Interpretations of Table I.
The rows are color coded according to their relationship with respect to
each other.
Escape velocity is the minimum speed an object needs to escape a
planet’s pull of gravity.
Surface pressure is the atmospheric pressure at a location on the surface
of the planet. It is proportional to the mass of air above the location.
Temperature if there are no greenhouse gases present - indicates the
temperature of the planet without the warming effect of greenhouse gases.
Note that the temperature of the Earth would be around 18 ˚C lower without
greenhouse warming.
Take note also that the greenhouse effect is not necessarily undesirable. It
is the runaway greenhouse effect that we would like to avoid (e.g. Venus).

Length of the day is the function of rotational speed. The ability of the
planet to retain its internal heat is proportional to its size. Mars may have
lost much of its internal heat very early in its evolution.
            A planet’s temperature is a function of its distance from the sun.
However, this factor can be modified by the intensity of greenhouse
warming.
            Water in the liquid form, turns out to be one of the most important
prerequisites for life as we know it. There is recent evidence that liquid
water, in the form of brine (salt water) flows intermittently on the surface of
Mars.
            Thermophiles bacteria that can tolerate extreme temperature (41 to
122 ˚C) commonly associated with hot spring and deep sea hydrothermal
vents. Life, in general can tolerate a wide range of temperature conditions.
The temperature range that allows water to exist in the liquid state is the
over-riding factor.
            Planets should have sufficient size to hold a significant
atmosphere. The composition of the atmosphere, specifically the amount
of greenhouse gases, influences the planet’s surface temperature.
The amount of solar radiation that a planet received is primarily a
function of distance from the Sun. Sunlight is essential
for photosynthesis but some organism are able to extract energy from
other sources (Chemosynthetic organisms).
 A system that will be able to constantly supply nutrients to organisms is
important to sustain life. On Earth, nutrients are cycled through the
hydrologic cycle and plate tectonics (volcanism). Internal heat drives plate
tectonics. The ability of a planet to maintain internal heat is related to size.

 
What can you remember about the concept of ecosystem? 
 

  Have you heard about the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991?

I’m sure you were not yet born when this happened.

 
 

    When Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991, the lava from the interior
of Earth flowed out on the surface, which covered the land area
around it.  The ash particles that were emitted by the volcano
reached hundreds of kilometers and affected the entire Philippines
and other countries.  This event greatly reduced the solar energy
that Earth was receiving, which resulted in a drop in surface
temperature.  Aside from this effect, the volcanic eruption also
altered the materials in the soil and water within its reach, thus
displaced many organisms in their habitats.
     SYSTEM is a set of interconnected components that are
interacting to form a unified whole.
 

                                                     THE EARTH SYSTEM

 

     TheEarth system is essentially a closed system. It is a system in

which there is only an exchange of heat or energy and no
exchange of matter. It receives energy from the sun and returns
some of this
energy to space. The subsystems of the Earth is an open system,
and it is not difficult to see why this is so. It actively interacts with its
environment by taking in resources and putting resources back into
its environment. Take for example the government.It has three
branches. The Executive, Judiciary, and Legislative.These three
branches are independent and have their respective mandates and
 functions. A government can only succeed if all three branches are
able to perform their respective functions.
 

Please read and understand each system of the Earth:

 1. Atmosphere
  

        -  It is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the Earth

      - The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21%
oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, the rest is carbon dioxide and other
gaseous elements that surround Earth.
     - One of the most important processes by which heat on the Earth
surface is redistributed is through atmospheric circulation.
   - There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture
between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere through the
hydrologic cycle.
 

2.    Geosphere
       -   It is composed of all the rocks, minerals, and soil on Earth.
     -  It includes not only the mountains, continents, ocean floor, sand
in the deserts, and bedrocks but it also includes Earth’s interior
layers which
are the
metallic
liquid outer
core, and the
solid metallic
inner core.
 

 
   3. Biosphere
    

       -  It is made up of all the living organisms on Earth.  These living

things are found on the surface, underground, and even those
reaching a kilometer above the surface of Earth.
        -    It includes the plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi that thrive
on the planet.
     -   It covers all ecosystems- from the soil to the rainforest, from
mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean surface
to the deep sea.

