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Quarter 3 - Module 1C
Nature of Crystals

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General Chemistry2- Grade 11
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Quarter 3 - Module 1C: Nature of Crystals
First Edition, 2020

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 Senior
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General Chemistry 2
Quarter 3 - Module 1C:
Nature of Crystals

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 Table of Contents

What This Module is About ....................................................................................................................... i

What I Need to Know .................................................................................................................................. i
How to Learn from this Module………………………………………………………………………….i
Icons of this Module ................................................................................................................................... ii

What I know .................................................................................................................................... iii

Lesson: Nature of Crystals

What I Need to Know ........................................................................................... 1

What’s In ………………………………………………………………………….1

What’s New…………………………………………………………………1

What Is It .....................................................................................................2

What’s More ................................................................................................9

What I Have Learned ..................................................................................10

What I Can Do………………………………...................................................11

Summary………...…………………………………………………………………………12

Assessment ……………………………………………………………………….……………....12

Key to Answers……………………………………………………………….……………………13
References ............................................................................................................ …16
 Module 1C
Nature of Crystals

What This Module is About

In order to shape various unit cells, we will discuss solids and talk about the
existence of crystals and forms of packing spheres. In the amorphous form, which
lacks orderly three-dimensional structure, we discover that solids can also exist. Glass
is a well-known example of an amorphous solid.

Lesson : Nature of Crystals

What I Need to Know

After going through this module, you are expected to:

Describe the difference in structure of crystalline and amorphous solids
(STEM_GC11IMF-IIIa-c-104).

How to Learn from this Module

To achieve the learning competency cited above, you are to do the following:
• Take your time reading the lessons carefully.
• Follow the directions and/or instructions in the activities and exercises diligently.
• Answer all the given tests and exercises.

i
Icons of this Module

What I Need to This part contains learning objectives that

Know are set for you to learn as you go along the
module.

What I know This is an assessment as to your level of

knowledge to the subject matter at hand,
meant specifically to gauge prior related
knowledge
What’s In This part connects previous lesson with that
of the current one.

What’s New An introduction of the new lesson through

various activities, before it will be presented
to you

What is It These are discussions of the activities as a

way to deepen your discovery and under-
standing of the concept.

What’s More These are follow-up activities that are in-

tended for you to practice further in order to
master the competencies.

What I Have Activities designed to process what you

Learned have learned from the lesson

What I can do These are tasks that are designed to show-

case your skills and knowledge gained, and
applied into real-life concerns and situations.

ii
 What I Know
(Pre-Test)

Directions: Read and answer each item carefully and choose the letter of the best
answer.

1. In a body-centered cubic lattice, how many atoms are contained in a unit cell?
a. one b. two c. three d. four e. five

2. Which statement about crystal structure is false?

a. Polymorphous substances have more than one crystal structure.
b. Rhombic, triclinic and cubic are examples of crystal structures.
c. In a cubic lattice, four other cells share an atom lying at the corner of
the unit cell equally.
d. Isomorphous substances have only one crystal structure.
e. Amorphous substances have no organized crystal structure.

3. In a face-centered cubic lattice, how many atoms are contained in a unit cell?
a. one b. two c. four d. five e. six

4. In any cubic lattice, an atom lying at the corner of a unit cell is shared equally
by how many unit cells?
a. one b. two c. eight d. four e. sixteen

5. In a face-centered cubic lattice, an atom laying in a face of a unit cell is

shared equally by how many unit cells?
a. one b. two c. eight d. four e. sixteen

6. In a cubic lattice, an atom on the edge of a unit cell is shared equally by how
many unit cells?
a. one b. two c. eight d. four e. twelve

7. A single substance that can crystallize in more than one arrangement is said
to be _______.
a. isomorphous b. amorphous c. primitive
d. triclinic e. polymorphous

8-10. What is the coordination number of each sphere in (8) a simple cubic cell, (9) a
body-centered cubic cell, and (10) a face-centered cubic cell? Assume that the
spheres are all the same.

iii
 Lesson
1 Nature of Crystals
What I Need to Know

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

Compare the properties of crystalline and amorphous solids.

