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HYDROLOGY AND WATER RESOURCE

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPTT. CUST

MANAGEMENT
CE3543

Lecture 3
Meteorology

By Engr. Syed Shuja-ul-Hassan

Lecturer

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Revision|Macro Level Water Resource

Management|
• Dams for irrigation and power production
• Rivers
• Barrages for water storage
• Canals for water transportation
• Irrigation channels
Environmental Impact Challenges:
1. Ecological systems around major rivers is destroyed
2. Floods
3. Habitat for migratory birds is threatened.
4. Some animal and bird species disappeared.
5. Amphibian species are at the verge of extinct. Crocodiles etc.

Water Resources |Macro Level Water

Resource Management|
Total Area: 7,96096 Sq Km
• Total Population: 200 million
• Administrative units : 4
Provinces
• Total Number of Rivers: 60
• Total number Dams: 67
• Length of Canals: 56073 km
• Largest River: Indus River
3200KM
(With total annual flow of
207 billion cubic meters of water
annually)
KEY FACTS
No. of major Reservoirs: 3
No. of Barrages: 17
No. of Headworks: 2
No. of Inter-link Canals: 12
No. of Canal Systems: 44
Length of Canals: 56,073 km

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Water Resources |Micro Level Water

Resource Management|
• Public water supply system for Domestic use.
• Irrigation channels.
• Industrial us e.g. tanning of hides, chemical plants, fertilizer
companies etc.

Environmental Impact Challenges:

1. Scarcity of public water supply systems.
2. Direct pumping of underground water.
3. Lowering of underground water table
4. Waste water management.
5. Waste water treatment.

Water Resources |Water Resource

Management|
Environmental Impacts:
1. Due to water storage in dames, ecosystem around rivers is destroyed.
2. Dams result in to massive floods in summer when glaciers melt.
3. Floods in two rainy seasons due to dam overflow.
4. Reduction in life of dams by earth filling.
5. Glaciers are melting due to global warming which is also causing
unusual floods.
6. Water table in urban areas is dropping quickly.
7. Due to lining of water channels underground water table is dropping.
8. Water bodies in Pakistan are habitat to migratory birds in winter.
9. Millions of cubic meters of water is wasted to flow to the oceans.

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Water Resources |Water Resource

Management|
Improvements:
1. Small dams at the tail of river should be planned.
2. Restoration of rivers to their natural flow.
3. Water supply companies should only be permitted to extract ground
water.
4. Only licensed water extraction should be allowed to industries.
5. No lining of water channels near urban areas so that underground
water table recharge.
6. Water bodies in Pakistan are habitat to migratory birds should me
monitored.
7. Water storage to stop wastage of water.
8. Modern methods of irrigation should be adopted.
9. Education of masses about water conservation.
10.Local production and lowering of technical equipment.

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• The science related to atmosphere and its phenomena.

• From book by Aristotle (340 B.C.) called Meteorological which explored

everything known about weather and climate at that time (as well as
chemistry, astronomy and geography).

• At that time, all substances that fell from the sky were called meteors

• Falling objects from outside the atmosphere (meteoroids) and water and
ice particles falling from clouds within the atmosphere (hydrometeors)

 Important for estimation of precipitation and its formation, required for

regional climate processes and design.

Meteorology
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Atmosphere
• The gaseous envelope around the earth. It
consists of dry air, water vapor and various
kinds of salts and dusts.

• 99% of the atmosphere lies within 19 miles

(30 km) of earth s surface (piece of
paper covering a ball).

 Shields surface inhabitants from dangerous

radiant energy (e.g. ultraviolet from the sun).

 Becomes thinner with increasing altitude

eventually merging with outer space

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Troposphere

• It is the zone of atmosphere adjacent to earth.

It extends approximately up to seven miles
above sea level.

• Almost 100 % of the total moisture contents

of the atmosphere are present in this zone and
there is comparatively high temperature
gradient in this part of atmosphere.

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Vapor Pressure
• It is the pressure exerted by the amount of water vapors present in the
atmosphere. It is usually denoted by “e or ea” and expressed in millibars,
pascals (Pa) or Kilo‐Pascals (KPa). (1 millibar =100 pascals)

• Since the temperature of water vapor is the same as that of the air in the
atmosphere, the maximum amount of water vapor may be said to depend
on the air temperature.

• The higher the temperature, the more vapor can the atmospheric air hold

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• The air can only “hold” a certain number of water vapor molecules before
they become so crowded together that they start sticking together to form
liquid water droplets

• When the air reaches this point it is said to be “saturated”

 The amount of water vapor molecules (vapor pressure) that the air can
“hold” or the air’s water vapor capacity is called the saturation vapor
pressure (SVP)

 It is denoted by ‘es’.

