IK Gujral Punjab Technical University

Bachelor of Technology (B. Tech. 1st Year)

Course Title: Introduction to Engineering Measurement

Tutor: Dr. R. K. Kumawat

Assistant Professor (GF)
Department of Electrical Engineering
IKG-PTU Main campus

Electrical Measurement fundamentals, Current, voltage, power, resistance, capacitance,

inductance, Multimeters, function generators, oscilloscopes, Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s laws, Electro‐
mechanical energy conversion principles, Rotating DC machine principles and measurements.

1. Electric Charge
Electric charge is the basic physical property of matter that causes it to experience a force when
kept in an electric or magnetic field.
The two types of electric charges are: Positive and Negative.

• Protons are positively charged

• Electrons are negatively charged
• Neutrons have zero charge

Definition Electric Charge is the property of subatomic particles that causes it to

experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field.

Symbol Q

Formula Q = I.t, Where I is the current in amperes and t is the time in seconds.

SI Unit Coulomb, (1 coulomb = 6.24 × 1018 electrons).

Other Faraday, Ampere-Hour

Units
• Properties of Electric Charge
2. Electric Current
Electric Current is the rate of flow of electrons in a conductor. The SI Unit of electric current is
the Ampere.
Current Symbol: I Unit: ampere (A)
1 ampere = 1 coulomb / 1 second
𝑄
𝐼= 𝐴𝑚𝑝
𝑡
• Conventional Current flow Vs Electron Flow

Current flow is from positive to the negative terminal and electron flow is from negative to
positive terminal. Electrons are negatively charged and are therefore attracted to the positive
terminal as unlike charges attract
Example_1: If a charge of 25 C passes a given point in a circuit in a time of 125 ms,
Determine the current in the circuit.
Ans:

Example_2: If a current of 5 A flows for 2 minutes, find the quantity of electricity

transferred.
Ans:

3. Electric Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or transferring energy.
The unit of power is the watt (W), Where one watt is one joule per second. Thus,
𝑊
power in watts 𝑃 = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
𝑡

where W is the work done or energy transferred in joules and t is the time in seconds. Thus,
energy, in joules, W = P×t

4. Electric Potential and EMF

Electric potential, the amount of work done to bring a unit positive charge from infinity to a
specific point against an electric field. It is a scalar quantity.
The unit of electric potential is the volt (V) where one volt is one joule per coulomb.

One volt is defined as the difference in potential between two points in a conductor which,
hen carrying a current of one ampere, dissipates a power of one watt, i.e.,
(𝑤) 𝐽𝑢𝑙𝑒
(𝑃) 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 ⁄( )
𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 = =
(𝐼 ) 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠 (𝐼 ) 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠
(𝑤)𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 (𝑤) 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
= =
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (𝐼) (𝑄 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠
A change in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit is called a potential
difference. The electromotive force (e.m.f.) provided by a source of energy such as a battery or a
generator is measured in volts.

5. Sources
A Source is a device which converts mechanical, chemical, thermal or some other form of energy
into electrical energy.

In other words, the source is an active network element meant for generating electrical energy.

The various types of sources available in the electrical network are voltage source and current
sources.

A voltage source has a forcing function of emf whereas the current source has a forcing function
of current.

• Voltage Source
• Current Source
▪ Independent Voltage and Current Source
Independent sources are that which does not depend on any other quantity in the circuit. They are
two-terminal devices and has a constant value, i.e. the voltage across the two terminals remains
constant irrespective of all circuit conditions.

The strength of voltage or current is not changed by any variation in the connected network the
source is said to be either independent voltage or independent current source. In this, the value of
voltage or current is fixed and is not adjustable

• Voltage Source
A voltage source is a two-terminal device whose voltage at any instant of time is constant and is
independent of the current drawn from it. Such a voltage source is called an Ideal Voltage
Source and have zero internal resistance.

Practically an ideal voltage source cannot be obtained.

Sources having some amount of internal resistances are known as Practical Voltage Source. Due
to this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and it causes the terminal voltage to reduce.

