouble!

Objective: To determine the effect of temperature on the solubility of gasses

Materials: dark colored soda/softdrinks, three 10-mL test tubes with stoppers, beakers,
graduated cylinder, water at room temperature, ice-cold water, and hot water
Procedure:
 1. Fill at least half of three tubes with the same amount of soda. Put a stopper the test tube.
2. Prepare three water baths: cold, room, temperature, and hot (not higher than
approximately 40℃).
3. Invert a cork-screwed test tube in each water bath. Observe the rate of bubble formation
in each beaker. Note also the amount of gas at the top of each test tube.

Questions:
1. In which test tube is the rate of bubble formation the fastest? The slowest?
2. In which test tube did you observe the formation of greatest amount of gas?
3. What are possible explanations for your observations??

We have learned about the effect of temperature on the solubility of solids. Now, we will
study its effect on the solubility of gas.
The solubility of gas in water decreases as the temperature increases. In the previous activity,
bubbles formed more vigorously in the test tube submerged in the hot water bath than in the cold
water bath. We can also observe this phenomenon when we boil water. The bubbles forming in
the water before the water boils are not water but the gases that were dissolved in the water. Gas
bubbles come out because gas molecules gain more energy as the water is heated.
The white scales, also known as limescale, on the bottom of kettles and thermos bottles are also
caused by carbon dioxide gas bubbling out of hot water. Hard water contains calcium ions,
bicarbonate ions, and carbonate ions. These ions occur in equilibrium and the reaction equation
is shown below.

Ca2++2HCO 3⇌ Ca2++CO32-+CO2+H2O
 The carbon dioxide in the equation is dissolved in water. As the water is heated, carbon
dioxide bubbles off and calcium carbonate which forms the white scales precipitates Out o the
solution.
How do you think limescale can be removed from the kettle or thermos bottle? Limescale
may be removed with vinegar. Pour vinegar into the kettle or thermos bottle and let it stand for
several hours or overnight. In the morning, dump the vinegar in a pail and le to get it off. Why do
you think vinegar can remove limescale? Study the chemical equation below to answer wash the
kettle in hot soapy water. You can brush the stubborn limes the question.
CaCO3 (limescale) + HC2H3O2 (vinegar) → Ca(C2H3O2)2 +H2O +CO2
Another factor to consider in studying solubility is pressure. The effect of pressure on the
solubility of solids and liquids is negligible, but its effect on the solubility of gases is significant.

Activity: Pop!
Objective: To investigate the effect of pressure on the solubility of gasses.
Materail: An unopened plastic bottle of carbonated drink
Procedure:
1. Take the bottle of carbonated drink and try to squeeze it. Observe how the bottle feels. Observe
also the rate of bubble formation. Record your observations.
2. Carefully open the bottle and let the gas escape. Reseal the cap and try to squeeze the bottle
again. Now, observe the rate of bubble formation. Record your observations.
When carbonated drinks are bottled, they are pressurized; that is why they are hard to squeeze.
Pressurizing the bottles prevent the carbon dioxide from escaping the solution. the solubility of a
gas in a liquid is proportional to the pressure of the gas over the solution. This relationship between
gas solubility and pressure is known as Henrys law, which was formulated by an English chemist
named William Henry in 1803. The mathematical statement is given by:
c∞P
c = kP
Where c is the molar concentration (mol/L) of the dissolved gas, P is the pressure (in atm/ of
the gas over the solution, and k Is the constant for the given gas-where k depends mainly on
temperature, and has the units mol/L atm. lake note that when there is more than one gas present,
P is the partial pressure. what do you notice when P is 1 atm?
Sample Problem:
Calculate the molar concentration of nitrogen in water at 25℃ for a partial pressure of atm.
0.78 atm. The Henry's law constant for nitrogen at this temperature is 6.8x 10 -4 mol/L ∙ atm.
Using the equation,
c= kP
c =(6.8 x 10-4 mol/L atm) (0.78 atm)
c =5.3 x 10-4 mol/L
c =5.3 x 10-4 M
The kinetic molecular theory can explain Henry's law. The gas above a solution is in a
dynamic equilibrium with the gas dissolved in the liquid. In other words, the amount of gas
molecules entering the liquid is the same amount as that leaving the liquid. When the pressure is
increased, more gas molecules hit the surface of the liquid increasing the chances of the gas
dissolving in the liquid.
Another application of Henry's law is when divers resurface slowly after diving. Divers
use pressurized air tanks to be able to breathe underwater. Due to increased pressure, gases such
as nitrogen easily dissolve in the blood and other body fluids. When resurfacing, the decrease in
pressure allows the dissolved gases to be released out of the blood. If the resurfacing is done
rapidly, the gases can form bubbles in blood vessels that can block the vessels.
Not all gases follow Henry's law. Gases that react with the solvent dissolve more. For
example, carbon dioxide reacts with water to form carbonic acid and it dissolves to a greater extent
than what Henry's law predicts.

Reference:

General Chemistry 2 (First Edition)

Authors:
Luciana V. Ilao
Betty M. Lontoc
Edwehna Ellinore S. Paderna-Gayon
Coordinator:
Josefina Gironella-Belen