Professional Diploma in Cyber Security

Exploring the
Fundamentals
of Networking
Module 1 Lesson 1
Summary Notes
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Contents

3 Introduction

Lesson outcomes

Introduction to networking

5 Network data transmission

7 Network topologies

10 Conclusion

11 References

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Lesson outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:

• Understand the history of computer networking

• Discuss some of the most commonly-used terms in the field of networking
• Explain network data transmission and the OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model)
as a logical representation of the steps of a networking system.
• Describe different types of network topologies.

Introduction
The first lesson in this course is an introduction to the fundamentals of computer networking.

A computer network is a telecommunications network that enables the sharing of resources and information using either
cable or wireless media and a system of digital rules to exchange data.

Introduction to networking
History of computer networking
The earliest concept of computer network was proposed by Leonard Kleinrock in 1961, where the concept of ARPANET
(Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was first conceived. ARPANET was one of the first wide-area networks to
transfer data connecting two nodes at UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) and SRI (Stanford Research Institute).

What is computer networking?

Computer networking can be described of a pool of connected network devices, such as laptops, desktops and servers all
communicate with each other.

Common terminology
Some of the more commonly-used networking terms:

Internet - a global computer pool of interconnected networks that provides resources and information. This pool
comprises interconnected networks and uses standardised communication protocols to transmit data, resources to other
web servers, and ISP (internet service provider).

World wide web (www) - a subset of the internet consisting of web pages hosted on a web server that are readily
accessible over the internet and that can send resources and information over HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and
HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure).

Packet – a segment of data that is transmitted from source to destination in a network.

Internet Messaging program (IMP) - a web-based email system that facilitates the upload of data to an existing web
server. IMP was first used when data was transmitted on ARPANET.

Ethernet - a standardised technology for connecting devices in a Local Area Network (LAN) or Wide Area Network (WAN)
with Ethernet cables.

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Router - a device with the ability to forward data packets from one subnet to another subnet.
For example: Data sent from 192.168.1.8 to 192.168.2.10.

Switches - network devices that transmit data within the same subnet.
For example: Data sent from 192.168.1.8 to 192.168.1.9 .

Domain Name System (DNS) - a hierarchical naming system that translates domain names to IP addresses with the help
of the Fully Qualified Domain Name (FQDN).

Firewall - the first line of defence in a network that monitors, and if necessary, blocks, incoming and outgoing traffic.

Protocols - a set of rules and regulations used by connected devices to communicate over the network.
Some examples:
• Transmission Cl protocol (TCP) uses a three-way handshake to verify connectivity before data is sent. It is used in
email, filesharing and downloading.
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is used in networking where a higher speed of transmission is required, and data
loss tolerance is low, such as voice calls, DNS lookup and video streaming.
• Internet Protocol (IP) works as a unique identifier for a network device - the data (packet) is enclosed with the
sender IP and the recipient IP addresses to make it easier to locate the recipient address.
• Internet Control Messages Protocol (ICMP) is one of the most commonly-used protocols when it comes to error
checking and communication reports between two hosts.
• Network Time Protocol (NTP) helps to keep track of time and a record of communications in a network using a port
123.
• Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a convenient means for transporting multi-protocol datagrams over point-to-point
links, for example trunking between switches or routers.
• Netware Core Protocol (NCP) is a file-sharing protocol that enables the communication between point-to-point
protocol.
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP) aids the provision for uploading and downloading files and data from a remote host
running on an FTP server.
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is another commonly-used protocol that runs on port 80 and aids the use of
text, images, graphics, multimedia, and the downloading of information(data) from a client to a web server
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS) is an updated version of the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) that
runs on port 433 with more security features for the transmission of data(information).
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) runs on a default port 25 and uses TCP connectivity to verify error during
transmission.
• Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) is an updated version of the FTP with more security to encrypt data between
client and server communication.
• Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) is used to create a remote session between two hosts.
• Voice-over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is the transmission of voice data in the form of network packets as opposed to
using traditional cabling.

Networking hardware operations

Netware hardware operations refers to the functioning of some of the physical components of a network.
For example:
• A hub can be used to replace switches as they both have the same capability - the only difference is that a hub has
only one collision domain.
• A repeater is a network device used to regenerate or replicate a signal.
• A bridge is a device used to interconnect two LANs that are operating two different networking protocols.
• An extender is a network device used to amplify a network connection.
• A network interface card is a hardware component that allows a computer to connect to a network.

