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Last Minute Notes – Theory of Computation

Difficulty Level : Medium ● Last Updated : 28 Jun, 2021

See L ast Minute Notes on all subject s here.

We will discuss the important key points useful for GATE exams in summarized form. For details you may refer
this.

Finite Automata: It is used to recognize patterns of specific type input. It is the most restricted type of automata
which can accept only regular languages (languages which can be expressed by regular expression using OR (+),
Concatenation (.), Kleene Closure(*) like a*b*, (a+b) etc.)

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Deterministic FA and Non-Deterministic FA: In deterministic FA, there is only one move from every state on
every input symbol but in Non-Deterministic FA, there can be zero or more than one move from one state for an DSA Self Paced Course
input symbol.
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Note:

Language accepted by NDFA and DFA are same. DSA Live Classes for Working
Power of NDFA and DFA is same. Professionals
No. of states in NDFA is less than or equal to no. of states in equivalent DFA. View Details
For NFA with n-states, in worst case, the maximum states possible in DFA is 2n
Every NFA can be converted to corresponding DFA.

Identities of Regular Expression :

Φ+R=R+Φ=R
Φ*R=R*Φ=Φ
ε*R=R*ε=R
ε* = ε
Φ* = ε
ε + RR* = R*R + ε = R*

(a+b)* = (a* + b*)* = (a* b*)* = (a* + b)* = (a + b*)* = a*(ba*)* = b*(ab*)*

Moore Machine: Moore machines are finite state machines with output value and its output depends only on
present state.
Mealy Machine: Mealy machines are also finite state machines with output value and its output depends on
present state and current input symbol.
 

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Push Down Automata: Pushdown Automata has extra memory called stack which gives more power than Finite MOST POPULAR IN THEORY OF
automata. It is used to recognize context free languages. COMPUTATION & AUTOMATA
 

Difference between Mealy machine and Moore

Deterministic and Non-Deterministic PDA: In deterministic PDA, there is only one move from every state on machine
every input symbol but in Non-Deterministic PDA, there can be more than one move from one state for an input
symbol. Minimization of DFA

DFA machines accepting odd number of 0’s or/and

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Introduction of Pushdown Automata

Closure properties of Regular languages

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Note:

Power of NPDA is more than DPDA.

It is not possible to convert every NPDA to corresponding DPDA.
Language accepted by DPDA is subset of language accepted by NPDA.
The languages accepted by DPDA are called DCFL (Deterministic Context Free Languages) which are
subset of NCFL (Non Deterministic CFL) accepted by NPDA.

Linear Bound Automata: Linear Bound Automata has finite amount of memory called tape which can be used
to recognize Context Sensitive Languages.

LBA is more powerful than Push down automata.

FA < PDA < LBA < TM

Turing Machine: Turing machine has infinite size tape and it is used to accept Recursive Enumerable Languages.

Turing Machine can move in both directions. Also, it doesn’t accept ε . MORE RELATED ARTICLES IN THEORY
If the string inserted in not in language, machine will halt in non-final state. OF COMPUTATION & AUTOMATA
 

Mealy and Moore Machines in TOC

Deterministic and Non-Deterministic Turing Machines: In deterministic turing machine, there is only one
move from every state on every input symbol but in Non-Deterministic turing machine, there can be more than Program to Implement NFA with epsilon move to DFA
one move from one state for an input symbol. Conversion
Note: Turing Machine in TOC
Language accepted by NTM, multi-tape TM and DTM are same.
Power of NTM, Multi-Tape TM and DTM is same.
Conversion of Epsilon-NFA to NFA
Every NTM can be converted to corresponding DTM.
Converting Context Free Grammar to Chomsky Normal
Form
 

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Chomsky Classification of Languages:

Grammar Production Rules Language Automata Closed Under

Type Accepted

Type-3 A→a or A→aB Regular Finite Union,

(Regular where A,B ∈ Automata Intersection,
Grammar) N(non terminal) Complementation,
and Concatenation,
a∈T(Terminal) Kleene Closure

Type-2 A→ρ where A ∈ Context Free Push Down Union,

(Context N Automata Concatenation,
Free Kleene Closure
and ρ ∈ (T∪N)*
Grammar)

Type-1 α→β where α, β∈ Context Linear Bound Union,

*
(Context (T∪N) and Sensitive Automata Intersection,
Sensitive len(α) <= len(β) Complementation,
Grammar) and α should Concatenation,
contain atleast 1 Kleene Closure
non terminal.

Type-0 α →β where α, β Recursive Turing Union,

(Recursive ∈ (T∪N)* and α Enumerable Machine Intersection,
Enumerable) contains atleast 1 Concatenation,
non-terminal Kleene Closure

Relationship between these can be represented as:

Decidable and Undecidable Problems:

A language is Decidable or Recursive if a Turing machine can be constructed which accepts the strings which
are part of language and rejects others. e.g.; A number is prime or not is a decidable problem.

A language is Semi–Decidable or Recursive Enumerable if a turing machine can be constructed which accepts
the strings which are part of language and it may loop forever for strings which are not part of language.

A problem is undecidable if we can’t construct an algorithms and Turing machine which can give yes or no
answer. e.g.; Whether a CFG is ambiguous or not is undecidable.

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Countability :

Set of all strings over any finite alphabet are countable.

Every subset of countable set is either finite or countable.
Set of all Turing Machines are countable.
The set of all languages that are not recursive enumerable is Uncountable.

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Computable and non-computable Automata Theory | Set 2

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