What’s In

We addressed in the previous lesson the properties of water such as its high
specific heat. As a consequence, water can give off a lot of heat with just a small
decrease in its temperature. Water's most peculiar property is that its solid form is less
dense than its liquid form on the surface of liquid water, that’s why ice floats.

What’s New
Activity 1. Examine!

Directions: Examine the images below and answer the questions that follow.

Source: https://binged.it/2EMGrte source: https://binged.it/2EE3NkZ

1. What are the two general types of solid?

2. What features can be used to distinguish the two types of solid?

1
 What is It

In activity 1, it should be noted that solids can form a regular repeating

three-dimensional structure (image on the left) called a crystal lattice, thus forming a
crystalline solid. Further, solids can also aggregate and form an amorphous solid
without any specific long-range order (image on the right).

Crystal Structure

Solids can be divided into two categories: crystalline and amorphous.

Ice is a crystalline solid, which possesses rigid and long-range order; its atoms,
molecules, or ions occupy specific positions. In a crystalline solid, the arrangement of
such particles is such that the net attractive intermolecular forces are at their limit.
Ionic forces, covalent bonds, van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, or a combination
of these forces may be the forces responsible for a crystal's stability. Amorphous
solids such as glass lack a well-defined arrangement and long-range molecular order.

A unit cell is the basic repeating structural unit of a crystalline solid. Figure 1
shows a unit cell and its extension in three dimensions. An atom, ion, or molecule is
defined by each sphere and is called a lattice point. The lattice point in many crystals
does not necessarily contain such a particle. Instead, around each lattice point, there
might be multiple atoms, ions, or molecules identically arranged. However, for
convenience, we can assume that an atom occupies each lattice point. For certain
metals, this is the case. In terms of one of the seven types of unit cells, any crystalline
solid can be represented. Since all sides and all angles are equal, the geometry of the
cubic unit cell is especially clear. Each of the unit cells forms the lattice structure typical
of a crystalline solid when replicated in space in all three dimensions.

2
Figure 1.(a) A unit cell and
(b) its extension in three
dimensions. The black
spheres represent either
atoms or molecules.

Figure 2.The seven

types of unit cells.
Angle a is defined by
edges b and c, angle
b by edges a and c,
and angle g by edges
a and b

Chang, 2010

Packing Spheres
By considering the various forms of packing of a number of similar spheres (Ping-
Pong balls, for example) to form an ordered three-dimensional structure, we can
understand the general geometric requirements for crystal formation. The kind of unit
cell we have is defined by the way the spheres are organized in layers.
A layer of spheres can be arranged in the simplest case, as seen in Figure 3 (a). By
placing a layer above and below this layer, the three-dimensional structure can be
created in such a way that spheres in one layer are directly over the spheres in the
layer below it. As in the case of a crystal, this method can be expanded to produce
several many layers. Focusing on a 'x' sphere, we see that it is in contact with four
spheres on its own layer, one sphere on the top layer, and one sphere on the bottom
layer. A coordination number of 6 is said to have each sphere in this arrangement
since it has six immediate neighbors. The coordination number is defined as the
number of atoms (or ions) surrounding an atom (or ion) in a crystal lattice. Its value
gives us a measure of how closely the spheres are packed together the greater the
number of coordination, the closer each other is to the spheres. A simple cubic cell
(scc) [Figure 3(b)] is called the fundamental, repeating unit in the array of spheres.

3
 Chang, 2010
Figure 3. Arrangement of identical spheres in a simple cubic cell. (a) Top view
of one layer of spheres. (b) Definition of a simple cubic cell. (c) Because each
sphere is shared by eight unit cells and there are eight corners in a cube, there
is the equivalent of one complete sphere inside a simple cubic unit cell.

The other types of cubic cells are the body-centered cubic cell (bcc) and the face-
centered cubic cell (fcc) (Figure 4). A body-centered cubic arrangement differs
from a simple cube in that the second layer of spheres fits into the depressions of the
first layer and the third layer into the depressions of the second layer (Figure 5).
The coordination number of each sphere in this structure is 8 (each sphere is in contact
with four spheres in the layer above and four spheres in the layer below). In the face-
centered cubic cell, there are spheres at the center of each of the six faces of the
cube, in addition to the eight corner spheres.