Saturation Vapor Pressure

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Saturation Vapor Pressure

• In warm air, the molecules are moving fast, so they collide and readily
bounce off each other, making it difficult for them to stick together.

• In cold air, the molecules are moving slow, making it easier for them to
stick together when they collide.

• Therefore, saturation vapor pressure is

dependent upon the air temperature,
with cold air being able to hold less
water vapor before becoming saturated
(lower saturation vapor pressure) than
warm air

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 These are the lines joining points of same atmospheric pressure at a given
elevation.

 The horizontaldistribution of pressure is generally shown on weather charts

by isobars.

• The spacing between isobars is a measure of the pressure gradient.

Isobars
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Relative Humidity
• Relative humidity does not measure the actual amount of water vapor in
the atmosphere.

• It is a measure of how close the air is to being saturated.

• Relative Humidity (RH) is the ratio of the amount of water vapor actually
in the air to the maximum amount of water vapor required for saturation at
that particular temperature

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• In other words, RH is a ratio of air’s water vapor content to its capacity:

𝑒𝑎
• 𝑅𝐻 = × 100𝑅𝐻
𝑒𝑠

• Air with 50% RH contains only half the amount of water vapor necessary
for saturation and air with 100% RH is fully saturated

Relative Humidity
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 When the air is cooled at a constant atmospheric pressure, the temperature

at which air becomes saturated is called Dew point.

• The dew point is the temperature at which water vapor present in the
atmosphere will condense if the air is cooled.

Dew Point
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Measurement of Relative Humidity

• The instruments used for measurements of relative humidity are:

 Psychrometer

 Hair hygrometer

 Hygrograph

 Thermo‐hygrograph

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• Psychrometer consists of two thermometers

 Dry bulb thermometer

 Wet bulb thermometer.

• The mercury bulb of wet bulb thermometer is covered by a jacket of clean

muslin cloth saturated with water.

• This is done by putting a beaker with distilled water underneath so that the
bulb is not submerged in water but only the cloth.

• Then water rises due to capillary action.

Measurement of Relative Humidity

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 The thermometers are

ventilated by whirling
or by use of a fan.

 As a result of evaporation
cooling takes place.
Readings are taken on
both the thermometers
simultaneously

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• The dry bulb reading is denoted as Ta and wet bulb reading as Tw. The
difference of these two temperatures is called the wet bulb depression.

 i.e. Ta‐Tw=Wet bulb depression

• Using these readings, the relative humidity can be found from the
psychrometer tables.

Measurement of Relative Humidity

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• The value of ‘ea’ for air temperature ‘Ta’ may be obtained by the relation

( es – ea ) =γ ( Ta ‐ Tw )
or
ea = es – γ (Ta –Tw )

• Where γ =psychrometer constant and its value is 0.660 when ‘ea’ is

measured in millibar units and 0.485 when it is measured in units of
‘mm of Hg’.

Measurement of Relative Humidity

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Measurement of Relative Humidity

 Given the air temperature as Ta = 24o C and the wet bulb temperature Tw =
21o C. Find relative humidity and dew point.
• Solution

Wet bulb depression = 24 ‐ 21 = 3o C.

From table A‐1, Appendix‐A, we get,
For Ta = 24 oC, es = 22.27 mm of Hg
For Tw = 21 oC ew = 18.65 mm of Hg

ea = 18.65‐0.485(3) = 17.20 mm of Hg
Relative humidity = [ 17.20 / 22.27 ] x 100 = 77 %
• And the dew point is the temperature read from Table A‐1 of
Appendix‐A corresponding to ‘ea ’ whichis 19.7oC.

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• The hair hygrometer consists of a frame in which a strand of hair is kept at

approximately constant tension.

• Changes in length of the hair corresponding to changes in relative

humidity are transmitted to a pointer.

 This instrument is seldom used for meteorological purposes, but it is an

inexpensive humidity indicator and is often found in homes and offices.

Measurement of Relative Humidity

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hair hygrometer

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 The hair hygrograph is essentially a hair hygrometer, but is automatic

recording instrument.

 The movement of hair activates a pen, which records on a rotating drum.

 The hygrothermograph combines the registration of both relative humidity

and temperature on one record sheet.

Measurement of Relative Humidity

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 The only source of heat energy for earth system is the sun. Whatever
heat is received by earth or reflected is the solar energy.

• Depending upon the shape, rotation, angle of inclination of earth, it is

visualized that solar energy received by earth is changing from time to
time and point to point.

Solar Radiation
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Solar Radiation
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• Solar energy received by sun is the maximum at the equator and decreases
pole‐wards. The variations in solar energy are the following:

 Diurnal Variation

 Seasonal Variation

 Regional Variation.

Solar Radiation
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Solar Radiation
• The units for radiation flux per unit area are either joules per square
centimeters or milliwatt hours per square centimeter.