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Network data transmission

Open Systems Interconnection Model (OSI Model)
The Open Systems Interconnection Model (OSI Model) represents the steps of a network. It was first made public in 1984
by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Its architecture consists of seven layers:

Physical resources layer – the components that have the means to transmit bits (information) across physical
connections, such as cables, repeaters and network adapters.
Datalink layer – comprises two sub-layers of switches, MAC (media access control) and LLC (logical link control),
providing a means for exchanging data frames.
Network layer - receives frames from the datalink and routers send them to the intended destination with the help of IP
addresses.
Transport layer - houses the error check sequence and manages the delivery of the packet using TCP/UDP.
Session layer - manages conversations between two devices, such as a host and client.
Presentation layer - formats or translates data to the application.
Application layer - is where the user interacts with the software.

Data encapsulation and de-encapsulation in the OSI Model

When a packet is created, it goes through different stages of alteration through the OSI model. At each layer, data is either
added or removed from the header.

Data encapsulation refers to data binding when a packet is created. A logical bit of data is altered to form a PDU (protocol
data unit) which comprises of the user's data. An additional TCP segment is added to PDU (protocol data unit), followed by
an IP packet segment and lastly an Ethernet frame to form a complete packet that is sent from web server to web client.

Data de-encapsulation is the reverse of the encapsulation process where the PDU (protocol data unit) is removed one after
the other to get the raw data.

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Benefits of the OSI Model

• The OSI Model assists in protocol design, since protocol at each layer has a defined purpose, it makes it easier to build
more protocols with the defined logic of the model.
• The OSI Model also encourages competition. The concept of the OSI is defined as an industry-standard with which any
vendor manufacturing network devices will have to comply.
• The structure of the model separates interfaces and protocols, which gives it adaptability.

Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TTCP/IP) Model

The TCP/IP Model is a contracted version of the OSI model. The stack is a set of communication protocols used by the
Internet. It was created in the early 1970s for internetwork communication.
It consists of 4 layers:
Network access layer - the aggregate of the data link layer and physical layer in the OSI model that controls the hardware
devices and media that make up the network.
Internet layer - is like the network layer in the OSI Model in that it is used to send data (packets) from the network to a
destination. This layer determines the best path through the network.
Transport layer - supports the communication from the source to the destination host without defects.
Application layer - performs the representation of data to the users, which gives the user a dialog control.

The OSI Model vs the TCP/IP Model

Here is a diagram comparing the OSI Model and the TCP/IP Model. Basically, the OSI Model is a generic model that is based
upon the functionalities of each layer, while the TCP/IP Model is a protocol-oriented standard.

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Network topologies
Introduction to network topology
Network topology is the way a network is arranged, and it can be physical or logical.

The physical network topology reflects the tangible connections such as wires, cables, devices, etc. It shows how the
network is structured.

The logical network topology is the conceptual and strategic structure of the network. It shows how data(information)
will be transmitted.

Types of network topologies

Creating a network topology is a vital part of setting up a business – having a flexible, secure and maintainable topology is
a real plus for a business. There are several types of network topology to suit different business models. Here follows a
brief description of the most common network topologies:

Star topology

• Has a visual representation where every node is directly

connected to a centralised hub or switch
• Connections are joined with cabling such as coaxial, twisted or a
fibre-optic cable
• A centralised node manages the transmission of data across the
topology

ADVANTAGES
• Easily managed
• In the case of a network
attack, if one of the
connected devices goes
offline, the other part of the
network is still functional
• Easily scalable by
connecting more devices to
the centralised node
DISADVANTAGES
• If central hub goes down, entire
network goes offline
• Bandwidth and performance
limited by the centralised node
configurations

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Bus topology

• Has a visual representation where devices are connected along a single cable,
running from one to the other on the network
• Common way of describing bus topology is a line topology where data is
transmitted from one to another on a line

ADVANTAGES
• Structure makes it very cost-
effective in design
implementation
• Topology makes it easy for
growth expansion - if more
devices are needed to be
added they are simply
connected to the line
connected to the node
DISADVANTAGES
• Very vulnerable - if the cable
connected to the node is faulty
all devices will lose their
connection
• Topology mostly suitable for
smaller networks