4   . Hy
d rosp
h ere
    - It
is

made up of all the water found on Earth – 0n its surface,

underground, and in the air.  This includes all of the rivers, lakes,
streams, oceans, ground water, polar ice caps, glaciers, water
vapor, clouds, and any form of precipitation like rain and snow.
     - About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water and much of it
is in the form of ocean water
    - Only 3% of Earth’s water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice,
and the remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes, and
ground water
    -The oceans are important sinks for carbon dioxide through direct
exchange with the atmosphere andindirectly through the
weathering of rocks.
   - Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth
through ocean circulation.
 
A mineral is a homogeneous, naturally occurring, solid inorganic
substance with a definable chemical composition, and an internal
structure whose atoms, ions, or molecules are orderly arranged in a
lattice. Minerals are the building blocks of rocks.
     It is homogeneous, it is made of components which are the
same in structure and in chemical and physical properties. When
you pound a mineral with a hammer, it breaks into tiny similar
fragments.
     It occurs naturally. It is formed by processes found in nature.   It
is not man – made or machine - generated.
     It is an inorganic substance. This means that the chemical
composition of minerals does not contain carbon bonded to
hydrogen atoms. Substances that contain a combination of carbon
C and hydrogen H are not inorganic.
     It is solid. Its shape is definite and stays as it is unless
physically deformed by force.
     It has a definable chemical composition. This means we can
write a particular chemical formula for a mineral like SiO2,
Fe3O4, CaF2, etc.
     The internal arrangement of its atoms, ions, or molecules
is orderly arranged in the form of a lattice. Atoms, ions, or
molecules do not come together randomly. They have a fixed
pattern that repeats at regular intervals. This orderly arrangement is
called crystal lattice.
 

The Physical Properties of Minerals:

         Color – is a unique identifying property of certain minerals
(e.g. malachite – green, azurite – blue). There are also lots of
minerals that share similar or the same color/s. In addition, some
minerals exhibit a range of colors. The mineral quartz for example,
can be pink (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white
(colorless quartz), etc.
         Streak – is the color of the mineral in powder form. Note that
the color of a mineral could be different from the streak. For
example, pyrite (FeS2) exhibits golden color (hence the other term
of pyrite which is Fool’s Gold) but has a black or dark gray streak.
Usually, the mineral is rubbed on a streak plate to determine its
color. (A streak plate may be an unglazed side of a porcelain). In
cases when the color of a mineral appears different because of
trace particles inside it, scientists would pulverize it to get its true
color. In this case, the color of the mineral becomes more visible
and clear. However, the disadvantage of pulverizing the mineral is
tedious, making the mineral lose its integrity.
 

 Luster – it is the quality and intensity of reflected light

exhibited by the mineral.
a.    Metallic luster – generally opaque and exhibit a
resplendent shine similar to a polished metal.
b.    Non-metallic – vitreous (glassy). Adamantine (brilliant
diamond-like), resinous, silky, pearly, dull (earthy), greasy,
etc.
* Hardness – it is a measure of the resistance of a mineral (not
specifically surface) to abrasion.  In the early 1800s, Friedrich
Mohs, a mineralogist, developed a scale by which minerals can be
ranked based on their relative hardness. The scale contains 10
scores, 10 being the hardest and is occupied by the mineral
diamond. Score 1, the softest, is occupied by talc. A mineral with a
hardness of 5 is one which can scratch all minerals with a hardness
of 5 or less.

What are the pros and cons in using the Mohs scale of hardness?
Pros:
1.    Easy to do the test
2.    Can be done anywhere, anytime as long as the place is not
dark
3.    Mohs scale is highly relevant for field geologists to roughly
identify minerals using scratch kits
4.    Can be done without or few kits – handy
Cons:
     1.    The scale is qualitative and not quantitative
     2.    Cannot be used to test accurate hardness of industrial
materials
             Crystal Form/Habit – The external shape of a crystal or
groups of crystals is displayed/observed as these crystals grow in
open spaces. The form reflects the supposedly internal structure (of
atoms and ions) of the crystal (mineral). It is the natural shape of
the mineral before the development of any cleavage or fracture.
Examples include prismatic, tabular, bladed, platy, reniform and
equant. A mineral that do not have a crystal structure is described
as amorphous. The crystal form also define the relative growth of
the crystal in 3 dimension which are its length, width, and height.
         Cleavage – It is the property of some minerals to break along
parallel repetitive planes of weakness to form smooth, flat surface.
These planes of weakness are inherent in the bonding of atoms that
makes up the mineral. These planes of weakness are parallel to the
atomic planes and appear to be repeating within the mineral. When
the break does not happen along planes of weakness, the break is
called a fracture.
         Fracture – Some minerals may not have cleavages but exhibit
broken surfaces that are irregular and non-planar. Quartz for
example has an inherent weakness in the crystal structure that is
not planar. Examples of fracture are conchoidal, fibrous, hackly,
and uneven among others.
         Specific Gravity – It is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the
weight of an equal volume of water. A bucket of silver (Sp.Gr.10))
would weigh 10 times more than a bucket of water (Sp.Gr.1). It is a
measure to express the density (mass per unit volume) of a
mineral. The specific gravity of a mineral is numerically equal to
density.
 