Figure 4. Three types of

cubic cells. In reality, the spheres
representing atoms, molecules,
or ions are in contact with one
another in these cubic cells.

Chang, 2010

Since each unit cell is adjacent to other unit cells in a crystalline solid, most of
the atoms of a cell are exchanged by adjacent cells. For instance, in all cubic types,
every corner atom belongs to eight cells of one unit [Figure 6(a)]; an edge atom is
shared by four unit cells [Figure 6(b)], and a face-centered atom is shared by two
unit cells [Figure 6(c)]. Each corner sphere is divided into eight unit cells because
there would be the equivalent of just one full sphere within a simple cubic unit cell, and
there are eight corners in a cube (see Figure 4). The equivalent of two complete
spheres, one in the middle and eight mutual corner spheres, is included in a body-
centered cubic cell. There are four complete spheres in a face-centered cubic cell:

4
three out of the six face-centered atoms and one out of the eight shared corner
spheres.

Chang, 2010
Figure 5. Arrangement of identical spheres in a body-centered
cube. (a) Top view. (b) Definition of a body-centered cubic unit
cell. (c) There is the equivalent of two complete spheres inside
a body-centered cubic unit cell.

Figure 6.(a) A corner atom in any cell is shared by eight unit cells.
Chang, 2010 (b) An edge atom is shared by four unit cells.
(c) A face-centered atom in a cubic cell is shared by two unit cells.

Closest Packing

The simple cubic and body-centered cubic cells obviously have more free space
than in a cubic cell face-centered. Closest packing, the most efficient arrangement
of spheres, starts with the structure shown in Figure 7(a), which we call layer A.
Focusing on the only sphere enclosed, we see that in that layer it has six immediate
neighbors. The spheres are packed into the depressions between the spheres in the
second layer (which we call layer B) in the first layer, so that all the spheres are as
close together as possible [Figure 7(b)].

5
 Figure 7. (a) In a close-packed layer,
each sphere is in contact with six
others. (b) Spheres in the second
layer fit into the depressions between
the first-layer spheres. (c) In the
hexagonal close-packed structure,
each third-layer sphere is directly
over a first-layer sphere. (d) In the
cubic close-packed structure, each
third-layer sphere fits into a
depression that is directly over a
depression in the first layer.

Chang, 2010

There are two ways that the second layer can be filled by a third-layer sphere to
achieve the nearest packing. The spheres should fit into the depressions so that each
sphere of the third layer is directly over the sphere of the first layer [Figure 7(c)]. We
often name the third layer layer A, since there is no distinction between the
arrangement of the first and third layers. Alternatively, the spheres of the third layer
can fit into the depressions that lie directly in the first layer over the depressions [Figure
7(d)]. We name the third layer layer C in this case. The 'exploded opinions' and the
systems arising from these two arrangements are shown in Figure 8.
The ABA arrangement is known as the hexagonal close-packed (hcp) structure,
and the ABC arrangement is the cubic close-packed (ccp) structure, which
corresponds to the already described face-centered cube. Notice that in the hcp
structure, spheres occupy the same vertical position in every other layer (ABABAB. .
.), while in the ccp structure, spheres occupy the same vertical position in every fourth
layer (ABCABCA. . .). Every sphere has a coordination number of 12 in both structures
(each sphere is in contact with six spheres in its own layer, three spheres in the layer
above, and three spheres in the layer below). The most effective way of packing
identical spheres in a unit cell is by using both the hcp and ccp structures, and there
is no way to increase the amount of coordination to beyond 12.
Many monatomic metals and noble gases form crystals with structures of hcp
or ccp. Magnesium, titanium, and zinc, for example, crystallize with their atoms in a
hcp array, while aluminum, nickel, and silver crystallize in the ccp structure. With the
exception of helium, all solid noble gases crystallize in the hcp structure.