Ring topology

• The node is all arranged in a circle format

• Nodes are neighbours giving the flow of data a circular direction

ADVANTAGES
• Greatly reduces the risk of
collision on the network -
only one node can transmit
data at a time
• Good structure of flow of
data, i.e. data flow in a
circular path until it gets to
its destination
• Is cost-effective and cheap
to install and manage
DISADVANTAGES
• Very vulnerable to network
failure
• Requires a lot of monitoring to
be able to detect network
failure
• Not easily scalable because all
the connected devices share
bandwidth

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Dual-ring topology

• Very similar topology to the ring topology, but in this case, data only travels in
one direction at a time
• Dual ring is seen as half-duplex because of its nature

ADVANTAGE
Main advantage is redundancy -
if the topology is structured to
be more efficient, traffic mainly
travels in both directions in the
network
DISADVANTAGE
Main drawback is the cost - being
able to implement the logical and
physical structure of this topology
costs a lot of funds and resources

Tree topology

• Gets its name from the visual representation of the network, where the
centralised node is directly connected to a secondary node, and devices in the
network are connected to the secondary node
• There is a form of trunking from the centralised node to the secondary node

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Good management • If centralised node goes offline,
efficiency entire branch loses its
• Growth expansion is easy connectivity
• Not cheap to implement

Mesh topology

• Has a complex structure

• Gives a lot of redundancy in the network because there is a point-to-point
connection from every device in the network to the centralised node

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ADVANTAGE
More stable and reliable due to
its structure - in a case of
network failure on the link, there
is another link to the traffic to
fall back on
DISADVANTAGES
• Not very cost-effective
• Very complex to set up- have to
link (cables) interconnecting all
devices in the network

Hybrid topology

• An evolved form of a network topology combing two or more types of network

topology
• Mostly found in large organisations where companies structure the topology
to suit different departments

ADVANTAGE
Main benefit of implementing
this topology is flexibility - more
than one of the types of
topology can be added to create
the structure a company or
organisation wants
DISADVANTAGES
• The more types of topology
added to the network, the
harder it becomes to manage
• Not cost-efficient

Factors affecting topology selection

There are certain key factors businesses need consider before choosing a topology for their business. They are:
• Cost: How much funds and resources are needed to implement the topology of their choice?
• Time: The time duration to fully create a logical and physical representation of the topology.
• Management: How easy it will be for the network administrator to be able to manage the system in the case of
detecting network failures?
• Redundancy: Companies will have to select the types of topology that will give them redundancy depending on the
size of the company in the case of a network failure

Conclusion
As an introduction to computer networking, we have looked at some common terminology and hardware. We delved a bit
deeper into network data transmission by examining two models and we explored various network typologies.

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References
• WANG, J. and PROVAN, G. (2009). TOPOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF SPECIFIC SPATIAL COMPLEX
NETWORKS. Advances in Complex Systems, 12(01), pp.45–71.
• ZHU, L. and HAN, D. (2013). Topological evolution on synchronization of dynamic complex
networks. Journal of Computer Applications, 32(2), pp.330–334.
• Call for Papers Computer Networking Symposium. (1981). Computer, 14(5), pp.117–117.
• Bird, D. and Harwood, M. (2005). Network+. Indianapolis, Ind.: Que.
• Boecking, S. (2000). Object-oriented network protocols. Harlow, England; New York: Addison-
Wesley.
• Miry, Abbas. (2020). Computer Network Chapter (3) Network Layer: Logical Addressing.
• 10.13140/RG.2.2.10058.11208.jmexclusives (2019). Albert Einstein Modern Physics Master. [online]
jmexclusives. Available at: https://josephmuciraexclusives.com/albert-einstein/ [Accessed 17 Sep.
2020].
• Gaur, K. (n.d.). Characteristics of a Computer Network: Topology. [online] TurboFuture -
• Technology. Available at: https://turbofuture.com/computers/Characteristics-of-a-computer
network#:~:text=A%20network%20topology%20can%20be [Accessed 20 Sep. 2020].
• Software Reviews, Opinions, and Tips - DNSstuff. 2020. What Is Network Topology? Best Guide to
Types & Diagrams - Dnsstuff. [online] Available at: <https://www.dnsstuff.com/what-is-
network-topology> [Accessed 20 September 2020].

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