THE PHONEME:

When we speak, we produce a continuous stream of sounds. In studying speech, we divide

this stream into small bits called segments. Thus, bed has three segments /b/, /e/, /d/. These
are distinct sounds such that the moment one sound is substituted for another, there will be a
change in meaning. For example, if we substitute /e/ in bed with /æ/, we will have a different
word. Therefore, each segment in the word bed is an abstract sound. These are phonemes.
Phonemes are abstract sounds that form the basis of speech. A PHONEME can be defined as
the smallest significant unit of speech. It is not a real sound but a summary of closely related
sounds that could have the same place and manner of articulation, even same voicing. The
phonemes of a language are discovered through the process such as minimal pairing and
research for complementary distribution. Therefore, they are a contrastive unit of sound that
can be used to change meaning in a particular language, and that is why they are called
abstract representation of sounds; symbols used to represent individual sound segment. They
are significant because they are capable of distinguishing words of different meaning.
Phonemes appear between two slashes, and are conventionally represented by IPA symbols.
Example: /k/, /p/, /d/, /z/ etc. A complete set of these units is called the PHONEMIC
SYSTEM.

PHONE

The term phone has been used for a unit at the phonetic level. Therefore, it is a unit of
phonetic description. Phones are real sounds produced in real contexts. It refers to the exact
realisation of a particular phoneme in actual production of speech sounds in a specific
phonetic environment. A phone is an actual realisation of a phoneme in different
environments. Examples: pot, pop, etc. They are produced exactly the way they are supposed
to be pronounced with the application of appropriate phonological rules that agree with the
contexts of production at the phonetic level of representation. Phones are represented in
square brackets [ ]. Examples:

/p/- [ph], [pL], [po] etc.

ALLOPHONES
Allophones are contextual variants of a phoneme. They are variants of the phoneme as
realised in specific environment. For example, /p/ is the phoneme which is realisable in
different forms depending on the context. When it occurs in stressed syllable initial position
in English, it is realised as the aspirated variant [ph]; and when it is occurs before another
plosive in a word, it is realised as unreleased variant, e.g. topcoat [p o]. Another instance is
when it occurs before a syllabic nasal, it is realised as the nasalised variant, e.g. happen
[hæpNn]; when it occurs before a syllabic lateral, it is realised as a lateralised variant, e.g.
apple: [æpL(ə)l], little
Also, these plosives are unaspirated after /s/, e.g. stare, span, scan and at the ends of syllables.
Other phonetic realisations include:
Vowel Nasalisation: man [mæn], name, can’t etc.
Labialisation: Rounding of the lips and raising of the back of the tongue. Quick [kwwɪk], twist
[twwɪst], quiet [kwwaɪət].
Although allophones are all alternative pronunciations for a phoneme, the specific allophone
appropriate in a phonetic environment is often predictable. Changing the allophone used by
native speakers for a given phoneme in a specific context usually does not change the
meaning of the word but may sound non-native.
/t/[th] word-initally and in front of stressed syllable stable, treat, attend, until, attack
/t/ [R] intervocalically, when second vowel is unstressed: better, Betty, butter, cutie, buttocks
/t/ [to] (non- audible realise or unreleased) word-finally set, right, caught, pit
/t/ [t] elsewhere e.g. stop, street, antics, Baltic

PHONETIC AND PHONEMIC TRANSCRIPTION

Phonemic transcription involves the use of phonemic symbols (phoneme) to represent the
sound speech of a language. It is an abstract representation of sounds. It consists of
sequences of phonemes transcribed between slash brackets. There is a one-to-one mapping
between the sounds and written symbols. Phonemic transcription is limited to one symbol per
phoneme which can be one written character or two. Examples: cart /k/ represents the first
sound, /ɑː/ represents the second, and/t/ represents the last sound.
Phonetic transcription occurs when the actual sound produced is represented, hence
transcribing the phones of actual pronunciation. This involves the use of phonetic symbols
which are phones. Here, symbols are used to represent precise phonetic values. This type of
transcription is enclosed in a square bracket [ ].
For example, pin
/pin/- phonemic transcription
[phɪn]- Phonetic transcription

Minimal pairs
These are words pairs that differ only in one segment. This change in one segment also
accounts for a change in meaning of the words. As phonemes serve to differentiate words,
importance is attached to pair of words, differing in only one phoneme. These pairs provide
solid phonemic contrasts in a way that contrasts meaning. Hence, any two words that help us
discover which sounds have a contrastive value in a given language are said to form a
minimal pair. The two words that constitute a pair differ only by one sound segment. They
should have the same number of sounds, and these sounds should be identical, with the only
exception of the contrasting sound that should be distributed in the same context in both
words. The contrasting sound can be at the beginning, middle or final position
Examples are:
Minimal pairs with contrast at the beginning
Pot cot
Cat fat
Bad bed
Pin pen
Feel feet
Fool pool
Hill pill