6
 Figure 8. Exploded views of
(a) a hexagonal close-packed
structure and (b) a cubic close-
packed structure. The arrow is
tilted to show the face-centered
cubic unit cell more clearly. Note
that this arrangement is the same
as the face-centered unit cell.

Chang, 2010

It is natural to ask why a series of related substances, such as the transition

metals or the noble gases, would form different crystal structures. The answer lies in
the relative stability of a particular crystal structure, which is governed by
intermolecular forces. Thus, magnesium metal has the hcp structure because this
arrangement of Mg atoms results in the greatest stability of the solid. Figure 9
summarizes the relationship between the atomic radius r and the edge length a of a
simple cubic cell, a body-centered cubic cell, and a face-centered cubic cell. This
relationship can be used to determine the atomic radius of a sphere if the density of
the crystal is known.

Figure 9. The relationship

between the edge length (a) and
radius (r) of atoms in the simple
cubic cell, body-centered cubic
cell, and face-centered cubic cell.

Chang, 2010
7
Amorphous Solids

In crystalline form, solids are most stable. However, if a solid is quickly formed
(If a liquid is rapidly cooled, for example), the atoms or molecules do not have time to
align themselves in places other than those of a normal crystal and may be locked. It
is said that the resulting solid is amorphous. Amorphous solids, such as glass, lack
a regular three-dimensional arrangement of atoms. We will briefly address the
properties of glass in this segment. Glass is one of the most important and versatile
products in civilization. It is also one of the oldest articles of glass, dating back to 1000
b.c. Glass commonly refers to an optically transparent fusion product of inorganic
materials that has cooled to a rigid state without crystallizing. We mean that the glass
is formed by mixing molten silicon dioxide (SiO2), its main ingredient, with compounds
such as sodium oxide (Na2O), boron oxide (B2O3), and color and other properties of
certain transition metal oxides. Glass behaves more like a liquid than a solid in certain
ways. Studies of X-ray diffraction show that long-range periodic order is missing in
glass. Today, there are around 800 distinct glass forms in general use. Two-
dimensional schematic representations of crystalline quartz and amorphous quartz
glass are shown in Figure 10. The structure and properties of quartz, Pyrex, and soda-
lime glass are shown in Table 1.
The glass color is primarily due to the presence of metal ions (as oxides). Green glass,
for example, contains oxide of iron(III), Fe2O3, or oxide of copper(II), CuO; yellow glass
contains uranium(IV) oxide, UO2; cobalt(II) and copper are present in blue glass;
(II)Oxides, CoO and CuO; and small pieces of gold and copper include red glass. Note
that most of the ions mentioned here are derived from metals in transition.

Chang,2010

Figure 10.Two-dimensional representation of (a) crystalline

quartz and (b) noncrystalline quartz glass. The small spheres
represent silicon. In reality, the structure of quartz is three-dimensional.
Each Si atom is tetrahedrally bonded to four O atoms.

8
 Table 1.Composition and Properties of Three Types of Glass

What’s More

Activity 2. Observing and Comparing Solids

Directions: This is a short activity that can be done in approximately 10 minutes.
Follow the procedures and answer the questions that follow.
Materials needed: Magnifying glasses, sugar, salt, pepper

>You will observe granules of sugar, salt, and pepper under a magnifying glass, and
observe the similarities and differences among these common materials.

>A pinch of each material should be taken from its container and placed on a piece
of paper or board paper.Using different magnifying glasses with different powers,
you will examine the grains.

*For those who have no magnifying glass, you can look at the picture or open the
link located below the picture.

Sugar Granules
https://bit.ly/2KH7cSR

9
 Salt Granules Pepper Granules
https://bit.ly/34wjVyFhttps://bit.ly/37zprTb

Can you see the difference between the sugar and salt granules?
Can you see the different angles?
Are there angles in the pepper? Does it look crystalline?

Answer the following questions:

1. Which of the substances appears to be made of crystals?

2. Defend your answer with evidence from your observation. What did you use to
help you decide which are crystals, and which are not?