A more stable and less ambiguous basis for classification of

minerals is by chemical composition.
Element           = Native Elements (e.g. Gold, Bismuth,
Diamond)
Element + SiO4 = Silicates (e.g. Quartz, Olivine, Talc)
Element + O2   = Oxide (e.g. Hematite, Magnetite, Chromite)
Element + SO4 = Sulfate (e.g. Gypsum, Barite, Anhydrite)
Element + S2     = Sulfide (e.g. Pyrite, Galena, Bornite)
Element + CO3 = Carbonate (e.g. Calcite, Dolomite, Malachite)
Element + Halogens = Halide (e.g. Chlorine, Fluorine, Halite)
 

Mineral Classification:
1.    Silicates – minerals containing 2 of the most abundant
elements in the Earth’s crust, namely silicon and oxygen.
When linked together, these two elements form the silicon
oxygen tetrahedron
– the fundamental building block of silicate minerals. Over 90%
of the rock-forming minerals belong to this group.
2.    Oxides – minerals containing Oxygen anion (O2-) combined
with one or more metal ions.
3.    Sulfates – minerals containing sulfur and oxygen anion
(SO4-) combined with other ions.
4.    Sulfides – minerals containing sulfur anion (S2) combined
with one or more ions. Some sulfides are sources of
economically important metals such as copper, lead, and
zinc.
5.    Carbonates – minerals containing the carbonate anion
(CO3)2- combined with other elements.
6.    Native Elements – minerals that form as individual
elements.
7.    Halides – minerals containing halogen elements combined
with one or more elements.
 

Below is a list of some common rock-forming minerals and

their chemical composition:
          Garnets – are a set of minerals of silicate.
         Calcite – is a mineral carbonate and the most stable
calcium oil polymorph (CaCO3)
         Amphibole – is a significant cluster of inosilicate minerals
that form prisms or needle-like crystals, consisting of
SiO4tetrahedra double chain, connected at the vertices and
usually carrying ions of iron and/or magnesium in their
construction.
         Olivine – is a formula (Mg2+, Fe2+) 2SiO4 zinc iron silicate. It
is therefore a kind of nesosilicate or orthosilicate.

Setting aside rocks that fall from the sky, such as meteors and
fragments of asteroids, the birth of rocks began from the core of our
planet. Tracing the birth, formation, and transformation of
rocks will take us to two sets of physical processes. One is a set
of endogenic processes, and the other, exogenic. Endogenic
processes refer to geologic processes that take place below the
Earth’s surface, the interior of the planet. Exogenic processes
refer to those that take place on the Earth’s surface. The Rock
Cycle provides us a comprehensive understanding how these
three dominant rock types are formed.
 
Here are the 8 elements comprising almost 99% of the minerals
making up the Earth’s crust:
 

Element         Symbol       % by wt. of the Earth’s crust     % atoms

     Oxygen               O                         46.6                                 62.6
     Silicon                 Si                         27.7                                21.2
    Aluminum            Al                           8.1                                   6.5
    Iron                      Fe                         5.0                                   1.9
    Calcium               Ca                         3.6                                   1.9
    Sodium                Na                         2.8                                   2.6
    Potassium            K                           2.6                                   1.4
   Magnesium          Mg                         2.1                                   1.8
  All other elements                             
1.4                                   <0.1

Try to recall on the definition of a mineral.

 

Rocks – are aggregate of minerals. A rock can be composed of a

single mineral or an aggregate of two or more minerals.
 

Can a name of a mineral be also used as a rock name?