Complementary distribution:
Sounds are said to be in complementary distribution when they appear in mutually exclusive
environment. Hence, they never occur in the same context. Allophones of the same phoneme
are always in complementary distribution. They do not occur in the same environment. A
good example is provided by the allophones of /p/ which occurs aspirated at the initial
position of a syllable, the unreleased at the final position of a syllable, and the one that occurs
elsewhere
Free variation
It refers to the different realisation of a phoneme in the same environment. When two sounds
appear in the same context without causing any change in meaning, both phones/phonemes
are in free variation. The variation is not context bound and is unpredictable. Hence, both
sounds can be substituted for one another in the same phonological context. Examples: /i/
and /e/ in economics and example, finance /fainans/, /finans/, /f∂nans/, /eigein/ /∂gein/,
/ek.str∂/; /Ik.stra/

Syllabic Consonants
A syllabic consonant is a phonetic element that normally patterns as a consonant, but may fill
a vowel slot in a syllable. Where a syllabic consonant appears, the schwa has been deleted
and the consonant is allowed to fill the position normally reserved for vowels in the syllable.
That is the peak position. Syllabic / n / and / l / typically occur in an unstressed syllable
immediately following the alveolar consonants, / t, s, z / as well as / d /.
Consonant Clusters: consonant clusters refer to a situation where more than one consonant
sounds are used together in a word. The consonant sounds could be two, three etc. note that
this does not refer to the use of consonant letters, but consonant sounds. The cluster might be
at the word initial position, medial or final position. Examples: student, new, shrink, slot,
spread, sceptical, sceptre, prompts etc.
Silent letters: some letters are represented when writing a word but are silent in
pronunciation. Such letters are referred to as silent letters. Examples: bomb, apostle, column,
pneumonia, know, sign, honest, yolk etc. These silent letters are deleted through phonological
rules.

Inflected endings:

Inflection is the name for the extra letter or letters added to nouns, verbs and adjectives in
their different grammatical forms. Nouns are inflected in the plural, verbs are inflected in the
various tenses, and adjectives are inflected in the comparative/superlative. In relation to
pronunciation, the sounds of the inflections are determined by the sounds preceding them.
When –s, es, inflection appears

1) After voiceless consonant (except sibilant) = /s/:

3rd. person singular affirmative of present simple verb. Plural of regular nouns
P Pops Pups
T Hits Hats
K Cooks Ducks
F Laughs Laughs
Θ Unearths Sheaths
After vowel/voiced consonant (except sibilant such as s, z, ts, dz, ʒ, ʃ) = /z/:

b rubs, ribs,
d rids, pads
g Hugs, rags
v loves, gloves, wolves
ð breathes, wreathes, clothes
l lulls, dolls
m Hums, combs,
n sins, sons,
ŋ Sings, songs

3) After word ending in sibilant= /ɪz/:

3rd. person singular affirmative Plural of regular

of present simple verb nouns
dʒ dodges, badges badges
tʃ Hatches, matches, churches
z gazes, blazes blazes
s passes, places Places, prices
ʒ rouges, beiges Beiges
ʃ wishes, flashes Flashes

The –ed inflection is the regular past tense, it is represented as /t/ after voiceless sounds
except /t/. Examples: passed, kicked, laughed, walked etc.

When the verb ends in /t/ or /d/ the inflection is pronounced /id/ or /ed/. Examples: chatted,
waded, added, crowded, shouted, mounted etc.

When the verb ends in voiced sounds other than /d/, the inflection is pronounced /d/.
Examples: cried, loved, robbed, viewed, grabbed.

Prosody
It is traditional in the study of language to regard speech as being basically composed of a
sequence of sounds (vowels and consonants); the term prosody and its adjective prosodic is
then used to refer to those features of speech (such as pitch) that can be added to those
sounds, usually to a sequence of more than one sound.

Syllable

The syllable is the minimal pronounceable unit of a spoken language. It is larger than the
phoneme and is produced within one breath pulse. It is the sequence of phoneme with one
syllabic nucleus or peak and it has been described as a beat in an utterance.

In English, the syllable comprises an obligatory segment which is usually the vowel. It is
referred to as the peak of the syllable and it is the most important part of a syllable. The initial
consonant is called the onset while the other part is the rhyme/rime which is divided into peak
and coda. The peak in the syllable is the vowel and the coda refers to the final consonant of
the syllable. There can be a maximum of three consonants at the beginning of a syllable and a
maximum of four at the end of a syllable, hence, the structure is C0-3VC0-4

onset rhyme

Peak coda

/ spl ɪ t/

There are different syllable structures in English.

1. The vowel can occur alone: V-
a. Are-
b. I-
c. Air-

2. A syllable can have an onset and peak but no coda. Example

 a. Go-
b. Sir
c. Buy
3. A syllable can have peak and coda but no onset. Example:
a. Eat
b. Up
c. owl
4. The consonants can occur in clusters. Example:
a. Spray
b. Class
c. spot
TASK: transcribe the words in the examples to show their syllable structure.