• Current Source
An ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit element which supplies the same current to any
load resistance connected across its terminals. It is important to keep in mind that the current
supplied by the current source is independent of the voltage of source terminals. It has infinite
resistance.

A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source connected with the resistance
in parallel. The symbolic representation is shown below:
• Dependent Voltage and Current Source
The sources whose output voltage or current is not fixed but depends on the voltage or current in
another part of the circuit is called Dependent or Controlled source. They are four-terminal devices.

When the strength of voltage or current changes in the source for any change in the connected
network, they are called dependent sources. The dependent sources are represented by a diamond
shape.

6. Element

▪ Resistor:
Definition: A resistor is an electrical component or device designed explicitly to have a certain
magnitude of resistance, expressed in ohms.

• A resistor is a two terminal passive electrical component that represents the resistance of
the electric circuit.
• It opposes the flow of current.
• Some resistors are designed explicitly to convert electric energy to heat energy.
• Others are used in control circuits, where they modify electric signals and energy to achieve
desired effects.
• Examples: Motor starting resistors and the resistors used in electronic amplifiers to control
the overall gain and other characteristics of the amplifier.
Ohm’s Law.
When the current I in a conductor is steady and there are no voltages within the conductor,
the value of the voltage V between the terminals of the conductor is proportional to the current I.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡 = 𝐼 × 𝑅
𝑉
𝐼=
𝑅
where the coefficient of proportionality R is called the resistance of the conductor.

Proof:

• Changes of Resistance with Temperature.

The resistance of a conductor varies with the temperature.
• The resistance of metals and most alloys increases with the temperature, while the
resistance of carbon and electrolytes decreases with the temperature. For usual conditions,
as for about 100°C change in temperature, the resistance at a temperature t2 is given by
Rt2 = Rt1 [ 1 + αt1 ( t2 - t1 )]
▪ Inductor
• An inductor is a circuit element whose behavior is described by the fact that it stores
electromagnetic energy in its magnetic field.
• In its most elementary form, an inductor is formed by winding a coil of wire, often copper,
around a form that may or may not contain ferromagnetic materials.

Inductance. A property of an electric circuit by which an electromotive force (emf) is induced in

it by a variation of current either in the circuit itself or in a neighboring circuit
or
The induced emf across a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of current through it.
The proportionality constant in that relation is known as inductance.
Inductance is defined by either of the following equations:

where L coefficient of self-inductance, i current through the coil of wire, v voltage across the
inductor terminals.
• Unit of self inductance is called the henry (H).
Mutual Inductance If two coils are wound on the same coil form, or if they exist in close
proximity, then
• A changing current in one coil will induce a voltage in the second coil.
• This effect forms the basis for transformers, one of the most pervasive of all electrical
devices in use. Mutual inductance is always written as M. Unit of mutual inductance is
called the henry (H).
▪ Capacitors
A capacitor in an electrical circuit behaves as a charge storage device. It holds the electric charge
when we apply a voltage across it, and it gives up the stored charge to the circuit as when required.
The most basic construction of a capacitor consists of two parallel conductors (usually metallic
plates) separated by a dielectric material.
The charge accumulated in the capacitor is directly proportional to the voltage developed across
the capacitor.

Where Q is the charge and V is the voltage.

Here C is the constant of proportionality, and this is capacitance.

7. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law or KVL, states that “in any closed loop network, the total voltage
around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also
equal to zero.
In other words, the algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This idea
by Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.
Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the
voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is
important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage
sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analyzing series circuits.
8. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)
Kirchhoff’s Current Law or KCL, states that the “total current or charge entering a junction or
node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node as it has no other place to go except to leave,
as no charge is lost within the node”. In other words, the algebraic sum of ALL the currents
entering and leaving a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchhoff is
commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value and the two currents
leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can also rewrite the equation
as;
I1 + I2 + I3 – I4 – I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two or more
current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also, for current to flow either
in or out of a node a closed-circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchhoff’s current law when
analyzing parallel circuits.
9. Node Analysis
10. Mesh Analysis
11. Network Theorem