• In some countries calories per square centimeters is designated as Langley

and the corresponding unit of radiation flux is Langley per minute.

 Pyrheliometer and Pyranometer is used for measurement.

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Temperature

• The degree of hotness or coldness is called the temperature. Its units of

measurement are Degree Centigrade ( °C ) or Degree Fahrenheit ( °F ).

• There are three types of temperature variations.

 Daily Variation of Temperature

 Seasonal Variation

 Regional Variation of Temperature

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Daily Variation of Temperature

 The daily variation of temperature is dependent on the elevation of the
sun, the cloud cover and the wind speed.

 The variation of temperature is large in low latitudes and small in high

latitudes, with the result that the daily variation decreases from equator
towards poles.

 The clouds reduce the radiations coming down during the day and
outgoing radiations during the night. On a cloudy day, the maximum
temperature is lower and the minimum temperature higher than on normal
bright days.

 On windy days the temperature on ground surface is lower than on calm

days, because the greater mobility of air along the vertical axis results in
greater heat exchange with the upper atmospheric layers.

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Seasonal Variation
 The seasonal variation in rainfall and wind also affect the temperature.

 During the rainy season, the cloud cover is large with the result that less
radiation is received by the earth.

 Annual migration of vast masses of air also brings about horizontal heat
exchange and thus affects the annual range of temperature variation.

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Regional Variation of Temperature

 Since the amount of net radiation decreases with increasing latitude, the
temperature tends to be highest at the equator and decreases towards the
poles.

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• The temperature is measured with the help of thermometers. There are two
types of thermometers ‐

 Maximum Thermometer (Mercury Type thermometer)

 Minimum Thermometer (Alcoholic type thermometer).

• In order to measure the air temperature properly, thermometers must be placed

where air circulation is relatively unobstructed and yet they must be protected
from the direct sunrays and from precipitation.

• Therefore thermometers are placed in white, louvered, wooden boxes, called

instrument shelters. These shelters are set about 4.5 feet above the ground.

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Four commonly used terms of temperature are:

 Mean Daily Temperature

 Normal Daily Temperature

 Mean Monthly Temperature

 Mean Annual Temperature

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Mean Daily Temperature

 It is the average of maximum and minimum temperatures during the past 24

hours.

Normal Daily Temperature

 It is the average daily mean temperature for a given day over the past 30‐years
period i. e. it is the mean temperature for a specific day

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Mean Monthly Temperature

 It is the average of the mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures

or it is the mean temperature of the mean daily temperatures during the
month.

Mean Annual Temperature

 It is the mean temperature of 12 months.

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Lapse Rate
• The lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient is defined as the change in
temperature per unit distance in the vertical direction from the Earth
surface.

• The average value of the lapse rate is 3.6oF per 1000 ft.

• The greatest variation in lapse rate is found in the layer of air just above
the land surface. The lapse rates are of three types depending upon the
type of water vapors.

 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

 Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 Pseudo‐Adiabatic Lapse Rate

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 It is the rate of change of temperature when air is not fully saturated with
water vapors

 The average value of this is 17.71oF per km.

Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

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• When air is fully saturated, then rate of change of temperature is called

wet adiabatic, lapse rate.

• Its average value is 9.84o F per km.

Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic Lapse Rate

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 After condensed particles have fallen down fully, as after a rainfall, then the
rate of change of temperature is called pseudo‐adiabatic lapse rate.

 Its average value is also 9.84o F per 1,000m.

Pseudo‐Adiabatic Lapse Rate

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 A parcel of air has a temperature of 50o F on surface of the earth. At a

height of 2,000 m the air becomes saturated. Rainfall occurs and air again
becomes dry on the leeward side of a mountain. Find out temperature of
this parcel of air, at an altitude of 2,500 m on leeward side of the hill.
Height of hill is 3,000 m.

Lapse Rate Numerical

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Solution:

 Temperature at 2,000 m = 50 ‐ ( 17.72x2000/1000)

= 50 – 35.44
= 14.56oF
 Temperature at 3,000 m = 14.56 ‐ ( 9.84x1000/1000 )
o
= 4.72 F

 Temperature on the
leeward side at 2,500 m = 4.72+ (9.84 x500/1000)
= 9.64oF

Lapse Rate Numerical

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sources of water for human use;

How are they usually recharged and give example of source in nearby area

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Monsoon System in
Pakistan

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• In summer, when the land warms much faster than the oceans an area of
low pressures develops over land and high pressure at sea.

• The reverse is the case during winter season. Therefore, winds move from
sea to land during summer and from land to sea during winter. Winds
which undergo seasonal changes of direction in this way are called
monsoon winds.