 

I will show you a video. Please pay attention and take down notes
while watching the video. Are you ready? Try to open this link
 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KtbAEYwkC1E
 

Classification of rocks
1. Igneous Rocks – is the resulting rock that is produced when
molten materials cool down and solidify. Igneous is derived from
the Latin word ignis which means fire. If magma erupts at the
Earth’s surface and solidifies upon contact with the atmosphere or
ocean, the rock it forms is extrusive igneous rock. The term implies
that igneous rock that is formed comes out from volcanic vents as
lava before freezing into rock form. Volcanic rocks are another term
for extrusive igneous rocks. When lava is exposed to the
atmosphere or to bodies of water, they rapidly cool down and turn
to rocks. Because of the rapid decrease in temperature, the mineral
components of lava are unable to form large crystals. They are so
tiny they can be seen only under the microscope. Volcanic rocks, in
general, contain only small crystals, and often display a glassy
appearance. Because they are formed from lava that cools and
solidifies quickly, the volatiles contained in them rapidly transforms
into gas, leaving behind gas bubbles in the rock. Pumice is an
example of a volcanic rock. Your grandparents probably use
pumice themselves. It is what Filipinos call panghilod.
 

 In contrast, if magma solidifies underground, the rock it forms is

called intrusive igneous rock. It is intrusive because it was injected
or pushed into existing rocks found in the Earth’s crust.
 

 Magma is a molten rock material beneath the surface of the

Earth. Lava is molten rock material extruded to the surface of the
earth through a central vent (volcano) or as fissure eruption.
 

 Plutonic rocks, as you already expect, refer to intrusive igneous

rocks. Pluto is the ancient Roman god of the underworld. His
counterpart in Greek mythology was Hades. Horizontal or slanted
layers of distinct rock types sandwiched between rocks of a
different physical structure are clues suggesting you could be
looking at intrusive igneous rocks. Even though they are generally
lodged below the Earth’s surface, soil erosion occasionally exposes
them to the atmosphere.
 
Examples of Plutonic and Volcanic Rock:
  

_ 2. Sedimentary rocks – these are rocks that are formed at or near

the surface of the Earth. As the name suggests, they are formed by
sediments. Other types of rocks, such as igneous and metamorphic
rocks, shed off sediments as a result of physical and chemical
weathering. These are carried away by wind, water, ice, mass
movement or glaciers and deposited into sedimentary basins,
usually a body of water, such as ponds, lakes, and seas. There at
the bottom they accumulate and form layers of sediments. Layering
is the result of a change in grain size and composition; each layer
represents a distinct period of deposition. The skeletal remains of
organisms from millions of years ago also add to the sediments that
form sedimentary rocks. Temperature and pressure at the Earth’s
surface are low, allowing for the sedimentary process to happen.
    Sedimentary rocks cover Earth’s land surface, about 78% of
current land surface. But it only constitutes 8% of the entire volume
of Earth’s crust. The big part which makes the crust comes from
igneous and metamorphic rocks.
     It is quite easy to identify sedimentary rocks from afar. You may
have passed by expressways on your field trips, and along the way
saw a distinct layer of rock on the sides of a huge rock outcrop. You
are looking at a layer of sedimentary rocks.
     Sedimentary rocks are deposited in layers called strata. The
entire layers displayed by a rock outcrop are called bedding.
Sedimentary rocks are sources of natural resources, such as, coal,
fossil fuels, drinking water, minerals, etc. They are also a resource
for many construction materials and chemical products.
 
 Examples of common sedimentary rocks:

_
  3. Metamorphic rocks
          Metamorphosis is a combination of two Greek
words: meta means after and morphe means shape.
Metamorphosis is the after shape. To metamorphose is
to change shape. For metamorphic rocks, this describes a type of
rock that arose from either igneous rock or sedimentary rocks.
The change took place because of extreme pressure and
temperature.
           Rocks do get exposed to variations in pressure
andtemperature
because they do not stay where they are. It is difficult to imagine
that
a huge rock the size of a hill was once underwater or underneath
Earth’s surface. There at the bottom of the oceans or under
earth’s
surface some hundreds of kilometers deep, rocks are exposed to
extreme pressure and temperature but not to the degree that
they
 melt or break apart.        
 

Below is a table of the different common metamorphic rocks:

Some photos of common metamorphic rock:

 

Try to open this link:       

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KtbAEYwkC1E
 

The Rock Cycle

It is the constant recycling of minerals
It illustrates how geologic processes occurring both
underneath and on the Earth’s surface can change a
rock from one type to another.