What I Have Learned

Activity 3. Let’s Test Your Understanding!
Directions: Read and answer each question carefully. Write your
answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. Which has a greater density, crystalline SiO2 or amorphous SiO2? Why?

2. Imagine the primitive cubic lattice. Now imagine grabbing the top of it and
stretching it straight up. All angles remain 90°. What kind of primitive lattice
have you made?

Chang, 2010

10
3. The densities of the elements K, Ca, Sc, and Ti are 0.86, 1.5, 3.2,and 4.5 g/cm3,
respectively. One of these elements crystallizes in a body-centered cubic structure;
the other three crystallize in a face-centered cubic structure. Which one crystallizes
in the body-centered cubic structure? Justify your answer.

What I Can Do

Activity 4. Test Your Skills!

Directions: Read and answer each question carefully. Follow the instructions
indicated for each item. Write your answers on a separate sheet of paper.

1. (a) Draw a picture that represents a crystalline solid at the atomic level.
(b) Now draw a picture that represents an amorphous solid at the atomic
level.

2. Two patterns of packing for two different spheres are shown here.
For each structure
(a) draw the two-dimensional unit cell;
(b) determine the angle between the lattice vectors, g, and determine
whether the lattice vectors are of the same length or of different lengths;
and
(c) determine the type of two-dimensional lattice.

Chang, 2010

11
Summary:

1. All solids are either crystalline (with a regular structure of atoms, ions, or
molecules) or amorphous (without a regular structure). Glass is an example of
an amorphous solid.

2. The basic structural unit of a crystalline solid is the unit cell, which is repeated
to form a three-dimensional crystal lattice.

Assessment: (Post-Test)

Directions: Read and answer each question carefully. Write your answers on a
separate sheet of paper.

1. In a cubic lattice, an atom on the edge of a unit cell is shared equally by how
many unit cells?

(a) one (b) two (c) eight (d) four

2. A single substance that can crystallize in more than one arrangement is said
to be _______.
(a) isomorphous (b) amorphous
(c) triclinic (d) polymorphous

3. What is the coordination number of each sphere in a simple cubic cell?

Assume that the spheres are all the same.
(a) one (b) two (c) six (d) four

4. What is the coordination number of each sphere in a body-centered cubic cell?

Assume that the spheres are all the same.
(a) eight (b) two (c)one (d) four

5. What is the coordination number of each sphere in a face-centered cubic cell?

Assume that the spheres are all the same.
(a) one (b) twelve (c) eight (d) six

12
 13
What I Know
1. b
2. c
3. c
4. c
5. b
6. d
7. e
8. 6
9. 8
10. 12
What’s More
1. Sugar and salt look like crystals. Pepper doesn’t look like a crystal.
2. The crystals are more regular in shape. Pepper is irregular and all the
grains look different.
Key to Answers
 14
What I Have Learned
1. Crystalline SiO2
2. Tetragonal
3. Potassium. A body-centered cubic structure has more empty space than a face-
centered cubic one. The more empty space, the less dense the solid. We expect the
element with the lowest density, potassium, to adopt the body-centered cubic
structure.
What I Can Do
1.
2.
 15
Assessment
1. D
2. D
3. C
4. A
5. B
References

Ayson, M.F., De Borja, R.S., Ysmael, M.C. (2016). General Chemistry 2 ( Teacher’s
Manual). Vibal Group, Inc. Araneta Avenue, Quezon City

Brown, T.L., LeMay Jr., H.E., Bursten, B.E., Murphy, C.J., Woodward, P.M.,
Stoltzfus, M.W. (2015). Chemistry The Central Science. 13th Edition. Pearson
Education Inc. United States of America

Canva. Accessed November 5, 2020. https://www.canva.com/education

Chang, R. (2010). Chemistry. Tenth Edition.McGraw-Hill. America, New York

Licuanan, P.B. (2016). Teaching Guide for Senior High School (GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2). Commission on Higher Education. Diliman, Quezon City

16
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Cagayan de Oro
Telephone Nos.: (08822)855-0048
E-mail Address:cagayandeoro.city@deped.gov.ph

17