• These winds, and for that matter any other wind system are modified
considerably when there exist extensive mountain ranges.

Monsoon System in Pakistan

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Monsoon System in Pakistan

• In winter over Indo‐Pak Sub‐continent and central part of Asia (slightly
towards eastern shores of Asia) a ‘High’ is established.

• North easterly winds blow over most of the eastern shores of Asia and
India.

• These are called the North ‐ East Monsoons.

• These winds are cold and dry and thus give fair weather to the area over
which these blow.

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Monsoon System in Pakistan

• In summer a ‘Low’ is established over North‐West part of Indo‐Pak Sub
continent due to heating of the arid land‐tracts while the air in the
southern hemisphere cools.

• Over India and Pakistan, the wind blows from southwest and is known as
South ‐ West Monsoon.

• This is a very damp air as it originates from Indian Ocean. It actually

starts from the southern hemisphere and after crossing the equator reaches
the Sub‐continent as a southwesterly wind.

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Monsoon System in Pakistan

• In Pakistan the summer monsoon sets in by June, but its effect over the
central areas and the sub‐mountain districts becomes well pronounced by
the third week of July.

• The monsoon remains effective over the area till the end of September,
sometime extending to the second week of October.

• Prior to the onset of monsoon, Pakistan is very dry and the maximum
temperature crosses 110oF over the plains and the dew point temperature
starts rising as soon as the monsoon invades Pakistan.

• By the beginning of June, a “low” establishes over Hyderabad, Khairpur,

Multan and Sibi Divisions, which to some extent, is responsible for the
onset of South‐West monsoon over the sub‐continent.

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Monsoon System in Pakistan

 The south‐westerlies are predominant over the southern areas of Pakistan

 The monsoon air requires lifting of 3 to 4 thousands feet to cause thunder

showers. There being no barrier of such a height for these south‐westerlies,
the southern area of Pakistan goes dry, though the monsoon current
remains active during June to September.

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Western Disturbances

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Western Disturbances
• The western disturbances are important air masses, for most of the winter
season in Pakistan and Northern India.

• Since these disturbances approach from the west, it is for this reason that these
are locally called western disturbances.

• These originate from the Mediterranean Sea and move in an easterly or north ‐
easterly direction. They have warm and cold fronts but by the time these reach
Pakistan, these are so diffused together that it is difficult to distinguish them
on surface synoptic charts. However they can be identified on the upper‐air
charts.

 During the winter these move at lower latitudes and reach northern part of
Pakistan, but in summer these move in higher latitudes through Russian
Turkistan.

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Western Disturbances

 Some times these accentuate the monsoon depressions in the summer and
cause heavy rainfall in the sub‐ mountain districts, such as Sialkot, Jhelum
and Rawalpindi. (as in 2010)

• The effect of these disturbances is well pronounced from December to

March. Normally light rain or drizzle is associated with them, but in case
of active disturbances, thundershower over northern and central
divisions of Pakistan may occur.

• A western disturbances appearing over Turkey takes about 7‐8 days to

reach Pakistan.

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Western Disturbances

 The western disturbances also produce secondary disturbance moving over

the Persian Gulf and over the Arabian Sea.

 The secondary wave also moves to Pakistan and causes lot of weather over
the entire Pakistan. During Western Disturbances over Pakistan,the winds
are normally Westerlies or North‐Westerlies.

 Sometimes the secondary wave continues moving in an easterly direction

along the coast while the primary is affecting Peshawar and D.I. Khan
Divisions.

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Wind Measurement

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Wind Measurement

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Wind Measurement
• Wind speed is measured with an instrument called Anemometer.

• This instrument gives continuous record over some graph called

Anemograph.

• A very well known Anemometer is Dynes Apparatus. It gives reading in

miles of total wind movement in 24 hours.

• Wind has both speed and direction. Wind direction is the direction from
which wind is blowing.

• Wind speed is usually given in miles per hour, meters per second or knots.
1m/sec = 2.2 mph

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 The equation of the curve is,

𝑉 𝑍 1
= ( )7
𝑉0 𝑍0

 Where ‘V’ is wind speed at height ‘Z’ from ground and ‘Vo’ is wind speed
measured by the anemometer at height ‘Z0’.

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Velocity Ratio Against Elevation

Ratio
8
7
6
(Z/Z0) 5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.8 0.9 1.1 1.2 1.4 1.5
0.4 0.7 1.0 1.3
(V/V0)

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The speed of air at a height of 15 meter above ground was measured as 10

m/s. Find the speed at 2 m level.

Solution

V2 / V15 = ( Z2 / Z15 )1/7 or

V2 = ( Z2 / Z15 )1/7 x V15

V2 = ( 2 / 15)1/7 x 10 = 7.5 m/s

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 Thank you

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPTT. CUST

4/12/2021

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