The English Stress

Stress is defined as the degree of vocal force with which a syllable is produced or used in the
articulation of successive syllables in a word or an utterance (Osisanwo, 2012:109). Stress is
manifested in the air pressure generated in the lungs for producing the syllable, and in the
articulatory movements in the vocal tract. These effects of stress produce in turn various
audible results: one is pitch prominence, in which the stressed syllable stands out from its
context by being higher in pitch than other syllables. Another effect of stress is that stressed
syllables tend to be longer and louder than unstressed ones and the vowel quality is usually
different from that of unstressed syllables.
Examples: Di-syllabic words, the first syllable is stressed in
FOllow
VAlue
MISchief
CHAllenge
Second syllable is stressed in
ConCERN
sucCESS
eSTATE
maCHINE
obTAIN etc.
Stress in English is capable of differentiating class of words. Examples
Nouns Verbs
IMport imPORT
INcrease inCREASE
PERmit perMIT
REfuse reFUSE
Every multisyllabic word in English has a stressed syllable. This can occur on any of the
syllables in the word. Examples:
HOSpital
CAlender
REcognise
CIRcumstance
emPHAtic
deCIsion
proTECtion
recoLLECT
disaPPEAR
compreHEND
TElevision
CAtegory
phoTOgrapher
inVEStigate

Rhythm: Rhythm is a prosodic feature of languages. It is the sense of movement in speech

which is marked by stress timing and syllable quality. It refers to the noticeable regularity or
measured intervals of time with which stressed syllables occur in English. It is a product of
sentence stress and it occurs when stressed and unstressed syllables alternate in connected
speech. English is referred to as a stress-timed language because stressed syllables occur at
relatively regular intervals irrespective of the number of unstressed syllables in between
them.
Examples:
The BEAUtiful Girl is my SISter
The WOman PLACED the BOOK on the Table
Intonation: This is another aspect supra-segmental phonology. It refers to the variations in
the pitch of a speaker’s voice used to convey or alter meaning. It reveals the pattern of pitch
change that occurs in speech. The pitch of voice in speech is described in terms of high and
low.

Forms and Functions of intonation

We have rising intonation and falling intonation. Rising intonation refers to the process
whereby the pitch of voice moves from a low pitch to a high pitch. It is found in yes/no
questions, in making polite request and in incomplete sentences. Examples:
You are coming?
Should I come?
May I come in?
Sit please.
Well…
When she comes….
The falling tune occurs when the voice falls from a high pitch to a low pitch. This is found in
Wh-questions, statements, commands etc. Examples:
Who is there?
Come in.
I am on the road. Etc.

Salient Features of Educated Nigerian English

English language has been described as an international language as it has diffused into many
countries of the world and is frequently used as the language of business and international
communication. Despite the wide usage, the language is not used the same way everywhere.
From the Standard British English, many other varieties of English have developed. These
varieties have been described as World Englishes and Nigerian English is just a variety. Since
English is used by Nigerians mostly as the second language, there are phonetic and
phonological features that are peculiar to the educated variety used in the country. These
features can be said to be products of the contact between the English Language and the
indigenous languages in the country. Some of these features are:
1. Phoneme substitution: Nigerian speakers of English substitute phonemes in English
that are not present in their indigenous languages with the ones closer to them in the
 indigenous languages. Hence, they simplify unfamiliar English phonemes. This can
be seen in
a. Wrong articulation of consonants
/t/ for /θ/: think through, three, thank etc.
/s/or /j/ for /ʒ/ and /ʃ/: shout, measure, pressure,
/f/ for /v/: vain, venture, favour etc.
/f/ for /p/: people, pin, play etc.
/k/ for /g/ (Calabar) instead of bak instead of bag
/j/ for /dʒ/
/ʃ/ for /tʃ/ examples: church, chain, chamber
b. Wrong Articulation of Vowels
/ɔɪl/ as /ɔəl/
/ˈfəʊləʊ/ for /ˈfɒləʊ/
Other examples are come, journey, leopard, tomb, coup etc.
c. Lack of Distinction between Long and Short Vowels (under differentiation)
Fool full
Sheep ship
Leap lip
d. Lack of Distinction between Letters and Sounds
In English, some letters are present in writing but do not translate to sounds in pronunciation.
This means that such letters are silent. Nigerian speakers of English hardly omit silent letters
in pronunciation. Examples: bomb, receipt, debt, womb, tomb, thumb etc.
e. Vowel Insertion in Consonant Clusters
Bured for bread
Sirit for street
Kilas for class
f. Wrong Stress Placement
Madam and classroom usually stressed on the second syllable instead of the first.
g. Lack of Proper Intonation
There is no distinction of intonation in NE. Usually, Nigerian speakers of English express
different moods with the same tune. Examples:
Will you be there?- falling tune
I am on the road.- falling tune
She came yesterday and took the kids.
 h. Syllable-Timed Rhythm
Tones are distinctive in most Nigerian languages. Therefore, this feature is transferred to
English which has stress only on content words. Most Nigerians speak English with
prominence on every syllable making it syllable timed.
i. Insertion of Vowels between a Prior consonant and a Syllabic Consonant
bottle botul
cattle
dictionary
hospital
investigate